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Item 1,8-Cineole: An attractant for the banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus(Elsevier, 1996-07) Hassanali, Ahmed; Ndiege, I. O.; Budenberg, W. J.; Otieno, D. O.1,8-Cineole was identified as one of the electrophysiologically active components of the volatiles from banana cultivars susceptible to the banana weevil. It was also shown to be an attractant for the banana weevil Comopolites sordidus in laboratory behavioural bioassays. The resistant cultivar did not contain 1,8-cineole. β-Phellandrene, which exhibited electrophysiological activity, but did not show any attraction to the banana weevil, was found only in the resistant banana cultivar.Item 105 - Biocontrol of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita in Kenyan tomato varieties using habitat-adapted endophytes(Deutsche Pflanzenschutztagung, 2014-09) Schouten, Alexander; Grundler, Florian M. W.; Kuska, Matheus; Kariuki, George M.; Bogner, Catherine WanjaPlant parasitic nematodes, especially root-knot nematodes, pose a major threat to the increasingly important tomato production in the coastal humid tropics of East Africa. Tomato endophytes collected from Kenya were identified and screened for their biocontrol activities in the tomato cultivar moneymaker, various local Kenyan varieties and AVRDC accessions. In particular, Trichoderma and Fusarium oxysporum isolates could significantly reduce root-knot nematode egg densities when compared to the non-inoculated control. Split-root experiments and synchronized infection studies have shown that the fungus initiates certain systemic plant defense responses that affect both penetration and overall development of the nematode. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the induced defense responses leading to this reduction in nematode infection, specific tomato mutants that are impaired in particular defense pathways are analyzed with respect to root-knot nematode colonization in the presence and absence of the beneficial endophytes. At the same time, the expression of several marker genes and the activity of certain enzymes, all involved in the various induced defense responses, are being monitored. In addition, the effects of fungal metabolites on M. incognita and the initiation of defense responses is being studied. The use of habitat-adapted endophytic fungi may provide a safe, efficient, reliable and affordable approach to control root-knot nematodes.Item 16S rRNA Gene Profiling of Bacterial Communities Mediating Production of Tsetse Attractive Phenols in Mammalian Urine(OASIS, 2019) Musonye, Harry; Njeru, Ezekiel; Hassanali, Ahmed; Langata, Lydia; Mijele, Dominic; Kaitho, Titus; King’ori, Edward; Nonoh, JamesSeveral types of odours are involved in the location of host animals by tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae), a vector of animal African trypanosomiasis. Host animals' ageing urine has been shown to be the source of a phenolic blend attractive to the tsetse. Nevertheless, limited research has been performed on the microbial communities' role in the production of phenols. This study aimed at profiling bacterial communities mediating the production of tsetse attractive phenols in mammalian urine. Urine samples were collected from African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), cattle (Bos taurus) and eland (Taurotragus oryx) at Kongoni Game Valley Ranch and Kenyatta University in Kenya. Urine samples, of each animal species, were pooled and left open to age in ambient conditions. Bacteriological and phenols analyses were then carried out, at 4 days ageing intervals, for 24 days. Phenols analysis revealed nine volatile phenols: 4-cresol, ortho-cresol, 3-cresol, phenol, 3-ethylphenol, 3-propylphenol, 2-methyloxyphenol, 4-ethylphenol and 4-propylphenol. Eight out of 19 bacterial isolates from the ageing urine revealed the potential to mediate production of phenols. 16S rRNA gene characterisation of the isolates closely resembled Enterococcus faecalis KUB3006, Psychrobacter alimentarius PAMC 27887, Streptococcus agalactiae 2603V, Morganella morganii sub.sp. morganii KT, Micrococcus luteus NCTC2665, Planococcus massiliensis strain ES2, Ochrobactrum pituitosum AA2 and Enterococcus faecalis OGIRF. This study established that some of the phenols emitted from mammalian urine, which influence the tsetse's host-seeking behaviour, are well characterised by certain bacteria. These results may allow the development of biotechnological models in vector control that combines the use of these bacteria in the controlled release of semiochemicals.Item 2-Chlorobicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-ene-2-carboxamide and 2-chlorobicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2-carboxamide as precursors of bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2-one and bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one: resolution, absolute configuration and hydrogen-bonding properties(Elsevier, 2005-08-15) Thuo, M. M.; Plettner, Erika; Mohle, Ashley; Griscti, Johanna; Patrick, Brian O.; Nair, R; Batchelor, R. J.; Einstein, FThe absolute configuration of bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one has not been correlated with a crystal structure of a chemical precursor. The only chemical correlation available had an ambiguity, which could have reversed the assignment. Herein, we report the resolution of 2- hlorobicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2-exo-carboxamide on a cellulose triacetate column and the crystal structures of the enantiomerically pure and racemic a-chloroamide. We found the absolute configuration (1R,2R,4R) for the (+)-enantiomer of the a-chloroamide. This compound was converted to (+)-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-ene-2-one by base hydrolysis, and the 5,6-unsaturated compounds converted to the saturated congeners. This is the first unambiguous experimental determination of the absolute configuration of bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one and of cyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-ene-2-one. The three crystal structures of 2-chlorobicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2-exo-carboxamide reported herein reveal H-bonded dimers, with two distinct orientations of the bicyclic portion relative to the carboxamide dimer. In the racemic crystal, each dimer is composed of two enantiomers, and the bicyclic portions have their bridge carbon atom (C-7) on opposite sides of the H-bonded carboxamide dimer moiety. In the enantiomerically pure crystals, the major dimer had both C-7 atoms on the same side of the carboxamide dimer moiety while the minor dimer had the C-7 atoms on opposite sides. The dimers are present in solution, and can be easily monitored.Item 2-Hydroxy-4-Methoxybenzaldehyde: Larvicidal Structure-Activity Studies(2005) Ndiege, Isaiah O; Lwande, Wilber; Akenga, Teresa O; Mahanga, Geoffrey M.2-Hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (1), a compound isolated from Mondia whytei (Hook) Skeels (Asclepiaceae) roots exhibited larvicidal activity (LD5022 mg/mL). A total of 18 other derivatives and closely related congeners revealed varying levels of larvicidal activity. Several closely related congeners, like 2-benzyloxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (2), 2-hydroxybenzaldehyde (12), 2-benzyloxybenzaldehyde (3) and benzylphenyl ether (4), showed marked improvement in activity (LD5010, 9, 4.8, 1.2 mg/mL, respectively) against Anopheles gambiae larvae. 2-Benzoyloxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (5) exhibited similar activity level (LD50 28 mg/mL) as 1.Item 2D-Euler Deconvolution and Forward Modeling of Gravity Data of Homa-Hills Geothermal Prospect, Kenya(2014-02-25) Ambusso, W.; Odek, A.B.; Odek, A.; Githiri, J.G.In order to fully assess the potential of Homa Hills Geothermal prospect, the heat source which is one of the main features of a geothermal system had to be located based on its perturbation on the gravity field. Ground gravity survey was conducted in an area covering about 76 km2 and the data processed to remove all other effects which are not of geological interest. Qualitative interpretation was attempted and cross sections drawn across the anomalous areas on the complete Bouguer anomaly map. Quantitative interpretation attempted involved both Euler Deconvolution and 2‐D Forward modelling. The parameters obtained from Euler Deconvolution were used as the start up parameters for 2‐D Forward modeling. Well clustered Euler solutions were obtained at a shallow depth of approximately 200‐750 m which is consistent with the modeled shallow dike like intrusive probably of carbonatite origin.Item 2D-Forward Modeling of Ground Magnetic Data of Homa-Hills Geothermal Prospect Area, Kenya(SAGE Publications, 2014) Ambusso, W.; Githiri, J.; Abuga, V.; Odek, A.; Adero, B.Two dimensional (2D) Euler de-convolution techniques was applied on the selected profiles of reduced ground magnetic data collected in Homa Hills area. Depth estimates of causative bodies were quantitatively analysed in the an omalous areas on the residual magnetic intensity map. These depth estimates were later used as start up parameters for 2D-forward modelling using “mag2DC” software. Results of the analyses show that the magnetic anomalies in the region are caused by shallow-seated thermal intrusive structures of carbonatite origin. 2D-Euler solutions revealed subsurface faulting activities up to a depth of 250m and the presence of fluid-filled zones within the survey area which are marked by absence of magnetic sources. It is postulated from 2D-forward modelling that the heat sources are shallow intrusive bodies such as dykes, plugs and sills taping from a deeper magmatic body and that the thermal intrusive structures form along fracture zonesItem A 4-Alkyl-substituted Analogue Of Guaiacol Shows Greater Repellency To Savannah Tsetse (Glossina spp.)(Springer-Verlag, 2007-05) Hassanali, Ahmed; Saini, R. K.The responses of Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood to guaiacol (2-methoxyphenol), a mild repellent constituent of bovid odors, and seven analogues comprising 2-methoxyfuran, 2,4-dimethylphenol, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol (4-methylguaiacol), 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol (4-ethylguaiacol), 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol (4-allylguaiacol; eugenol), 3,4-methylenedioxytoluene, and 3,4-dimethoxystyrene were compared in a two-choice wind tunnel. The 4-methyl-substituted derivative (2-methoxy-4-methylphenol) was found to elicit stronger repellent responses from the flies compared with guaiacol. None of the other analogues showed significant repellent effects on flies. 4-Methylguaiacol, guaiacol, and eugenol (which was included because of previous reports of its repellency against a number of arthropods) were further evaluated in the field with wild populations of predominantly Glossina pallidipes Austen. The presence of guaiacol or eugenol near odor-baited traps caused some nonsignificant reduction in the number of tsetse catches at relatively high release rates (∼50 mg/hr). In contrast, the 4-methyl derivative at three different release rates (2.2, 4.5, and 9.0 mg/hr) reduced trap catches of baited traps in a dose-response manner. At 10 mg/hr release rate, it reduced the catches of baited and unbaited traps by ∼80 and ∼70%, respectively. In addition, the compound not only reduced the number of tsetse attracted to natural ox odor (∼ 80%), but also had an effect on their feeding responses, reducing the proportion that fed on an ox by more than 80%. Our study shows that the presence of a methyl substituent at the 4-position of guaiacol enhances the repellency of the molecule to savannah tsetse and suggests that 4-methylguaiacol may represent a promising additional tool in the arsenal of techniques in trypanosomiasis control.Item A Survey of Knowledge and Attitudes towards Antibiotic Use and Resistance among Teachers in the Republic of Kenya: Implications for Using Teachers in Raising Public Awareness of Rational Antibiotic Use in School Communities(Plos One, 2024-12) Mutua, Patrick M.; Mutiso, Joshua; Gicheru, Michael M.Background Antimicrobial resistance is a significant public health threat. In Kenya, schools are targeted for public education to promote knowledge and attitudes towards the proper use of antimicrobials. However, there are limited studies that have investigated teachers’ knowledge and attitudes on antibiotic use. Methods We conducted an online survey from December 2023 to January 2024 which included 608 primary and secondary school teachers, representing a response rate of 93% of the estimated sample size of 653 teachers. Data on the respondents’ antibiotic knowledge score (seventeen questions) and attitude score (eleven questions) were analysed using IBM SPSS (Version 27). A binary logistic regression model was applied to analyze predicators of adequate knowledge and attitude on antibiotics. Results The average knowledge score for antibiotic use was 9.2 out of 17. Among the sampled teachers, 82% had not received public awareness information on proper antibiotic use. More than 86% of the respondents incorrectly answered that antibiotics are effective against colds. The average attitude score on antibiotic use was 6.1 out of 11. A quarter of the interviewees agreed that they gave family members antibiotics wherever they fell sick. Respondents aged 40–49 years and teaching in secondary school had higher odds for adequate knowledge in antibiotic use. Conclusions This study has identified significant knowledge and attitude gaps that need to be addressed by policy makers to ensure rational antibiotics use among teachers and in ensuring effective use of teachers in raising awareness in school communities for rational antibiotic use.Item Absence of Molecular Evidence of Filovirus Circulating In Bats and Rodents in Laikipia North Sub-County, Kenya: A Cross Sectional Study(https://www.one-health.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/7/34, 2022) Ambala, Peris; Hussein, Fatima; Mutura, Samson; Gachara, George; Menza, Nelson; Shields, Lindsey Mccrickard; Vodzak, Megan; Murray, Susan; Valitutto, Marc; Zimmerman, Dawn; Kamau, JosephIn the recent decade, pathogenic zoonotic viruses have emerged in different geographical locations almost annually. These changes have led to new complex interactions between humans, animals and the environment, creating unique opportunities for pathogens unique opportunities to pass between hosts. Most emerging pathogens are RNA viruses such as filovirus. Numerous factors such as anthropogenic activities, changes in local ecosystem and climate change have contributed to this spillover. While Kenya has not reported any filovirus outbreaks in humans, a filovirus (i.e Bombali Ebola virus) have been detected in Kenyan bats, which have been implicated as reservoir hosts. The goal of this study was to detect and molecularly characterize known and novel filovirus circulating in bats and rodents in Laikipia North sub-County, Laikipia County, Kenya. In May 2018, a total of 477 samples (blood, oral and rectal swabs) were collected from 159 bats and 159 rodents in Laikipia North sub-County, Kenya. Ribonucleic acid was extracted from all samples and screened using consensus polymerase chain reaction targeting the long-gene of filovirus. All samples were negative. These results suggest that circulation of filovirus was uncommon during the month of May, 2018 in rodents and bats from Laikipia North sub-County. Considering our findings, future sampling should be conducted both longitudinally and with significantly larger sample sizes for a more in depth assessment of the prevalence of filoviruses in bats within the region studied.Item Abundance and Symbiotic Potential of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Nodule Associated Bacteria in Western Kenya Soil(MAYFEB, 2016) Wekesa, C.; Okun, D.; Juma, K.; Shitabule, D.; Okoth, P.; Nyongesa, P.; Katoo, A.; Mulama, S.; Wamalwa, E.; Mahalo, C.; Koyo, M.; Rotich, A.; Kawaka, F.; Muoma, J.Plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria are beneficial native soil bacteria that colonize plant roots and result in increased plant growth. Those that colonise the nodules of legumes are known as nodule associated bacteria. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of chemical soil factors on the abundance of nodule associated bacteria and the symbiotic efficiency of these bacteria when coinoculated with Phaseolus vulgaris in Western Kenya soils. The soil samples were collected from cultivated lands in Kisumu near Lake Victoria, slopes of Mt. Elgon and Kakamega. In each of these regions, the soil samples were collected from four regions. 1ml of soil solution at 10 fold dilution for seven dilution steps (10-1to 10-7) and three replications for each dilution was used to inoculate common bean seedling in the Leonard jars. They were harvested after four weeks to determine abundance of nodule associated bacteria using most probable number plant infection method. Mt. Elgon region had the highest population of nodule associated bacteria (120000 cells per gram of the soil), followed by Kisumu (1290 cells per gram of the soil) and Kakamega region had the lowest (17 cells per gram of the soil). The effect of plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria on the yield of common beans was significantly higher (p < o.oo1) when co-inoculated with Rhizobia compared to the yield of Rhizobia inoculated alone or negative control (not inoculated) (p < 0.05). This study therefore provides knowledge on the factors that favour the survival of common bean symbiotic bacteria and their symbiotic capability which is necessary for production of plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria inoculants suitable to the soils of Western KenyaItem Abundance of Insect Pests and their Effects on Biomass Yields of Single vs. Multi-species Planted Fallows(Springer Netherlands, 2006) Ogol, C.K.P.O.; Girma, H.; Rao, M. R.; Day, R.Indigenous and exotic leguminous shrubs that are promising for planted fallow for soil fertility replenishment in east and southern Africa have been found to harbour many herbivorous insects, giving suspicion that widespread adoption of fallow systems may aggravate insect pests. Studies were conducted on farms in western Kenya from 1999 to 2001 to monitor the abundance of herbivorous insects and assess their effects on biomass yields of pure and mixed fallows. The treatments tested were single and two-species mixtures of Tephrosia vogelii, Sesbania sesban and Crotalaria grahamiana and a natural fallow in a split plot design, with the fallow systems in the main plots and protection vs. no protection against insects in sub-plots spread over six farms. Eighteen insect species belonging to seven orders and 14 families were identified as pests of␣the fallows with varied abundance and infestation level across the sites. While Hilda patruelis and Amphicallia pactolicus were most damaging to C. grahamiana, Mesoplatys ochroptera was detrimental to S.␣sesban. T. vogelii hosted fewer insects than others. Nevertheless the pest infestation did not cause significant biomass yield reduction during the study period. Pest attack was generally greater in villages that had been testing the planted fallows for some years compared with villages that took up the fallows recently. This indicates the potential for increased pest infestation with increased adoption of the system by farmers. Multi-species fallows did not indicate any advantage over single species fallows in terms of either reduced pest incidence or increased biomass production.Item Abundance, population dynamics and impact of the leucaena psyllid Heteropsylla cubana Crawford in a maize-leucaena agroforestry system in Kenya(Cambridge University Press, 1997-06) Ogol, C.K.P.O.; Spence, J. R.We monitored abundance, population dynamics and damage impacts of the leucaena psyllid Heteropsylla cubana Crawford (Homoptera: Psyllidae) in a maize-leucaena agroforestry system. The abundance of local ladybird beetle predator populations were also evaluated. The studies were conducted between June 1993 and November 1995 at Mtwapa and Amoyo in coastal and western Kenya respectively. Alley-cropping leucaena with maize had no effect on the abundance of the leucaena psyllid or its coccinellid predators. Therefore, neither the ‘resource concentration’ hypothesis nor the ‘enemies’ hypothesis corroborated for the psyllid-leucaena system within the spatial scale of this study. Psyllid populations were generally much higher at Mtwapa than at Amoyo, suggesting possible environmental effects on population growth. Psyllid populations were influenced by weather (mainly rainfall) and availability of suitable shoots. New growth of young shoots following rainfall encouraged psyllid abundance as long as weather conditions were not extreme. Though population of the generalist ladybird beetles was correlated with that of its psyllid prey, beetles did not appear to have significant effect on prey populationsItem Acceptance and suitability of four lepidopteran stemborers for the development of the pupal parasitoid Xanthopimpla stemmator (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)(Taylor & Francis, 2005) Gitau, C. W.; Ngi-Song, A. J.; Otieno, S.A.; Overholt, W. A.Xanthopimpla stemmator (Thunberg), a solitary endoparasitoid of lepidopteran stemborer pupae, was recently imported into East Africa as a candidate biological control agent of gramineous stemborers. Suitability of Busseola fusca Fuller, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe), Eldana saccharina (Walker) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson, for the development of X. stemmator was studied in the laboratory. One- to 6-day-old laboratory reared pupae of the four stemborer species were exposed to naïve X. stemmator females. All host pupae and ages were acceptable for oviposition. The parasitoids inflicted multiple probe wounds on 67.8% of pupae exposed. B. fusca, C. partellus and S. calamistis were equally suitable with 56.4, 59.4 and 52.3%, respectively, of probed pupae leading to emergence of adult parasitoids. E. saccharina was less suitable with only 22.6% of probed pupae producing parasitoids. Emergence of parasitoids did not differ significantly across the six pupal ages for B. fusca and S. calamistis, but varied for C. partellus and E. saccharina. No parasitoids emerged from 6-day-old E. saccharina pupae. Realized fecundity of females reared on the four stemborer pupae showed that fewer progeny were produced by females emerging from E. saccharina than females reared on the other three stemborer species. Eldana saccharina may be a poor host for X. stemmator in Kenya, but this parasitoid is a potential candidate for biological control of B. fusca, C. partellus and S. calamistis.Item Action of the Cyclic Group Cn Acting on the Diagonals of a Regular N–Gon(iiste, 2016) Olum, Fredrick Odondo; Ireri, Kamuti; Mutie, Kavila; Ochieng’, Raymond CalvinThe main objective of this paper is to investigate the act ion of the cyclic group G=Cn on set,X , the diagonals of a regular - gon. We will first d iscuss the transitivity and primitivity of this action after which we will give useful results regarding the suborbits, subdegrees an d ranks of this action. It is worth mention ing that most of the results here have been given as Lemmas and Theorems.Item Activation of peroxisome proliferator– activated receptor gamma induces anti-inflammatory properties in the chicken free avian respiratory macrophages(BioMed Central, 2015) Mutua, Mbuvi P.; Steinaa, Lucilla; Muya, Shadrack M.; Gicheru, Muita M.Background: Activation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPAR γ) in the alveolar macrophages (AM) by selective synthetic PPAR γ ligands, improves the ability of the cells to resolve inflammation. In birds, respiratory macrophages are known as free avian respiratory macrophages (FARM) and show distinct functional differences from AM. The effects of treating FARM with PPAR γ ligands are unclear. Methods: FARM were harvested by lavage of chicken respiratory tract and their morphology assessed at microscopic level. The effects of PPAR γ agonists on the FARM in vitro viability, phagocytic capacity and proinflammatory cytokine (TNF-α) production were assessed. Results: FARM had eccentric nucleus and plasma membrane ruffled with filopodial extensions. Ultrastructurally, numerous vesicular bodies presumed to be lysosomes were present. FARM treated with troglitazone, a selective PPAR γ agonist, had similar in vitro viability with untreated FARM. However, treated FARM co-cultured with polystyrene particles, internalized more particles with a mean volume density of 41 % compared to that of untreated FARM of 21 %. Further, treated FARM significantly decreased LPS-induced TNF-α production in a dose dependent manner. Conclusion: Results from this study show that PPAR γ synthetic ligands enhance phagocytic ability of FARM. Further the ligands attenuate production of proinflammatory cytokines in the FARM, suggesting potential therapeutic application of PPAR γ ligands in the management of respiratory inflammatory disorders in the poultry industry.Item Activity of East African Medicinal Plants against Helicobacter pylori(Pubmed, 1996-09) Fabry, W.; Okemo, P. O.; Ansorg, RainerThe activity of extracts from the East African medicinal plants Entada abyssinica (stem bark), Terminalia spinosa (young branches), Harrisonia abyssinica (roots), Ximenia caffra (roots), Azadirachta indica (leaves and stem bark) and Spilanthes mauritiana (roots and flowers) were evaluated against 12 strains of Helicobacter pylori. The most active extracts were those derived from T. spinosa with an MIC50 of 125 μg/ml, an MIC90 of 250 μg/ml and an MIC range of 62.5–500 μg/ml. An MIC50 of 250 μg/ml and an MIC90 of > 4,000 μg/ml was reached by H. abyssinica with a range of 125– > 4,000 μg/ml and by X. caffra with a range of 62.5– > 4,000 μg/ml, respectively. It is concluded that these plants contain compounds with antimicrobial activity against H pylori.Item Activity of some medicinal plant extracts against fungal plant pathogens(2012-04-25) Okemo, P. O.; Mwatha W. E.; Ngigi S.K.Item Actors and networks in resource conflict resolution under climate change in rural Kenya(Copernicus Publications, 2016) Ngaruiya, Grace W.; Scheffran, JürgenThe change from consensual decision-making arrangements into centralized hierarchical chieftaincy schemes through colonization disrupted many rural conflict resolution mechanisms in Africa. In addition, climate change impacts on land use have introduced additional socio-ecological factors that complicate rural conflict dynamics. Despite the current urgent need for conflict-sensitive adaptation, resolution efficiency of these fused rural institutions has hardly been documented. In this context, we analyse the Loitoktok network for implemented resource conflict resolution structures and identify potential actors to guide conflict-sensitive adaptation. This is based on social network data and processes that are collected using the saturation sampling technique to analyse mechanisms of brokerage. We find that there are three different forms of fused conflict resolution arrangements that integrate traditional institutions and private investors in the community. To effectively implement conflictsensitive adaptation, we recommend the extension officers, the council of elders, local chiefs and private investors as potential conduits of knowledge in rural areas. In conclusion, efficiency of these fused conflict resolution institutions is aided by the presence of holistic resource management policies and diversification in conflict resolution actors and networks.Item Acute and Sub-acute Oral Toxicity Profile of Root Bark Methanol Extract of Carissa Edulis Vahl(Pharmacognosy Journal, 2023) Mbiri, Jane Wanja; Ogila, Kenneth; Kisangau, Patrick; Gicheru, MichaelBackground: Carissa edulis is widely used in traditional medicine to manage numerous ailments. However, few studies have assessed its toxicity. Therefore, this study aimed to determine acute and sub-toxicity levels of C. edulis methanol extract. Methods: In the acute toxicity probe, a limit test was conducted whereby the extract was given as a solo dose by gavage. The rats were observed for two weeks. The observations included mortality and changes in the general appearance and behavior of the experimental animals. The body weights of the rats were taken weekly. For the sub-acute toxicity probe, the rats received the extract daily at dosages 300, 520, and 900 mg/kg by gavage for 28 days. Body weights were also taken weekly. On day twenty-nine, the weights of the rats were taken, the rats were sacrificed, and blood was collected for biochemical and hematological analysis. Body organs were harvested, and their weights were taken. Results: The results of the acute toxicity probe showed that the extract didn’t cause mortality or toxicity signs throughout the study duration. The LD50 of the extract was therefore deemed to be above 2,000 mg/kg. The sub-acute toxicity probe results demonstrated that the extract, at all the tested dosages, didn’t cause mortality or affect the rats’ organ weights, body weights, or hematological and biochemical parameters throughout the study duration. Conclusions: In conclusion, the methanol extract of C. edulis is not toxic since it didn’t cause mortality or toxicity signs in both acute and sub-acute toxicity probes.