PT-School of Business

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Organization development interventions and academic staff productivity in chartered state universities in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2014) Munyao, Charles M.
Organization development interventions (ODIs) are necessary ingredients to any employees' productivity process especially in the knowledge sector. Chartered state universities are faced with a growing number of complaints today in the area of academic staff productivity. This study thus seeks to establish the 001s that influence productivity of the academic staff in chartered state universities in Kenya in an effort to address these challenges. In particular this study seeks to establish the influence of team building, organizational learning and MBO on the productivity of academic staff in chartered state universities in Kenya. The study will be based on five theories: Resource Based Theory, Change Process and Equilibrium Theory, Rational Theory, Institutional Theory and Marginal Productivity Theory. The study will be anchored on the positivism philosophy which holds that true knowledge is and must be scientific and ultimately measurable. A mixed research design that incorporates descriptive and explanatory research design will be used to conduct this study. The unit of analysis will be the 22 chartered state universities in Kenya and the unit of observation will be the 192 deans of schools/faculties. A semi structured questionnaire will be used to gather the required information from the 192 deans of schools/faculties. Validity and reliability of the research instruments will be tested. The data collected will be analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics where multiple regression analysis will be used to show the relationship between the dependent variable (productivity of chartered state universities' academic staff) and the independent variables (teamwork, organizational learning and management by objectives). The descriptive statistics will be presented in form of frequency distribution tables, bar and pie charts, graphs, use of tables and percentages. Diagnostic tests of normality, multicollinearity, heteroscadasticity and homoscedasticity will be carried out on the data to assess the model's underlying statistical assumptions. The study will be of use to management of the chartered state universities, policy makers in other organizations and researchers to help them unravel the Organization Development Interventions and their effects on productivity of chartered state universities' academic staff in particular and employees in general. In addition ethical considerations of proper identification, introduction and treatment of the research will be meted on the study.
Relationship between Agricultural Entrepreneurship Education and Poverty Reduction Among Farmers in Kisumu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2014-10-09) Mical, Phoebe Adhiambo
Most of Kenya's population, about 80%, live in the rural areas and depend on farming for their subsistence. Despite continuous cultivation of the farms, there is widespread poverty among farmers. A few farmers who try to sell part of their produce are struggling out of the vicious poverty circle. Poverty can be reduced by increasing food production and the purchasing power of the rural poor. One way of empowering the rural poor is through agricultural entrepreneurship. However, the main problem in the rural areas is that most farmers have not embraced the idea of farming as a business. Education improves the quality of human life by imparting knowledge which will enable individuals to be self-reliant. It provides learning experiences which modify or change the behaviour of a person. Behaviour incorporates change of attitude towards other people, ideas, things and institutions. New forms of behavior acquired through education help in dealing effectively with new ideas and situations encountered in life. Education would propel the farmers towards the adoption of agricultural entrepreneurship. The objective of this study is to establish the relationship between agricultural entrepreneurship, education and poverty reduction in Kisumu County. The specific objectives of the study will be; to establish whether there is any relationship between farmers' innovativeness and poverty reduction, to determine the relationship between farmers' risk taking propensity and poverty reduction and to establish whether there are support factors which affect agricultural entrepreneurship in Kisumu County. Agricultural Entrepreneurship could prove useful as a poverty reduction tool if it leads to increased income, which would translate to improved living standards. The research design will be cross sectional survey. The population for the study will comprise of 554 farmers practising active agricultural entrepreneurship in all the six sub-counties of Kisumu County. This number will be distributed in the six sub-counties. The sample for the study will be derived from among the entrepreneurial farmers in three out of the six sub counties, using systematic sampling technique, guided by a calculated sampling fraction (Saunders, 2004). To ensure randomness of the sample the first case will be selected randomly from the respective clusters (sub - counties). The respondents from each sub county will be proportionate to the respective populations. The instruments to be used for data collection will include questionnaires and interview schedules. The primary data from the field will be coded to reduce it to manageable summaries. The data will then be analyzed by use of descriptive statistics like measures of central tendency. Multiple regression analysis will be carried out using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to establish the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It is expected that the study will offer new information on the relationship between, agricultural entrepreneurship, education and poverty reduction among farmers in Kisumu County.
Influence of strategic human resource management practices on performance of parastatals in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2014-10-30) Kiiru, David Muraga
Worldwide, the public sector plays a central role in any country's socio-economic development. The sector has however been affected by globalization, public sector reforms, regional and international partnerships, climate change, Information, Communication and Technology and Human Resource Development, among other factors. In an increasingly changing global environment, the mandate, structure and operations of public sector must be reshaped and productivity enhanced to make it more focused, efficient and responsive to the needs of those it serves. TIllSresearch seeks to examine the extent to which strategic human resource management practices influence performance of Parastatal organizations in Kenya. Its specific objectives are to establish the relationship between strategic human resource management practices and organizational performance, examine the relationship between strategic human resource management practices and human resource capabilities, determine the relationship between human resource capabilities and organizational performance and to assess the extent to which public sector culture influence on the relationship between strategic human resource management and organizational performance. The philosophical foundation of the study will be positivism while the research design will be descriptive cross-sectional survey research design. The study population will comprise all 185 Parastatals in Kenya as outlined by the report of the presidential taskforce on para statal reforms of 2013. Self administered questionnaires will be used to collect data from three senior managers in areas of human resource management, strategy/operations and finance in each of these parastatals as they are assumed to be knowledgeable in the areas under study. Descriptive statistics such as mean scores, standard deviations, percentages, and frequency distribution will be computed to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in the study while inferential statistics such as correlation, regression techniques will be used to establish the nature and magnitude of the relationships between the variables and to test the hypothesized relationships. Assessment of the model's underlying statistical assumptions will be conducted these will include tests for Normality, Homoscedasticity and Multicollinearity.
Effects of organizational resources, competitive advantage on firm's performance of mobile phone industry in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2014-11-03) Njoroge, Jane Gakenia
Firm's performance is a function of how well managers build their organizations around resources and capabilities at their reach. Resource based view emphasizes on firm's specific resources and capabilities as fundamentals sources of sustainable competitive advantage which results to advanced performance. Resources and capabilities must be valuable, rare, inimitable, and lack substitutes to generate sustainability of competitive advantage. Literature reveals that the mobile phone industry has had monopoly in market leadership in terms of market share and profitability for the last six years. These leaves the question of what is the market leader doing that other players in the industry are not able to do. The study will examine the effects of organizational resources, competitive advantage and performance of mobile phone industry in Kenyan perspective. The specific objectives of the study will include; determine how human capital affect firm's performance in mobile phone industry, to ascertain how technology competencies affect firm's performance in mobile phone industry, to access the moderating effects of environmental factors on relationship between organizational resources and firm's performance of mobile phone industry in Kenya and to access the mediating effects of CA on relationship between organizational resources and firm's performance of mobile phone industry in Kenya. To achieve the objectives, the study will use explanatory and descriptive research design which will be cross sectional in nature. The target population will consist of 381with a sample size of 170 respondents from management employees of the four mobile phone network providers in Kenya. The research will adopt stratified random sampling technique. The study will use primary data which will be collected using self-administered questionnaires as tools of data collection. Content and construct validity of the instruments will be tested. Reliability of the instrument will be tested using cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of 0.7 which will be considered acceptable. Data will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics will include percentages, frequencies, means, and standard deviations while inferential statistics will include regression analysis. The analysis will use statistical package for social science (SPSS). The results will be presented using tables.
The consequences of gambling on the socioeconomic status of casino players in Nairobi county
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Mbithi, Joseph K.
Many studies have been conducted and found out that gambling as a habit often come riding on with other behavioral disorders, a situation that creates strong economical disorders pertaining to an individual pushing him to bankruptcy or worse still to a life of crime. They though argue that there is no conclusive research that has proved any correlation between gambling and bankruptcy. In the eyes of the society, gamblers are seen taking to gambling as a way to run away from their problems, stress, anger and loneliness. They often exhibit mood swings and a strangely secretive behaviour, they run behind gambling without the thought that gambling is actually inviting more problems in their life. Their unquenchable thirst of profits, makes them continue wanting more. They start borrowing money and taking secret loans to bet money. In spite of the losses they face, they continue betting. The general objective of the study was to to establish the consequences of gambling on the socio-economic status of casino players in Nairobi County, Kenya. whereas the specific objectives was to investigate how money spent on gambling, to determine the correlation between length of time gambling in Kenya were affecting the socio-economic status of the players and also to establish other factors affecting casino gamblers in Nairobi. The study adopted a causal effect design with the target population being gamblers in Nairobi, Kenya from who were randomly picked from 10 casinos in different regions using stratified random sampling method. Data was collected using questionnaires and was analyzed using descriptive analysis. At the end of the study, the consequences of gambling in Nairobi County was ascertained and recommendations made on the same. The study found that gamblers feel depressed down or irritable. Gamblers lose interest in usual activities, their sleep has changed (for example they has problems falling asleep or staying asleep, or they sleep too much) and their investment pattern has been greatly affected as they divert assets to gambling. The study established that gamblers have borrowed money to gamble and have not paid it back. The study established that gamblers have borrowed money to gamble and have not paid it back. The study found that gamblers have lost time from work or other commitments due to time spent on gambling and they spend 8-12 hours in a day gambling. The study concludes that the main negative effects of gambling is problem gambling. The skill of a gambler lies in performing the calculation between the three parameters and making a decision about what amount should be put on stake and how much to expect in return. The study concludes that prevalence amongst men is two to three times higher than amongst women. The study concludes that problem gamblers report higher than average incidences of job loss and those who remain in work report lost productivity through lateness, non-attendance and preoccupation with gambling. The study recommends the government to educate the public of signs of gambling. Those who are already in gambling need to be taught and warned not to compromise the wellbeing of their family. The study recommends that consumer protection, community/consumer awareness, education and treatment to be included within the frame of reference of ‘responsible gambling’. Governments should provide the regulatory oversight over gambling operations.The study recommends that players should stay with their families instead of gambling.
Determinants of the performance of gaming inspectors in Nairobi county
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Momanyi, Moses Mayaka
The Gaming industry and its operations in many Countries remains largely not understood and surrounded by misinformed stereotypes. The establishment of the Gaming Industry in Kenya is provided by the Betting Lotteries and Gaming Act Cap 131 of the Laws of Kenya of 1966. Due to its economic potential and contribution to national development, concerns are being raised on streamlining its operations in order to improve its performance. There are however challenges to realizing this due to the existing weak legal framework that may not efficiently regulate the operations of the Industry. Research also seems to have ignored the operations of this Industry and as a result, very little empirical work has addressed key issues affecting performance in this Industry. The objective of the study was to identify the determinants that affect the performance of gaming inspectors in Nairobi County. The objectives were yet to establish if and how work environment, training and technological changes affect the performance of gaming inspectors in the gaming industry. The study targeted all the gaming inspectors’ working in Nairobi gaming industry. Data was collected using questionnaires, interviews and document analysis. Existing Literature on the topic were reviewed extensively. Primary data was collected and analyzed using quantitative and qualitative techniques and then presented using narratives; pie charts (diagrams), graphs and tables to interpret the data of determinants affecting their performance were ascertained and possible solutions were recommended for improvement. The study established that various aspects of work environement did not affect the performance of gaming inspectors in Nairobi county as respondents rated working hours and security as favourable despite the governement not providing sufficient security to the inspectors. The study further established that little of no training contributed to dismal performance of the gaming inspectors in Nairobi county. The research established that the gaming inspectors had limited technological capacity to carry out their mandate, majority of the respondents had no sufficient ability to test wheter the machines are efficient or not. The study recommended provision of security to the gaming inspectors. The study further recommended further training and provision of technological equipment as measures to improve the perfomance of gaming inspectors. The study further recommended a more detailed research on each variable to determine its influence on performance of gaming inspectors.
An investigation of the influence of alternative financial delivery channels on the performance of commercial banks in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Dick Maungu, Oyugi
Banking sector reforms have changed the traditional way of doing banking business. Technology, being the springboard of banking reforms has brought about a complete paradigm shift in the functioning of banks and delivery of banking financial services. Gone are the days when every banking transaction required a visit to the bank branch. Under the conservative banking regime, all bank transactions took place within a central structure, and a banking institution had to physically branch-out for widened visibility. Today, most of the transactions can be done from the comforts of one’s home and customers need not visit the bank branch for anything. Banking technology is no longer an enabler, but a business driver. Subsequently, customer satisfaction is now the focus as satisfaction of customer is the main aim of the banks. With the introduction of new products and services, competition has grown up among the banks. Only those banks will survive who face the competition with the effective ways of adopting technology such as the use of Alternative Financial Delivery Channels targeting especially the formally unbanked. In this study, the intent was to investigate the influence of Alternative Financial Delivery Channels on the financial performance of the 43 commercial banks in Kenya. Specifically, the study sought to establish the influence of mobile banking, internet banking, ATMs, and agency banking on the financial performance of commercial banks. Towards attaining this, the study adopted a descriptive research design targeting 86 heads of department in charge of ADC sections. Due to the manageable number of target participants, a census was conducted. Data was collected using pretested questionnaires, processed and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The study found that M-banking was easily embraced due to easy access to mobile phones and non-complicated applications. The most significant services on offer were money transfers, payment of bills, withdrawals, and loan repayment. Though a substantial portion of customers used internet banking, there were barriers that kept potential users at bay. These barriers included inaccessibility to internet, lack of customer confidence, knowhow, and security concerns. The agency banking showed growth potential and was an important segment in the industry. Through the platform, people who were formally unbanked were reached and presented a chance to start banking. Finally, the ATM banking was established as the widely accepted and used ADC. This was partly explained by its operational stability despite challenges such as fraud, usage knowledge, vandalism, additional costs, system failure, and having to travel to cash points. Notably however, there was no one best financial service delivery channel that a bank would use to maximally benefit from the ever-changing individual demand. The most appropriate approach, therefore, would be to incorporate all these options into a convenient mix that optimizes returns from specific clientele. The study recommends apt management of associated risks to enhance customer confidence, ensuring accessibility to target consumers, incorporation of wide range of services, provision of consumer knowledge, and internal efficiency mechanisms to dealing with security concerns.
Effect of internationalization on global competitiveness of the tea sector in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015-09) Anyango, Steve
In Kenya, the Agricultural sector contributes 24 percent of the GDP and provides 70 percent of the total employment of Kenya. As a major contributor to economic growth and a major provider of employment, the business strategies adopted by the agricultural firms and tea firms in particular (since tea is the leading foreign exchange earning crop), have important implications for poverty and equity concerns in the country. The study therefore seeks to establish the effect of internationalization on global competiveness of the tea sector in Kenya. The study is further guided by the following specific objectives; (i) establishing the effect of promotional strategies on global competitiveness of tea Industry in Kenya, (ii) determining the effect of trade policies on global competitiveness of the Kenyan Tea industry (iii) establishing the effect of price volatility on global competitiveness of tea industry, and finally, (iv) investigating the impact of technological advancement on global competiveness of the tea Industry. In order to achieve these objectives the researcher will adopt a Cross-sectional surveys research design. The study population will comprise of 68 tea buying and exporting firms. The data will be collected using a questionnaire that will be administered to the respondents. The collected data will be entered, coded and analyzed in SPSS where descriptive and inferential statistics will be obtained.
Human resource development interventions and employability outcomes among beneficiaries of youth enterprise development fund in Nairobi County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2016) Nderi, Caroline
Interventions in Human Resource Development globally represent an essential contribution to promote and accelerate a country’s development agenda; this can only be achieved when there is integration and efficient utilization for human resources. Organizations including government of Kenya make investments in skill development for improved employment growth and decent work for youth. Despite these interventions unemployment rates have continued to increase to 35 % in 2013 (UNDP, 2013).This study therefore seeks to evaluate the effect of Human Resource Development interventions on employability outcomes among the beneficiaries of youth enterprise fund in Nairobi County. The specific objectives of the study include; determining the effect of financial capital intervention; ascertaining the effect of human capital intervention; assessing the effect of relational capital intervention and to establish the moderating effect of demographic factors on employability outcomes among the beneficiaries of Youth Enterprise Development Fund in Nairobi County. The research design employed was descriptive, cross-sectional survey design and explanatory design. The target population was 37440 youth beneficiaries from 1872 Youth groups registered by Youth Enterprise Development Fund based in Nairobi County. Stratified and random sampling designs were used to determine a sample size of 180 respondents who had accessed the various services of YEDF in Nairobi County. The data was then analyzed using SPSS. The study utilized quantitative data and qualitative data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires and document review. Validity of the instrument was tested using content analysis while reliability was established using Cronbach Alpha (0.7 threshold). The findings indicated that there is a significant positive and significant effect between Financial Capital and Human Capital Interventions other than Relational Capital Intervention and employability outcomes among beneficiaries of Youth Enterprise Development Fund in Nairobi County, Kenya. The demographic factors had a full moderating effect on the relationship between Human Resource Development interventions and employability outcomes among beneficiaries of Youth Enterprise Development Fund in Nairobi County, Kenya. The study recommends that government needs to revises loaning procedures; structure and amounts disbursed considering that 18-35 years youth have expressed diverse needs and characteristics. There is need for further categorizations of youth by age in order to offer innovative products that suit each youth category and avoid generalization. Further, government should focus on appropriate need driven training based on a thorough review with wider stakeholder guidance to help beneficiaries own the interventions and processes for sustainability. Government should boost capacity in training, financial interventions and evaluation by establishing linkages with national stakeholders such as innovation and incubation centers that could help nurture talent. Government should network with research institutions such as universities and other successful international investors.
Effect of budgeting process on budget variance in public secondary schools in Rongo Sub-County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2016) Mogeni, Naftal Obuya
Most development projects initiated in public secondary schools in Rongo sub County are not completed within the scheduled time. This study is justified by presence of school development projects not being completed within the budgeted time. The main objective of this study will be to establish the effect budgeting process on budget variance in public secondary schools in Kenya in Rongo Sub-County. The study will be guided by the following specific objectives: To identify effect of budget preparation on budget variance in public secondary schools in Rongo Sub County, to assess effect of budget implementation on budget variance in public secondary schools in Rongo Sub County, to establish the effect of budgetary control on budget variance in public secondary schools in Rongo Sub County and to determine the relationship between budgeting process and budget variance in public secondary schools in Rongo Sub County. This study will adopt descriptive research design. The target population of the study will be twenty four public secondary schools in Rongo Sub County. Census survey will be used to collect data for this study because the target population is small. Quantitative data from questionnaires will be analyzed using mean, weighted mean, standard deviation, percentages, correlations and regression analysis. Data will be presented by use of frequency tables, charts and graphs. The study findings will benefit public secondary schools, education officers and personnel involved in education policy making and implementation of development projects in public secondary schools, will enable capacity building institutions like KEMI when planning courses on management and implementation of development plans in public secondary schools and will add to existing literature on budgeting process in public secondary schools and its effect on budget variance.
Effect of macroeconomic variables on financial performance of unit trusts in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2016-02) Musembi, Michael Makau
One of the biggest problems in finance and especially risky assets management has tentatively been that of determining the returns of a collection of risky assets. Financial return evaluation of unit trusts is a crucial determinant of fund managers’ ability to add value to the resources under their stewardship. Every investor on the other hand is concerned with the issue of how well various portfolios have performed. After all, the objective of investing is to increase or at least protect financial wealth. In the long run, the fund manager capabilities and skills in value addition to wealth managed must be measured using results as the yardstick for performance. Conceptually, fund managers of unit trusts can invest in real assets or in financial assets. For the fund managers to achieve their investment objectives, selection of the investment is by undertaking fundamental analysis on macro-economic and micro-economic factors. This notwithstanding, serious difficulties and problems arise due to uncertainty in choosing the appropriate investment benchmarks and models. The unit trust industry in Kenya is very young having started with the passage of the Capital Markets Amendment Act (2000), which recognizes specific investment vehicles and microfinance institutions especially unit trusts. Unit trusts pool savings from investors and inject them in a portfolio of assets according to the funds stated objectives. Unit trusts offer the small investor an opportunity to achieve high investment diversification without with small manageable sums of money from his savings. Extensive research on unit trust financial performance has been done over the years by comparatively analyzing the unit trusts returns with those of the securities market or selected indices market in the developed countries. The findings confirm the unit trusts returns inability to earn higher returns than the selected market benchmarks. The motivation for the study is the poor performance of unit trusts in Kenya. According to the CMA report (2010), unit trusts returns trail below the profitability of bonds and equities traded in the NSE though the CMA projects that their growth will be higher in future. This poor performance of unit trusts and lack of popularity in Kenya against the presence of increased investments in intellectual assets raises questions on the effect of macroeconomic variables in solving the difficulties facing unit trusts in Kenya. The effect of macroeconomic variables on assets under management tops the list of financial concerns for long term investors. The macroeconomic variables that investors should take a keen interest on include interest rate, inflation, money supply, economic growth and industrial growth indicators and how they impact on risky portfolios. The study will evaluate the effect of selected macroeconomic variables of financial performance of unit trusts listed and licensed in Kenya by the CMA. The study will take a correlation research design approach. The study will use quarterly secondary data from KNBS, CBK and CMA. The period covered by this study will be January 2011 to December 2015.The study will use data analysis software such as Microsoft Excel and SPSS to analyze the data. The multiple linear regression equation and Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation will be employed to link the selected macroeconomic variables to financial performance of unit trusts in Kenya. The selected macroeconomic variables consist of interest rate measured by the commercial bank lending rate, Inflation rate measured by the CPI, Money Supply-M3 and Real Gross Domestic Product. The analysis will entail the calculation of the coefficients of the selected macroeconomic variables which will be related to the NAV. The coefficients of macroeconomic variables will be represented by “β” in the multiple regression equation.
Borrowers’ Non-Financial Information and Quality of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Loans among Commercial Banks in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Memba, Indiazi Martin; JAMES M. MUTURI
This study was undertaken to address the increasing loan defaults in most commercial banks that are domiciled in Nairobi County as captured by Central Bank of Kenya and investor briefing presentations by the listed commercial banks. This trend is worrying since loan delinquency has a financial impact on the performance of commercial banks including provisions for expected credit losses and the follow up costs incurred by commercial banks in the process of debt collection and remedial management. The research sought to assess the relationship between non-financial customer information among micro, small and medium enterprises repayment of loans among commercial banks in Nairobi City County. The specific objectives of the study focused on the effect of borrower’s personal characteristics, borrower’s previous loan borrowing history and borrower’s business characteristics on micro, small and medium enterprises loans quality in the county. Descriptive research design was employed in undertaking the research. The target population of the study was micro, small and medium enterprises business owners operating within the county. Out of this population, a sample of one hundred business owners was undertaken in executing the data collection tools. The researcher obtained both primary and secondary data with the primary data making use of semi-structured questionnaires while secondary data obtained from Central Bank of Kenya supervision reports, bank’s annual financial reports and quarterly investor briefing presentations. The above questionnaire generated respondents’ data, whose analysis was undertaken using both inferential and descriptive statistics. After analyzing the above data, the researcher presented the results thereof in form of tables for ease of understanding by the users. The analysis focused on the relationship between borrower’s personal characteristics, borrower’s previous loan borrowing history and borrower’s business characteristics and micro, small and medium enterprises loans quality in the county. From the research, borrower’s personal characteristics including gender, education level, marital status and age had an impact on loan repayment. In the same breath, borrower’s business characteristics including type of business and the business age had an impact on loan repayment. Finally, borrower’s borrowing history including number of times the borrower had borrowed before and the ease with which he repaid the loans had an impact on loan repayment. In conclusion, borrower’s personal characteristics, borrower’s previous loan borrowing history and borrower’s business characteristics have an impact on micro, small and medium enterprises loans quality in the county. The study therefore recommends that Institutions involved in lending to micro, small and medium enterprises should review their micro, small and medium enterprises lending policies to not only take care of financial ability to pay but also the customer’s willingness to pay which is majorly exhibited by non-financial information. The non-financial information includes but is not limited to personal borrower information including age, gender, marital status and education level. The other non-financial information includes business information on the business age and type. Lastly, non-financial information on frequency of historical borrowings and the ease of repayment of the historical borrowings is also critical

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