RP-Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology

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Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome Among an Urban Population in Kenya
(Diabetes Care, 201-04) Kenya, E.U.; Kaduka, L.U.; Kombe, Y.; Kuria, E.; Bore, J. K.; Bukania, Z. N.; Mwangi, M.
OBJECTIVE Developing countries are undergoing an epidemiologic transition accompanied by increasing burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) linked to urbanization and lifestyle modifications. Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of CVD risk factors whose extent in Kenya remains unknown. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and factors associated with its occurrence among an urban population in Kenya. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS This was a household cross-sectional survey comprising 539 adults (aged ≥18 years) living in Nairobi, drawn from 30 clusters across five socioeconomic classes. Measurements included waist circumference, HDL cholesterol, triacylglycerides (TAGs), fasting glucose, and blood pressure. RESULTS The prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 34.6% and was higher in women than in men (40.2 vs. 29%; P < 0.001). The most frequently observed features were raised blood pressure, a higher waist circumference, and low HDL cholesterol (men: 96.2, 80.8, and 80%; women: 89.8, 97.2, and 96.3%, respectively), whereas raised fasting glucose and TAGs were observed less frequently (men: 26.9 and 63.3%; women: 26.9 and 30.6%, respectively). The main factors associated with the presence of metabolic syndrome were increasing age, socioeconomic status, and education. CONCLUSIONS Metabolic syndrome is prevalent in this urban population, especially among women, but the incidence of individual factors suggests that poor glycemic control is not the major contributor. Longitudinal studies are required to establish true causes of metabolic syndrome in Kenya. The Kenyan government needs to create awareness, develop prevention strategies, and strengthen the health care system to accommodate screening and management of CVDs.
Scanning Electron Microscope Study of the Morphology of the Reptilian Lung: the Savanna Monitor Lizard Varanus Exanthematicus and the Pancake Tortoise Malacochersus Tornieri.
(Anat Rec, 1989) Kokwaro, E. D.; Maina, J. N.; Maloiy, G. M.; Warui, C. N.; Njogu, E. K.
The morphology of the lungs of two reptilian species, Varanus exanthematicus and Malacochersus tornieri, have been studied on gross preparations, latex casts, and critical-point-dried tissues. The shape of these lungs was observed to conform with that of the body, the lung of the monitor lizard (Varanus) being long and ovoid while that of the pancake tortoise (Malacochersus) was rounded and laterally indented. With respect to the size distribution of the gas exchange compartments, the lungs were observed to be notably heterogenous. In both species these units were generally smaller in diameter in the cranial region of the lung while those in the caudal region were larger. The gas exchange compartments in the tortoise were more profusely compartmented with the primary, secondary, and tertiary septa being well developed while in the lizard only the primary and secondary septa were observed. The tertiary septa in the tortoise lung and the secondary septa in that of the monitor lizard defined the terminal gas exchange units, the faveoli. The cast impressions closely resembled the actual lung tissue and convincingly revealed the hierarchical design of the gas exchange compartments as they radiate from the air chambers and ducts, terminally giving rise to the faveoli. This stratification clearly increases the surface area available for gas exchange in these lungs. Disparate refinements of the basic reptilian lung design, as noted here, may lead to differing anatomic pulmonary diffusing capacities for oxygen to which characteristics like energetics and mode of respiration in this taxon may be attributed.
Tryptophan metabolism in vitamin B6-deficient mice
(Cambridge University Press, 1990-01) Njagi, E.N.M.; Danielian, P. S.; Bender, D. A.
Vitamin B6 deficiency was induced in mice by maintenance for 4 weeks on a vitamin B6-free diet. Tryptophan metabolism was assessed by determining the urinary excretion of tryptophan metabolites, the metabolism of [14C]tryptophan in vivo and the formation of tryptophan and niacin metabolites by isolated hepatocytes. The vitamin B6-deficient animals excreted more xanthurenic acid and 3-hydroxykynurenine, and less of the niacin metabolites N1-methyl nicotinamide and methyl-2-pyridone-4-carboxamide, than did control animals maintained on the same diet supplemented with 5 mg vitamin B6/kg. After intraperitoneal injection of [14C]tryptophan, vitamin B6-deficient mice showed lower liberation of14CO2 from [methylene-14C]tryptophan and [U-14C]tryptophan than did controls, indicating impairment of kynureninase (EC 3.7.1.3) activity. There was no difference between the two groups of animals in the metabolism of [ring-2-14C]tryptophan. Hepatocytes isolated from the vitamin B6-deficient animals formed more 3-hydroxykynurenine and xanthurenic acid than did cells from control animals, but also formed more NADP and free niacin.
Schistosoma mansoni: Effects on tryptophan metabolism in mice
(Elsevier, 1990-01) Njagi, E.N.M.; Bender, D. A.
In mice, infection with 20–30 cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni resulted in a considerable reduction in the formation of 14CO2 from [14C]tryptophan. Infected animals excreted significantly lower amounts of kynurenine, kynurenic acid, and methyl pyridone carboxamide than did uninfected controls. There was no difference in the ability of hepatocytes isolated from infected or control animals to metabolise [14C]tryptophan. Hepatocytes from infected animals synthesized less NAD(P), but more niacin and N1-methyl nicotinamide from tryptophan. They showed no greater accumulation of kynurenine metabolites than did cells from control animals. The hepatocyte content of pyridoxal phosphate and the erythrocyte aspartate aminotransferase activation coefficient were the same in both groups of mice, suggesting that infection with S. mansoni does not deplete vitamin B6. The impairment of tryptophan metabolism in vivo was apparently not due to impaired hepatic metabolism. Rather, it seems likely that the parasites or their eggs take up tryptophan avidly from the host's circulation. Studies of parasite and egg metabolism of tryptophan may suggest novel approaches to the chemotherapy Of bilharzia.
Ultrastructural Changes in Salivary Glands of Tsetse, Glossina Morsitans Morsitans, Infected with Virus and Rickettsia-like Organisms.
(Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 1990-11) Kokwaro, E. D.; Nyindo, M.; Chimtawi, M.
Electron microscope observations on enlarged hypertrophied salivary glands dissected from adult laboratory-reared male Glossina morsitans morsitans show a concurrent infection of the salivary gland tissue with rod-shaped virus particles and intracellular rickettsia-like organisms. The latter are found intracellular in the epithelium and in the gland lumen enclosed within lytic zones. The virus particles are found within the degenerating cytoplasm, nuclei, and lumen of the cell where they are especially numerous. Stratified epithelium and gland enlargement are a prominent feature of the infection. These observations suggest that biological associations between salivary gland tissue and diverse microbes may be more common than formerly recognized. The microbes appear to cause damage to salivary gland cells, causing hyperplasia which assumes pathologic proportions.
Differentiation of Vector Species of Phlebotominae (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Kenya by Chorionic Sculpturing of their Eggs.
(The Entomological Society of America., 1992) Kokwaro, E. D.; Rogo, L. M.; Mutinga, M. J.; Khamala, C. P.
Chorionic sculpturing on eggs of Phlebotomus pedifer Lewis, Mutinga, and Ashford; the closely related Phlebotomus aculeatus Lewis, Minter, and Ashford (= P. elegonensis Ngoka, Madel, and Mutinga); and Phlebotomus martini Parrot was examined and compared by scanning electron microscopy. The eggs of P. pedifer had a general pattern of longitudinal ridges; those of P. aculeatus and P. martini exhibited intraspecific differences. Chorionic patterns of eggs were not reliable to differentiate these species. It is suggested that other methods of differentiation should be used on these species.
Medicinal plants of Kenya: Effects on Meloidogyne incognita and the growth of okra.
(Novacrystal, 1992-01) Owino, P. O.; Waudo, S. W.
Root dip in the extracts of Datura metel, Ricinus communis and Galium aparinoides significantly reduced infection by Meloidogyne incognita on okra. Soil amendment with these plants had a similar effect. Plant growth improved in both types of treatment. Extracts and soil amendments from G. aparinoides had the greatest inhibitory effect on the number of galls per plant and galling index. The inhibitory effects of the three plants on nematode development were ranked as G. aparinoides more than D. metel more than R. communisthe reverse was true for plant growth. These results indicated the nematicidal significance of the three plants.
Tryptophan metabolism and vitamin B6 nutritional status in patients with schistosomiasis mansoni and in infected mice
(Cambridge University Press, 1992-06) Njagi, E.N.M.; Bender, D. A.; Okelo, G. B. A.
Patients infected with Schistosoma mansoni showed an abnormal response to a test dose of tryptophan, with little increase in the urinary excretion of kynurenine, hydroxykynurenine, xanthurenic and kynurenic acids, N1-methyl nicotinamide, methyl pyridone carboxamide, 5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. In contrast to previous reports, this is different from the pattern of tryptophan metabolism seen in vitamin B6 deficiency. Furthermore, the patients' plasma concentrations of pyridoxal phosphate were within the reference range, and supplementation for 5 days with 20 mg vitamin B6/day did not affect tryptophan metabolism. Treatment with a single dose of Praziquantel resulted in a substantial restoration of normal tryptophan metabolism. In mice infected with S. mansoni there was a similar impairment of tryptophan metabolism, as shown by considerably reduced formation of 14CO2 after the administration of a tracer dose of [14C]tryptophan. Again, the administration of vitamin B6 supplements did not correct tryptophan metabolism in the mice. Treatment with Praziquantel resulted in substantial restoration of the production of 14CO2 from [14C]tryptophan. There was no evidence of vitamin B6 deficiency (as determined by erythrocyte aspartate aminotransferase activation coefficient) associated with infection in the mice, although there was a redistribution of pyridoxal phosphate between tissues, with a reduction in the concentration of liver, spleen and kidney, and an increase in skeletal muscle.
Preliminary Observations on the Efficacy of Mel Cy (Cymelarsan) in Domestic Animals Infected with Stocks of Trypanosoma Brucei Brucei and T.b. Evansi.
(Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 1992-12) Ngeranwa, J.J.N.; Zweygarth, E.; Kaminsky, R.
The trypanocidal activity of an arsenical compound (RM 110; mel Cy; Cymelarsan) was evaluated against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and T. brucei evansi in cultures, in goats and pigs. The trypanosome stocks used differed in their levels of susceptibility to cymerlarsan in an in vitro test, their IC50 values (drug concentration which inhibits growth by 50%) ranging from 4.8-5.1 nM for susceptible, and 26.9 nM for a resistant stock. Goats infected with a susceptible T.b. evansi stock were cured after a single injection of 0.3 mg/kg cymelarsan. In three out of four goats chronically infected with the same stock a single injection of 0.625 mg/kg cymelarsan effected a cure, whereas the goat in which the infection relapsed was finally cured after injection of 0.625 mg/kg on each of three consecutive days. A single dose of 2.5 mg/kg did not cure goats infected with an arsenical-resistant T.b. brucei stock. One of two pigs chronically infected with arsenical-susceptible stocks of T.b. brucei was cured after a single injection of 0.625 mg/kg cymelarsan, whereas the other one relapsed and died. In conclusion, the results may indicate that the dose of 0.25 mg/kg recommended by the manufacturer is too low and that a single may not cure animals with CNS involvement with certainty. The recommended dose might therefore have been applied strictly for the treatment of camels only.
Simulated performance of thermal storage in a solar cooker
(Elsevier, 1997) Nyahoro, Peter Kariuki; Johnson, R. R.; Edwards, J.
An explicit finite-difference method is used to simulate the thermal performance of short-term thermal storage for a focusing, indoor, institutional, solar cooker. The cooker storage unit consists of a cylindrical solid block. The block is enclosed in a uniform layer of insulation except where there are cavities on the top and bottom surfaces to alllow heating of a pot from storage and heating of the storage by solar radiation. A paraboloidal concentrator focuses solar radiation through a secondary reflector onto a central circular zone of the storage block through the cavity in the insulation. The storage is charged for a set period of time and heat is subsequently discharged to a pot of water. In these simulations a pot of cold water is placed on the hot storage block and the time then estimated until the water either boils or the temprature of the water reaches a maximum value. Simulations are made for a given pot capacity with the storage block made from either cast iron or granite (rock). The effects on cooker performance are compared for a variety of height to diameter ratios of the storage block and size of the area of solar input zone.
Isolation of Trypanosoma Brucei from the Monitor Lizard (Varanus niloticus) in an Endemic Focus of Rhodesian Sleeping Sickness in Kenya.
(Acta Tropica - Journal, 1999) Kokwaro, E. D.; Njagu, Z.; Mihok, S.; Verloo, D.
Monitor lizards were sampled along the shores of Lake Victoria to detect natural infections of potentially human-infective trypanosomes. In an area with endemic rhodesian sleeping sickness, one of 19 lizards was infected (Busia, Kenya). Six of ten lizards also showed indirect evidence of infection with Trypanosoma brucei (antibody ELISA). In an area with no recent history of human disease (Rusinga Island), no parasites were found and no antibodies to T. brucei were detected. The isolate was identified as T. brucei through xenodiagnosis (completion of the life cycle in the salivary glands of tsetse), and through molecular techniques (positive reactions with a PCR primer and a microsatellite DNA probe characteristic of the subgenus Trypanozoon). Experimental infections of monitor lizards were also attempted with a variety of parasites and tsetse species. It was possible to infect monitor lizards with T. brucei but not with forest or savannah genotypes of Trypanosoma congolense. Parasites reached low levels of parasitaemia for a short period without generating any pathology; they also remained infective to tsetse and laboratory rats. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the endemicity of sleeping sickness.
Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis of genetic variation in Moringa oleifera Lam
(Blackwell Science Ltd, 1999) Muluvi, G. M.; Sprent, J. I.; Soranzo, N.; Provan, J.; Odee, David W.; Folkard, G.; Mcnicoli, J.W.; Powell, W.
Effect of the Stage of Infection by Rust on Yield of French Beans
(1999) Mwangi, M.; Mutitu, E.W.; Mukunya, D.M.; Seif, A.A.
The most critical periods of infection of French beans were planted at two sites--Kabete, where temperatures are cool and Naivasha, where it is warmer. They were inoculated with the rust pathogen at six different stages of growth and diseases incidence and severity progress monitored. The stages were (V2) primary leaf, (V3) first trifoliate leaf, (V4) third trifoliate leaf, (R5) pre-flowering, (R6) flowering and (R7) pod formation stage. total pod yield were also determined for each treatment. Results showed that the stage of infection influenced yield and the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC). Infections spread fastest and attacked more foliage on plants inoculated at growth stage V4 (third trifoliate) and R5 (pre-flowering). Infection increased quickly to more than 90% on many trifoliate leaves of plants inoculated at stages V3 and R5 and defoliation followed within six to seven weeks. The area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) was over 10 units for plants inoculated before the pre-flowering stage (R5) stage as compared to 2.03 units in the protected control plants. Plants inoculated after stage R6 (flowering) did not develop infection to any significant levels. The highest yield reduction of 25.5% was realized from French beans inoculated at the third trifoliate leaf (stage V4) while a reduction of 22.9 was realised from beans inoculated at the pre-flowering stage (R5). The study showed that infection of French beans by rust reduced yield significantly when it occurred during or after the opening of the third trifoliate leaf and before flowering. It is recommended that chemicals to manage rust where it is prevalent should be applied at the third trifoliate stage of growth and before flowering
Population Level of Bean Rhizobia in the Soil of Semi-Arid South-East Kenya and Assessment of Symbiotic Behaviour
(Faculty of Science Kenyatta University, 2001) Maingi, J.M.; Shisanya, C.A.; Gitonga, N.M.; Hornetz, B.
The major objective of this study was to investigate Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) in common bean in semi-arid south-east Kenya. The population of indigenous rhizobia specific to common bean was determined using the Most Probable Number (MPN) plant infection technique. The experimental design was randomised complete block design (RCBD) with four replications per treatment. The results of the MPN count indicated that the number of indigenous rhizobia resident in Kiboko soils, and specific to common bean were 2,037 - 14,850 rhizobia cells per gram of soil. Isolation carried out from the nodules indicated two different types of isolates. One has small and dry colonies (CIS), while the other one had large mucoid colonies (C2L). Presumptive and authentication tests confirmed these isolates as rhizobia. Indigenous rhizobia were isolated from the common beans grown in Kiboko soil and tested for ability to fix nitrogen in comparison to a commercially available Rhizobium strain 446 from MIRCEN, University of Nairobi. Results showed that infectivity in common bean with Rhizobium strain 446 was good (80 nodules/plant). Bisection of the nodules showed that only 32 % of them had an inner pink colour. This is an indication that a majority of the nodules were not effective in fixing nitrogen hence the need to frequently re-evaluate the homogeneity of the commercial strain 446. Greenhouse trials showed that isolate CIS was not effective in nitrogen fixation and that Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. phaseoli strain 446 and C2L from MlRCEN and soils ofSE-Kenya, respectively, were superior in nitrogen fixation compared to CIS
EDXRF analysis of local and imported pica soil samples
(Faculty of Science Kenyatta University, 2001) Njagi, E.N.M.; Kinyua, A.M.; Munyua, J.K.; Mangala, M.J.
Several studies have implicated trace metal metabolism with some human diseases. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence(EDXRF)method was used to analyse pica soil samples, which are consumed by some pregnant mothers in Kenya. The levels of potassium, calcium, titanium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc and lead in samples obtained locally and some imported varieties from India are reported. The health implications for consumption of these products are discussed
Non-typhi Salmonella in Children with Severe Malaria
(Kenya Medical Association, 2002) Oundo, J.O.; Muli, F.; Kariuki, S.; Waiyaki, P.G.; Iijima, Y.; Berkley, J.; Kokwaro, G.O.; Ngetsa, C.J.; Mwarumba, S.; Torto, R.; Lowe, B.
Use of Isoenzyme Phenotypes to Characterise the Major Rootknot Nematodes (Meloidogyne Spp.) Parasitising Indigenous Leafy Vegetables In Kisii
(2003) Muturi, J; Gichuki, C; Waceke, J.W; Runo, Steven
Root knot nematodes belonging to the genus Meloidogyne are the most economically important group of plant parasitic nematodes. Their worldwide distribution, extensive host range and interaction with other plant pathogens in disease complexes rank them among the top plant parasitic pathogens affecting the worlds food supply. Yearly crop losses of 5% have been reported worldwide. The damage inflicted in certain regions of developing countries exceeds this level. To improve the identification of Meloidogyne populations , a rapid technique should be developed which is easy to apply. The objective of this study was to determine the occurrence, distribution and identity of root knot nematodes (RKN) affecting Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) in Kisii District. A total of 200 samples of (Solanum nigrum, Amaranthus hybridus and Cleome gynandra) affected by RKN were collected from two divisions, Sameta and Kilgoris. Previous studies on the diversity of Meloidogyne spp. have focused on morphology (perineal patterns, stylet structure, body length), and the response of the populations to differential host test. Morphological differences may be difficult to observe making identification of nematodes by these procedures difficult. Enzyme phenotype, using esterases (Est) and malate dehydrogenase (Mdh), can be used to characterize Meloidogyne spp. populations from different ILVs using a simplified technique for routine analyses. Soluble proteins from macerates of individual females were separated by vertical electrophoresis on 0.7 mm-thick-polyacrylamide gels (12 %). After electrophoresis gels were stained for enzymatic activity in a Petri dish at 37º C with different staining solution. The species identity of forty RKN affecting ILVs in Kisii was reviewed using isoenzyme analysis. Meloidogyne javanica had the phenotype J3 while M. arenaria had phenotype A2. Species specific phenotype I1 was 50%, J3 was detected in 25% of the samples from Kisii while phenotype A2 was found in 25 %. Mdh and Estarase phenotypes are species specific and are used for identification of RKN
In Vitro Antiplasmodial Activity of Some Plants used in Kisii, Kenya Against Malaria and their Chloroquine Potentiation Effects.
(Elsevier, 2003-02) Muregi, F. W.; Chhabra, S. C.; Njagi, E.N.M.; Thoruwa, C. L.; Njue, W. M.; Orago, A. S.; Omar, S. A.; Ndiege, I. O.
Fifty-five organic and aqueous extracts of 11 plants used in malaria therapy in Kisii District, Kenya were tested in vitro against chloroquine (CQ)-sensitive and resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Of the plants tested, 73% were active (IC50<100 μg/ml). Three plants, Vernonia lasiopus, Rhamnus prinoides and Ficus sur afforded extracts with IC50 values ranging less than 30 μg/ml against both CQ-sensitive and resistant strains. Combination of some extracts with CQ against the multi-drug resistant P. falciparum isolate V1/S revealed some synergistic effect. The plant extracts with low IC50 values may be used as sources for novel antimalarial compounds to be used alone or in combination with CQ.
Evaluation of antigen and antibody rapid detection tests for Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels in Kenya
(Veterinary Parasitology, 2003-05) Njagi, E.N.M.; Ngaira, J. M.; Bett, B.; Karanja, S. M.
The card agglutination test for Trypanosoma evansi (CATT/T. evansi) for the detection of antibodies, and Suratex® for the detection of circulating antigens were compared in a cross-sectional study involving camels in eastern and central parts of Kenya. Of the 2227 camels screened, 2038 were owned by nomadic pastoralists in T. evansi endemic areas in eastern Kenya. A herd of 86 camels were from a ranch in Mugwoni. In Athi River area, 35 camels belonged to Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute, and 68 were slaughter animals. Diagnostic sensitivity estimates were obtained by testing sera from 51 camels that had been found to be parasitologically positive by the haematocrit centrifugation technique, buffy-coat technique and mouse inoculation. Diagnostic specificity was estimated by testing sera from 35 camels known to be trypanosome-free. Positive and negative predictive values (NPVs) were calculated using a range of prevalence values. The sensitivity of CATT/T. evansi (68.6%) was higher than that of Suratex® (58.8%), but not significantly. Both tests had equally high specificity (100%). The overall prevalence was 2.3% (51 out of 2227) by parasite detection, 32.2% (327 out of 1017) by CATT/T. evansi and 19.6% (188 out of 961) by Suratex®. Overall, there was a positive association between CATT/T. evansi and Suratex® though the strength of association was low (McNemar’s test=46.12, P=0.001; kappa=0.26, CI: 0.20–0.33). Parasite prevalence ranged from 0% in several herds to 27.8% in a herd in Isiolo. Prevalence was highest in Isiolo with 2.5% (51 out of 2030) by parasitological detection, 38.8% (321 out of 828) by CATT/T. evansi and 21.9% (169 out of 772) by Suratex®. In Mugwoni prevalence was 7 and 18% by CATT/T. evansi and Suratex®, respectively, and no parasites were detected. In Athi River Suratex® detected 2.9% (3 out of 103) positive while CATT/T. evansi and parasitological methods gave negative results. At prevalence values between 10 and 100%, CATT/T. evansi as well as Suratex® had infinitely high positive predictive values, whereas Suratex® had a lower NPV than CATT/T. evansi. In conclusion, results of this study showed that CATT/T. evansi and Suratex® were able to detect aparasitaemic infections rapidly and were more sensitive than parasitological methods in revealing the true extent of trypanosomosis in a herd. The tests effectively complemented parasitological methods in the detection of T. evansi infections in camels.
Comparative genetics of alcoholism in the Kenyan populations
(Academic Journals, 2004) Doudoladova, K. E.; Ndiritu, D; Ochieng, David
Hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase are major enzymes in the metabolism of exogenous ethanol. These enzymes are polymorphic and are involved in alcohol drinking and risk of alcoholism in some world populations. Three hundred and seventy one samples of hair root lyzates from five Kenyan communities were screened for ADH 2, ADH 3 and ALDH 2 polymorphisms via isoelectric focusing. Additional information on alcohol drinking behaviour, alcohol intake, frequency of alcohol drinking, preference of alcoholic drinks, and alcohol dependence was collected via interview and questionnaire. SAS JPIN statistical program was used to analyze obtained data using chi-square, Anova and t-tests. The results showed that ADH 2*2, ADH 3*1 and ALDH 2*2 alleles do not have protective properties against risk of alcoholism in the selected Kenyan populations. Other factors than ADH and ALDH polymorphisms interfered in the protective mechanism of the latter alleles against excessive alcohol drinking.

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