RP-Department of Early Childhood Studies

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Academic Staff Attitude towards Open Access Outlets in Disseminating Research Findings in Selected Universities in Kenya
(International Researchers, 2017) Mutwiri, Caroline; Karia, Mathew; Murungi, Catherine Gakii
This study sought to establish the attitude of academic staff towards Open Access (OA) outlets. A descriptive research design was chosen for the study to describe the attitude of academics with regard to the outlets. The study was carried out in selected chartered private and public universities in Kenya.A total of 15,000 academic staff formed the study population from which a sample of 381 was drawn using stratified random sampling technique to select respondents from various universities. A questionnaire was designed for academic staff containing both open and closed ended questions. The study established a negative attitude of academic staff towards OA outlets. They were of the view that works published in conventional print journals were more recognized than those published in OA outlets and that OA outlets quality was lower than that of renowned print journals. Academics were also skeptical over the rigorous of review mechanisms for OA outlets. Therefore, their conservative preference for traditional outlets over newer publishing avenues was evident from their responses. The study recommend campaigns to enlighten the academic staff to recognize legitimacy and quality standard of OA outlets.
African Early Childhood Development Curriculum and Pedagogy for Turkana nomadic pastoralist communities of Kenya.
(Wiley Online Library, 2014) Ng’asike, J. T.
Western conceptions of child development and the models of early education they engender predominantly shape services for young children in the first eight years of life all over Africa. This chapter brings a reconceptualist perspective to the critique of Kenya’s continuing failure to ground early childhood programs and services in local cultural conceptions, developmental values, childrearing practices, and the practical day-to-day realities of children’s learning through participation and apprenticeship in the contexts of family routines, community experiences, and economic survival activities. The chapter draws on work I have conducted in nomadic pastoralist communities in Kenya. That research reveals the disconcerting reality that (a) early childhood education programs privilege Western pedagogical practices over equally effective and locally more relevant ones, and (b) local communities are increasingly resentful of an educational system that alienates their children from their cultural roots in the name of modernization. Asserting the educational value of indigenous knowledge, I present a framework for integrating that knowledge and the naturalistic learning processes in local contexts into instructional programs in formal ECE settings. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
An Assessment of Play as a Strategy on Preschoolers’ Classroom Participation in Public Pre-Primary Schools in Bunyala- Busia County, Kenya
(The International Journal of Humanities & Social Studies, 2021-04) Zachary, Okello A.; Josephine, Kirimi; Ong'ang'a, Hudson Ouko
Learner’s classroom participation can be gauged by; confidence levels turn taking, numeracy skills, manipulative competencies and task completion. However, over time, adequate inculcation of play as a strategy in early childhood classrooms is yet to be achieved. This underscored the need of this study. The study assessed play as a strategy on preschoolers’ classroom participation in public pre-primary institutions of Bunyala sub-county, Busia County, Kenya. The guide objectives of this study were: to establish the types of play used as a strategy on pre-schoolers’ classroom participation and to investigate the types of play materials used by pre-schoolers’ in public pre-primary schools in the said study location. Methodology adopted was descriptive survey research design. Social-Cultural Development Theory (Vvygotsky, 1978) guided the study. Research targeted a population of 27 public pre-primary centres in Bunyala Subcounty. Of this population, 2 were used in piloting while in 25 actual study was conducted. The parameters of analysis were 25 heads of public pre-primary centres, 50 teachers of public pre-primary centres and 100 pre-schoolers. The sampling techniques adopted were purposive and simple random. Data was collected using questionnaire and observation guide. Reliability and validity of the instruments were addressed through piloting and test retest. Descriptive statistics for measures of central tendencies were applied. For qualitative data, content analysis was adopted. Regarding types of play, the study found out that all the pre-unit teachers were engaging their learners in various forms of play with physical type being the most common (91%) though with a myriad of challenges. The study also found out that there were various play materials available for the pre-school learners mostly the local ones though with acuteshortage especially the commercial ones. It was concluded that pre-unit learners in Bunyala Sub-county were not adequately exposed to all forms of play besides inadequacy of play materials. The study recommended that play materials should be availed and pre-unit learners get exposed to them.
Availability of Physical Infrastructure in Implementation of the Competence-Based Curriculum in Public Primary Schools in Kericho County
(East African Nature & Science Organization, 2021) Ngeno, Beatrice; Mweru, Maureen; Mwoma, Teresa
A competency-based curriculum is a curriculum that allows students to develop prescribed competencies. In Kenya, the Competence-Based Curriculum implementation of 2-6-6-3 was adopted in January 2017. This education system replaces the 8-4-4 system of education and it aims to nurture the learners’ talents. School preparedness for the new curriculum change in Kenyan public primary schools is very important in the education policy framework. When curriculum changes take place in education, teachers as instructors and implementers should be supported to be competent in their work. The educators have a responsibility to ensure that today’s learning content meets tomorrow’s global demands for every learner. However, in Kenya, various stakeholders have expressed concerns regarding school and teachers’ preparedness for the Competence-Based Curriculum. The objective of the study was to find out whether there is a relationship between the availability of physical infrastructure and the implementation of the competency-based curriculum. Dewey’s Social Constructivism theory guided the study. A descriptive survey design and correlation research design was used in this study. The target population of the study included 24 County Support Officers (CSOs’), 524 headteachers, and 610 Grade 1 teachers. The sample size was 6 CSOs, 52 Headteachers, and 61 Grade 1 teachers. A saturated sampling technique was used to select all the 52 headteachers from 52 schools. Simple random sampling was used to select the schools and CSOs. A purposive sampling technique was used to select Grade 1 teachers in Kericho County. Data was collected using interview schedules, questionnaires, and an observation schedule. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics in the form of percentages, means, and standard deviation, while inferential statistics were correlated using Pearson product-moment correlation. Qualitative data was analysed using themes and sub-themes. The findings established that physical infrastructure had a moderate positive influence on CBC implementation with a correlation of 0.336 and a calculated value of 0.029 for the headteachers and 0.285 with a calculated value of 0.03 for Grade 1 teachers. Shortage of physical infrastructures like nutrition rooms and music rooms had a mean of 2.18 and 1.88 for headteachers. Grade 1 teachers’ response was 1.39 and 1.35 for nutrition and music laboratories respectively. The findings of the headteachers on teacher preparation had a moderate positive influence on CBC with a correlation of 0.494 with a calculated value of 0.00. The teachers had a correlation of 0.369 with a calculated value of 0.005 and were significant to the study. The study recommended that the government should increase funds to enable schools to construct laboratories. The results of this study are important for the successful adoption of the competency-based program through the participation of education stakeholders.
Braille Literacy Levels among Learners with Visual Impairment in Special Schools in Kenya
(Open Access Publishing Group, 2021) Wanjai, Serah; Murugami, Margaret; Bunyasi, Beatrice
Effective education ensures that students are able to fully participate and benefit from it, regardless of whether they have impairments or not. Good vision is important for students at all stages of learning as it helps them reach their academic potential. It is paramount that students with visual impairment are proficient in Braille so that they are not disadvantaged academically since Braille remains their main medium of communication. Previous studies have ventured into academic performance of learners with visual impairment, however, nothing much is known about their Braille proficiency level. Braille reading tests were administered to forty-seven class eight and form four students in special schools for learners with visual impairments to establish their Braille literacy level. Semi structured interviews were used to solicit more information from four head teachers and a questionnaire used for sixteen teachers in the schools under study. Data was analyzed qualitatively along the common themes identified. The results established that Braille literacy level among primary school children was rather low. However, the case was quite different among high school students. There was no uniformity in the way schools arranged to teach their students Braille. Braille literacy could be improved if strategies were set to teach children with visual impairment Braille and ensure that they were proficient in it.
Caregivers’ role definition and practices in the stimulation of children’s emergent reading development in Ruiru, Kenya
(2015-02-09) Wambiri, Gladwell
Emergent reading refers to the reading related developments that occur before formal reading instruction. Although research on this concept exists in other countries, It is a relatively new concept in Kenya and for this reason has not received much attention in research. Recent studies in Kenya are consistently reporting poor reading achievements among children in primary school. These studies show that most of the reading difficulties begin from early childhood years and continue impacting on children’s reading attainment in their later school years. This implies that there is need to establish issues surrounding reading development from children’s early years. The study from which this paper draws investigated the current status of caregiver perceptions and practices with 30 to 42 months old children around print. The study found that caregivers largely lacked knowledge about children’s emergent reading development and their role in it. Caregivers’ perceptions about their role in children’s emergent reading development were largely negative. These findings implied that children are receiving little or no stimulation to enhance their early reading development. Consequently, they may start preschool with little or no interest and motivation to read. This may explain the reading difficulties that recent research has reported. Important recommendations arising from the study include the need to sensitize caregivers’ and to help them redefine their role in children’s emergent reading development are the key recommendations discussed in this paper.
Caregivers’ Roles in Enhancing Socio-Communication Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Selected Non-Governmental Organization for Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Nairobi County, Kenya
(EJSE, 2024) Mukewa, Magdalen N.; Wairungu, George Mathenge
Caregivers (parents and guardians) of children with ASD play an integral role in early intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) since they spend more time interacting and providing formal care for their children; they are supposed to provide early diagnosis and ongoing intervention to mitigate socio-communication challenges for their children. Some caregivers, however, lack knowledge and expertise on their roles in this resulting in miscommunication, unmet needs, and frustration. The purpose of this study was to establish caregivers’ extent of involvement in Speech and Language Pathology Services (SLP) in enhancing the socio-communication skills of children with ASD. The study was guided by Structural Functional Theory (SFT) by Comte. The study adopted a descriptive survey design with a mixed-method research approach. It targeted a population of 38 respondents comprising of thirty-six caregivers, one occupational therapist from a nongovernmental organization of parents with ASD, and one Speech and Language Pathologist (SLP) outside a nongovernmental organization. The study employed a purposive sampling technique, and the pilot study was undertaken among caregivers of children with ASD b with the same characteristics as the target population. The key research instruments were questionnaires and face-toface interviews. Quantitative data from closed-ended items were examined and coded. This was followed by analysis with the aid of SPSS version 26. The data was reported usinge descriptive statistics. Qualitative data we read repeatedly to establish patterns and then themes. It was reported narratively. Conclusions were drawn and necessary recommendations were made based on research findings. The research found that caregivers’ involvement was critical in enhancing the acquisition of socio-communication skills. The study recommends government and non-governmental organizations of parents with ASD children promote more caregiver participation by creating more awareness of SLP services, recruiting more SLPs locally, offering comprehensive training, and coaching caregivers on SLP strategies.
Challenges faced by teacher students of Kenyatta University in accessing further education through e-Learning
(Global Education, Science, Technology and Public Policy Initiatives for Sustainable Development in Africa, 2011) Kimani, Elishiba; Ndani, Mary N.
One of the innovations that Kenyatta University (KU) adopted is the Open, Distant and e- Learning (ODeL) which involves students learning at a distance, using printed modules and interacting with lecturers through e-Learning. While this mode of learning has its advantages especially cost effectiveness and reaching many students, it has had challenges which have hindered its effectiveness and therefore the realization of its intended objectives. The main objective of the study was to identify the challenges faced by teacher-students enrolled for Bachelor of Education Degree in KU-ODeL, with a view of coming up with strategies to improve on the programme performance. The study sample comprised of 50% of the in-service teachers-students in KU-ODeL. Other respondents were the lecturers of the units offered through e-Learning. Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) was utilized for data analysis. The study concluded that the challenges to e-Learning programme generally fell into four categories, namely lack of time, inadequacy in ICT and computer skills, poor internet access and lack of proper and adequate equipments and soft ware. The study thus recommended that in addition to putting in place strategies to create more time for teacher-students and lecturers to engage in the e-Learning process, there is need to regularly build the capacity of both parties in ICT skills and explore ways of accessing affordable e-Learning facilities
Child Abuse Influence on Lower Primary School Pupil’s Academic Achievement in a Rural Setting in Kenya
(International Journal of Law, Humanities & Social Science, 2017-06) Mutua, Mukami T.; Ouko, Ong’ang’a H.M.
Child abuse is an act of inflicting serious, physical injury and emotional torture on a child or person, which is intentional or unintentional and could endanger the physical, health, emotional, social, moral and educational wellness of the child. Observing the alarming endless cry of children in lower primary schools and those hurt in the process and abuse, the researcher was therefore interested in investigating child abuse and its effects on the academic achievement of pupils in lower primary in Nyandarua County. To achieve this purpose, a sample of 42 respondents was randomly selected for the study. Questionnaire was the major instrument used to collect data. Test re-test reliability of the instrument was established, while Parson Product moment correlation analysis was the statistical technique considered appropriate. The result of the analysis revealed that child abuse in forms of physical and sexual was associated with pupil’s academic performance. Based on the findings recommendations were made on the need for the school management and the class teachers to monitor the performance of abused children and take records to relevant authorities so that corrective mechanisms can be employed.
Children Health Needs and It’s Influence on Pre-School Education Enrolments
(International Researchers, 2012) Murungi, Catherine Gakii
Available literature shows that in Kenya enrolment of children in pre-school education is low. It is believed that failure to adequately meet children’s health needs might be leading to the children’s low enrolment in pre-school education and in other levels of education. It is for this reason that this study is designed; to establish and document children’s health needs in relation to low enrolment especially in Imenti North District where 52% of pre-school children do not attend pre-school and in particular 64% in Miriga Mieru West Division of the District. The main objective of this study is to establish the relationship between children’s health needs and enrolment in pre-school. The study has used a correlation design employing a survey method. The independent variable is health status. The dependent variable is children’s enrolment in pre-school. The sample size of 390 parents is selected and used in the study. Children’s households are systematically sampled whereas Imenti North District is sampled purposively. Miriga Mieru West Division is selected due to its high population of pre-school age children (78,201) in comparison to other divisions in the district such as; Miriga Mieru East with 64,117, Timau with 55,292 and Buuri with 45,610 as well as its low preschool enrolment rates (64%). The study has used a questionnaire for parents and anthropometric tools for data collection. The researcher administered the questionnaire to parents of pre-school children both with children not attending and children attending pre-school. The t-test (two tailed) for testing equality of means for independent samples is used to test the hypothesis (H02) A t-test (two tailed) for independent samples found no relationship between health status and enrolment in pre-school. This study concludes that basic needs are important and unless they are met we will continue to have large numbers of children not attending the pre-school education continuing to increase.
Children’s reading ability in early primary schooling: challenges for a Kenyan rural community
(2017) Mwoma, Teresa
Children’s Safety and Security in Non Formal Pre-Primary Schools: The Intervention Measures
(Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn)(ERIC), 2021) Murungi, Catherine Gakii; Nyakwara, Begi; Mwoma, Teresa
This study sought to come up with intervention measures that could be put in place to mitigate the challenges experienced in non-formal schools to enhance safety and security of children. Purposive sampling was used to select Nairobi City County and all the pre-primary schools attached to non-formal schools in informal settlements in the county and the head teachers/managers and teachers working in these pre-primary schools. A sample size of 54 pre-primary schools was selected. A total number of 136 participants from the sampled pre-primary schools participated in the study comprising of 78 preschool teachers, 54 head teachers, and four education officers. The findings revealed various intervention measures by participants such as intervention by: county government, school management such as picking and dropping children, fencing school and having lockable gates
Choice of the Medium of Instruction in Kenyan Preschools: Averting Xenocentrism
(International Knowledge Sharing Platform, 2017) Waithaka, Esther N.
This qualitative study sought to prompt a critical and reflective discourse on the dismal use of mother tongue in Kenyan early childhood education (ECE) institutions in an attempt to detect existence of xenocentrism. Although the Kenyan ECE policy framework sanctions use of the language of the catchment area when teaching and communicating with the young learners, many teachers continue to use English. Though studies have tried to identify factors that deter use of mother tongue, it is not clear whether the practice could be an indicator of xenocentrism. The objectives of the study were to assess parents’ and teachers’ competence in mother tongue, how they valued mother tongue and their willingness to have children learn their mother tongue. The study used descriptive research design. The population comprised preschool teachers and parents with children in preschools in a rural zone in Kiambu County. Data was collected through interviews. The results revealed that parents and teachers promoted use of English. Parents felt that the schools that used English were superior to those that used mother tongue. Some teachers argued that, since most of the reading materials were written in English it was necessary to introduce children to the reading language early in life. Many teachers and parents claimed that the world had turned into a global village and it was not necessary for them to be competent in mother tongue. It was evident that majority of the teachers and parents did not attach much value to mother tongue.
Class size and the Acquisition of reading skills among Grade III pupils in Kenyenya Sub- County, Kenya
(International Researchers, 2017-09) Ogetange, Teresa Binsari; Murungi, Catherine Gakii
Reading skills forms the basis upon which all other learning and academic skills are based. Early acquisition of reading skills among pupils forms the foundation upon which language and literacy learning is built. Developing children’s reading skills remains a major concern of many governments’ worldwide and important international Agencies. Whereas an incredible rise in enrolment has been realized at primary school levels due to free primary education in Kenya, still a big number of pupils have low levels of reading skills. This study intended to assess the influence of class size on acquisition of reading skills among Grade III pupils in Kenyenya Sub-County. This study was guided by the Group Dynamics Theory developed by Kurt Lewin in 1943. This study adopted a descriptive survey research design targeting all the Grade III pupils, their class teachers and head teachers of all 77 public primary schools in Kenyenya Sub-County. Purposive and stratified random sampling techniques were used in selecting a 30% sample that participated in the study. Questionnaires, interview guides and observation schedule were used to collect Data. Quantitative data was analyzed thematically while quantitative data was analyzed descriptively. The study outcomes revealed that most public primary schools had large enrollments with over 40 pupils in a class. The results also showed a significant relationship (p-value=0.000<0.05) between class size and acquisition of reading skills. The study concluded that class size has an influence on how pupils acquire reading skill which has a great effect on their overall academic achievement. This study recommended that the government of Kenya through the ministry of education should come up with a policy of reducing the class sizes by employing more teachers.
Computer Assisted Learning on Language Writing Skills among Learners with Hearing Impairments in Kiambu County, Kenya
(EJSE, 2023) Wangui, Veronicah Wambui; Muriithi, Francis; Karia, Mathew
The paper presents some of the key findings of a study that explored computer assisted learning on language writing skills among learners with hearing impairments in Kiambu County, Kenya. The study adopted a quasi-experimental research design consisting of 19 respondents who were learners with hearing impairments. These were from two learners were purposively sampled. The study adopted the cognitive theory of multimedia learning by Mayer. Data was collected using pre-test and post-test and a computer application ‘English Grammar Test’. The research data was analyzed using SPSS version 22 and primary data analyzed per objective. The findings on computer assisted learning on language writing skills among learners with hearing impairments were reported. The study findings showed that the learners’ language writing skills improved greatly at the posttest affirming the effectiveness of computer assisted learning.
Conceptualizing competency-based curriculum: A critical analysis of CBC implementation among pre-primary schools in rural Kenya
(International Journal of Multidisciplinary Comprehensive Research, 2023) Ireri, Jeremiah Wanjau; Ouko, Hudson Ong’ang’a; Mweru, Maureen
Competency-based curriculum is a new programme in Kenya whose implementation faces a myriad of challenges amid the posted successes. Competency-based curriculum was rolled out in the year 2017 and quite some successes have been posted. This is notwithstanding the various challenges it faces so far. This study examined teachers’ level of competencies as a precursor of effective implementation of the CBC. The study focused on all pre-primary school centres in Embu County. The key independent variable of the study was teachers’ competencies and preparedness. The study also investigated CBC implementation levels since its inception in 2017. The study was anchored on the theory of curriculum implementation (Gross, 1971). Purposive sampling was employed in identifying the study locale whereas simple random sampling was employed to draw a study sample size of 10%. Ex post facto research design was adopted since no manipulation of the study variables could be envisaged. Exploratory survey methodology was employed in collecting data. Data was collected using questionnaire, a check-list and an interview schedule. Data was analyzed using descriptive techniques with the help of the SPSS version 29. Results observed that there were low levels of CBC implementation associated and were significantly associated with low levels of teacher competencies. The study recommended to government to upscale teacher competencies and preparedness through training and retooling programmes.
Correlation between Class Size and Pupils’ Acquisition of Early Mathematics Competencies: A Case of Kericho County, Kenya
(International Knowledge Sharing Platform, 2020) Rono, Joseph Kipkorir; Begi, Nyakwara; Mwoma, Teresa
Mathematics is one of the core subjects in the Basic Education Curriculum in Kenya. It means that all pupils are required to have a strong grounding in the subject which depends on the level of their early mathematics competencies. The purpose of the study was therefore to establish the level of pupils’ acquisition of early mathematics competencies. The study was also to determine how class size was related to pupils’ acquisition of early mathematics competencies. The study was guided by Social Development Theory by Lev Vygotsky. The study adopted a correlation research design and a mixed research method approach. The dependent variable was pupils’ acquisition of early mathematics competencies while the independent variable was class size. The results from data analysis revealed that majority of the pupils had acquired early mathematics competencies and there was a difference in pupils’ acquisition of early mathematics competencies between grade three pupils in public and those in private primary schools. The relationship between class size and pupils’ acquisition of early mathematics competencies was significant at p<0.05 level of significance.
Covid-19 and Home learning: The case of Meru County Kenya
(International Journal of Research in Social Science and Humanities (IJRSS), 2020) Murungi, Catherine Gakii
The main purpose of the study was to find out whether children are learning now that schools closed due to covid, and does involving children, in child work/child employment and or child labour deny them a chance to engage in online learning activities The objectives of the study, was to find out whether children of below 12 years are involved in child work/child employment and or child labour. Find out the types of child work/child employment and or child labour children below the age of 12 years are engaged in at home and in the neighborhood in this covid-19 period. The study used a survey design. The target population was working children in Nyambene, Igembe and South Imenti regions of Meru County. The researcher used questionnaire for the parents or guardian while observation schedule was used to establish different types of work children below 12 years were engaged in. The sample size of the study was 684 children and 684 parents or guardians. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics that then presented using frequency distribution tables and percentages. The findings of the study reveal that children below 12 years of age are engaged in different forms of child work/child employment and or child labour. It also showed that income earned by majority of the parents or guardians (54%) of children engaged in child work/child employment and or child labour were of age’s 17-35years and 50% of these parents earned between Ksh2500 to 4000 a month. The findings also established the kind of activities children do to support their families and documents children reported reasons as to why they have to work.
Critical Factors in the Integration of Information and Communication Technologies in Early Childhood Education in Kenya: A Case of Nairobi County
(DBpia, 2014) Nyakwara, Begi
In Kenya during the last one decade, public and private sectors have invested a lot of resources in computer based Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to improve the quality of education in schools. The main objective has been to integrate ICT in the delivery of curriculum in order to improve the quality of teaching-learning and to produce ICT literate workforce. The computer based technologies are used in management, pedagogy, and communication. This paper presents results from a study that was conducted in Nairobi County in Kenya to determine the key factors in the integration of computer based ICT in teaching-learning in pre-primary and lower primary schools. Results had revealed that the use of computer based ICT in teaching-learning by both pre-primary and lower primary schools was influenced by accessibility of resources, capacity to use the technology, availability of time, and provision of technical support
Decision Making in Shifts to Online Teaching, Analysing Reflective Narratives from Staff Working in African Higher Educational Institutions
(MDPI, 2023) Coughlan, Tim; Goshtasbpour, Fereshte; Mwoma, Teresa; Makoe, Mpine; Aubrey-Smith, Fiona; Tanglang, Nebath
Many higher education institutions moved from in-person to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic, but these shifts have a longer history and potential. They require challenging individual and collective decision making by staff, beyond their usual repertoire of practice. This paper, therefore, aims to understand the nature of decisions that staff made as they moved to online teaching, the reasons, processes, and reflections on the perceived impacts. Eighty-four participants with diverse roles connected to moving online from four institutions across Africa were purposively sampled. Using a constructivist paradigm and qualitative approach, participants were invited to describe decision-making experiences through short narratives with prompts around their context, decisions, and impacts. Twenty-two of these participants attended a workshop to augment the narrative data and identify good practices. Qualitative analysis directed by Activity Theory concepts revealed that decisions related to policy and rules, pedagogy, community, and technology were frequently cited by participants. The main objective expressed in these narratives was maintaining the continuity of education for students. However, mixed impacts were observed on student engagement, and further decisions were made in response to this. Common challenges related to tools and technology, and similarly, the biggest tension for implementing the decisions was found between tools and technology and the participants or their communities. Good practices include updating policies and introducing continuous assessment. Implications for reflective professional practice are discussed, including how previous practices are initially drawn on to try to reproduce in-person teaching online but then adapt in recognition of the tensions this raises.

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