RP-Department of Agribusiness Management and Trade (AMT)

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A Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Periodic Markets in Nyeri District, Kenya
(1995) Wambugu, Stephen K.
This paper examines the degree of spatiotemporal synchronization of markets in Nyeri District, Central Province, Kenya. Information on marketplaces and the days on which markets are held was obtained from Nyeri County Council, Nyeri Municipal Council, Karatina Town Council and Othaya Urban Council. Interviews with the market masters and gate fee collectors confirmed this information. The results show that the spatial and temporal location of periodic markets in Nyeri District favours consumers more than itinerant traders. The fact that market meetings are not sequenced in favour of itinerant traders hampers the proper movement of goods from areas of surplus to areas of deficit. In view of the importance of marketplaces for a peasant society, the author recommends the synchronization of market days and the establishment of new marketplaces and market days, together with the establishment of complementary institutions, such as schools, hospitals, and administrative centres, to promote the overall development of the region. Bibliogr., sum
A Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Periodic Markets in Nyeri District, Kenya
(1995) Wambugu, Stephen K.
This paper examines the degree of spatiotemporal synchronization of markets in Nyeri District, Central Province, Kenya. Information on marketplaces and the days on which markets are held was obtained from Nyeri County Council, Nyeri Municipal Council, Karatina Town Council and Othaya Urban Council. Interviews with the market masters and gate fee collectors confirmed this information. The results show that the spatial and temporal location of periodic markets in Nyeri District favours consumers more than itinerant traders. The fact that market meetings are not sequenced in favour of itinerant traders hampers the proper movement of goods from areas of surplus to areas of deficit. In view of the importance of marketplaces for a peasant society, the author recommends the synchronization of market days and the establishment of new marketplaces and market days, together with the establishment of complementary institutions, such as schools, hospitals, and administrative centres, to promote the overall development of the region. Bibliogr., sum.
Assessing the potential impact of biological control of Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth) in cabbage production in Kenya
(Crop Protection, 2005-11) Macharia, Ibrahim; Löhr, Bernhard; Groote, Hugo De
This study assessed the potential economic impact of the introduction of Diadegma semiclausum, an exotic parasitoid of the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella, DBM), on cabbage production in Kenya. The study first established yield losses caused by DBM through two methods: measurements from farmer-managed fields and through farmers’ interviews. Crop losses were calculated at 31% from farmer-managed fields, and at 36% from farmer interviews. With a crop loss of 31%, yield loss was estimated at 6.8 tons/ha or US$ 452.9/ha, and at US$ 7.9 million per year for the whole country. Control costs as provided from the interviews, amounted to US$ 118.9/ha. The project costs amount to a net present value of US$ 1.2 million. Based on an annual cabbage production of 256,524 tons, a cabbage price of US$ 66.3/ton, a 30% abatement of yield losses, a 7.9% reduction in cost of production, a supply and a demand elasticity of 0.9 and −1.4 respectively, and an annual increase of consumption of 2.6%, the economic surplus produced by the release of the parasitoid was estimated at US$ 28.3 million for 25 years. Consumers were estimated to get 58% of the benefit and producers 42%. The benefit–cost ratio was estimated at 24:1, with an internal rate of return of 86%, indicating a high return to the investment. Keywords Economic impact; Biological control; Diamondback moth; Parasitoid
Evaluating the Use of Herbicide-Coated Imidazolinone-Resistant (Ir) Maize Seeds to Control Striga in Farmers’ Fields in Kenya
(Elsevier, 2006-12) Groote, Hugo De; Wangare, Lucy; Kanampiu, Fred
The performance of imidazolinone-resistant (IR) maize seed, coated with the herbicide, and conventional maize seeds were compared for the control of Striga during on-farm trials. The researcher-managed trials from 2002 (on 3 farms with 2 replications, using conventional hybrid maize as control) showed good Striga control, especially in the early stages, increasing yields by 2.39 tons/ha. Farmer-managed trials from 2004 (on 60 farms in 3 districts, no replications, using farmer’s maize variety as control) showed good control in two districts, increasing average yield by 0.69 tons/ha. In the third district, the IR-maize and control plots showed similar levels of Striga infestation, probably caused by heavy rains and flooding which can wash off the herbicide. The yield response to IR-maize seed was categorized at two levels. The germplasm effect was estimated at 0.37 tons/ha. The herbicide effect was estimated at 0.13 tons/ha (49 kg/ha for each reduction of the Striga numbers/m2). With maize prices at US$202/ton, seed prices at US$34/ha and herbicide cost at US$4/ha, the overall marginal rate of return (MRR) was 2.4 (good), with an MRR of 1.9 (respectable) for the germplasm and an MRR of 5.6 (very good) for the IR-maize technology. Farmers generally appreciated the technology and indicated their willingness to pay (WTP), which was, however, very price-sensitive. The methodology of on-farm work can be improved substantially by including a sufficient number of sites, by measuring compounding factors (soil fertility, Striga seed bank, rainfall), by involving the farmers more (explain the design better, visit more often), by inviting more farmers for the evaluation and by using experimental auctions of IR-maize seed to estimate their WTP for this new technology
Inter-relationship between Market Structure, Conduct and Performance of Cut Flowers: A Case Study of Uasin Gishu District, Kenya.
(2009) Ndunda, E. N.; Muasya, R.M.; Mulinge, R.
The contribution of tourism to micro and small enterprise growth
(IP Publishing Ltd, 2010) Njehia, Bernard K.; Mshenga, Patience M; Richardson, Robert B.; Birachi, Eliud A.
Tourism is an increasingly important economic sector in many developing countries. In Kenya, it represents the second greatest contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) after agriculture. Data from a survey of 449 micro and small enterprises (MSEs) in coastal Kenya were used in a modified Evans growth model to examine the contribution of tourism to the growth of farm and non-farm MSEs. The authors also examined the influence of entrepreneur and business characteristics on the growth of farm and non-farm MSEs along the Kenyan Coast. The age of the business, business income, marital status, number of employees and form of business organization were found to influence MSE growth significantly. Tourist spending and activities were also found to have a significant effect on MSE growth. The results have implications for the role of tourism in economic development, small business growth and poverty alleviation.
The Role of Efficiency in Reducing the Cost of Milk Production in Kenya
(2011) Mwangi, M.; Mugambi, D.K.; Wambugu, Stephen K.; Gitunu, A.M.M.
The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between efficiency and cost of milk production in Kenya. Data were collected from a sample of 135 farms in Embu and Meru counties through a cross-sectional survey in 2010. The sample size was arrived at using the Fischer's formula. Data was analyzed using the FRONTIER 4.lc econometric model to obtain both the technical and cost efficiencies. Derived mathematical formulae were used to obtain the potential cost reductions. Technical and cost efficiencies were calculated to be 0.837 and 1.044, respectively. Assuming obtained efficiencies were to attain the frontier target, mathematical computations indicated that cost per litre of milk could be reduced from the observed Ksh. 38.5 to Ksh. 30.9. Conclusions were that dairy animals were overstocked, underfed, and farm labour under-utilized. Results further showed that efficiency could be increased through increase in quality and number of livestock extensionists, encouraging farmer group membership, and having bigger farmlands. It is recommended that the policy be formulated to address land ownership (size), number of extension staff, and the factors that lead to high dairy input costs. It is further recommended that farmers consider enterprise specialization in order to optimize on dairy, join groups, and seek' extension services when needed. Researchers should develop options for nutritious fodder and forage plants that could do well across varying agro-climatic zones.
Livestock Marketing Decisions Among Pastoral Communities: The Influence of Cattle Rustling in Baringo District, Kenya
(Islamic Azad University, 2011) Njehia, Bernard K.; Kinyua, Kaimba George; Yakub, Guliye Abdi; Bett, Hillary Kiplangat
The study sought to determine whether pastoralists haveresorted to sale of livestock as a form of insurance againstcommercialization of cattle rustling in which well structuredand managed cartels have organised more intense and frequentcattle raids on pastoralist, and how their decisions have affectedtheir herd size. The study was conducted among the pastoralBaringo community of Kenya. A sample size of 110 householdswas selected using multi-stage sampling procedures and interviewedusing a questionnaire. Binary Probit Model and OrdinaryLeast Squares were used in the analysis. Results indicated thatcattle rustling, particularly in its predatory state significantlycontributes to spontaneous sale of livestock even under verylow prices that in themselves could be described as raiding.The results further indicated that the number of livestock lostthrough cattle rustling dominated livestock sale and hencereduced herd size and the numbers of livestock available forsale. The insecurity generated by cattle rustling, coupled withthe poor marketing infrastructure make market inaccessible byboth buyers and sellers, resulting to increased poverty and dependencyamongst the pastoralists. Consequently, pastoralismhas become a source of misery rather than source of livelihood.
Antecedents to Kenyan Coast Hotels’ Purchases of Agricultural Products
(International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Systems, 2011) Mshenga, Patience M.; Richardson, Robert B.; Njehia, Bernard K.; Birachi, Eliud A.
The paper investigated tourism and agriculture linkages by determining the local agricultural products purchased by hotels, purchase considerations and antecedents to purchase of agricultural products. The study was conducted in Coastal Kenya which is a major tourist destination. A census survey of the hotels was undertaken. Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics and logit model. The results indicate that the local agricultural products purchased by hotels were eggs, meat, chicken, fish, vegetables, fruits and milk. The purchase considerations were price, quality and supply reliability. Age of the hotel, bed capacity and number of employees influenced the proportion of local agricultural products purchased by the hotels. The results have implications for enhancing tourism and agriculture linkages to improve rural livelihoods.
The Role of Non-farm Investments in Agricultural Risk Management in Kenya
(Current Research Journal of Economic Theory, 2011-08-15) Njehia, Bernard K.; Luke, Korir K.; Job, K. Lagat
While risk sharing institutions like national insurance and credit schemes that help reduce the burden of risk to farmers are weak in Kenya, private sector insurance products have failed to develop. Farmers have opted for self-insurance strategies that include diversification and social mechanisms. Non-farm investments are one of the diversification strategies whose effectiveness in risk management in Kenya has not been established. This study sought to investigate farmers’ risk management strategies and the effectiveness of non-farm investments. Data was collected from 100 randomly selected farm households using a structured questionnaire that was administered by trained enumerators. In order to identify the most prevalent risk management strategies, descriptive statistics were computed. Effectiveness of non-farm investments in risk management was assessed by simulating the effect of replacing the weight of farm income with that of non-farm income on the coefficient of variation of total household income. Non-farm self-insurance strategies included engagement in wage or salary earning activity, non-farm investment and membership in social groups. The simulation revealed that an increase in non-farm investment income lowered the coefficient of variation, indicating that a marginal increase in non-farm investment income stabilized total household income, while a decrease in non-farm investment income weight increased variability of total income. Government policies and institutional mechanisms that reduce risk (such as crop insurance and irrigation technologies) and those that facilitate farmers’ access to productive assets like non-farm investments are required in order enable farmers to manage risks in farming.
Effects of cattle rustling and household characteristics on migration decisions and herd size amongst pastoralists in Baringo District, Kenya
(Research, Policy and Practice, 2011-10-20) Njehia, Bernard K.; Kaimba, George K; Guliye, Abdi Y
Pastoral communities in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of Kenya depend on livestock for their livelihood. However, these ASALs are characterized by temporal and spatial climatic variation, making availability of resources uneven. Mobility is a key strategy used by pastoralists to efficiently utilize available resources, notably pasture and water. This strategy is being interrupted by a vicious cycle of livestock rustling/raiding. This study was conducted to elucidate the effects of livestock rustling and other household characteristics on migration decisions and herd size amongst pastoralists in Baringo District in Kenya. A sample of 110 pastoralists were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Binary probit model was used to explain the probability of migrating while ordinary least square was used to explain effects on herd size. Gender and age of the household head are significant (P < 0.1 and P < 0.05, respectively) determinants of migration, whereas both also significantly (P < 0.1) influenced herd size. Intensity of rustling and loss of livestock to drought and/or disease also significantly (P < 0.01) influence the decision to migrate. Level of education had significant (P < 0.1) and negative influence on herd size, whereas size of household had significant (P < 0.01) and positive impact on herd size. Non-livestock income had significant (P < 0.05) and negative influence on migration and herd size. The practice of livestock rustling, rampant amongst pastoralist communities in Kenya and sometimes occurs across borders, influences pastoralists' decision to migrate and also their herd sizes. It destabilizes communities and undermines their normal livelihood strategies, thus contributing to increased poverty. Increasing the level of development in pastoral areas and formulation of appropriate policies will help in controlling the rustling menace.
Potential Economic and Poverty Impact of Improved Chickpea Technologies in Ethiopia
(2012) Macharia, Ibrahim; Orr, A.; Simtowe, F.; Asfaw, S.
This study assessed the potential economic and poverty impact of 11 improved chickpea varieties released by the national agricultural research organization of Ethiopia in collaboration with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. The economic surplus model applied estimated a total benefit of US$ 111 million for 30 years. Consumers are estimated to get 39% of the benefit and producers 61%. The benefit cost ratio was estimated at 5:1 and an internal rate of return of 55%, indicating that the investment is profitable. The generated benefit is expected to lift more than 0.7 million people (both producers and consumers) out of poverty. Thus, further investments in the chickpea and other legume research in Ethiopia is justified as a means of poverty alleviation.
Kenya’s smallholder dairy farming is bleak amid great opportunities
(2012) Mutura, James K.; Mugambi, David K.
Structure, Conduct and Performance Analysis of the Food Markets in the Highlands of Central Kenya
(2012) Ngare, L. W.; Wambugu, Stephen K.; Nzuma, J.M.; Shisanya, C.A.
This study was conducted in the highlands of central Kenya and was designed to have a snapshot of the prevailing rural marketing scenario with a view of understanding the working of marketing system in the region. The general objective was to capture how closely actual marketing system in Mbeere and Meru South districts approximate a competitive marketing channel. The industrial organization structure conduct and performance model of maize and beans traders was used to accomplish the objectives of the study. Questionnaires were used on 254 randomly selected traders. The results indicated that there was a tendency towards smaller traders while market concentration was lower among the retailers than among the wholesalers. A number of barriers to entry were identified, which were not as a result of trader's conduct. Gross margin analysis showed a tendency toward competitiveness. Efforts towards removal of the identified barriers will improve the performance of the markets.
Experts' Opinion on Aging Kenyan Farm Managers: Impact on the Future of Agriculture
(Tropentag, 2012-09) Nyairo, N.M.; Bett, E.K.
Agriculture is the mainstay of Kenya's economy contributing greatly to GDP and absolutely to food security. There is growing evidence of youth avoidance of participation in the agricultural sector evidenced by mass migration to urban areas. This study seeks to investigate these assertions and to suggest policy actions that may applied to reverse the trend. An agricultural experts' opinion on the future participation of youth in Kenya's agriculture are analysed in view of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and Kenya's Vision 2030. A cross-cutting agenda in both the MDG and the Kenya's Vision 2030 is ensuring greater food security, among other development priorities. The results from this qualitative analysis suggest that potential young farmers' «35) participation in agriculture is mainly threatened by the growing expectation of better opportunities in urban areas. As a remedy, the results suggest that relevant and quality agricultural programs, particularly tertiary agriculture education is likely to positively contribute to influence a change of attitude towards agriculture. Other factors however are evident from the analysis. First, most farm household heads are reluctant to hand over the farms to potential heirs. In effect, this discourages <35 potential farmers from developing interest in farming. Secondly, farming as an activity has not been well promoted as an enterprising activity attractive to young potential farmers. Therefore, it is evident that aggressive national programs need to be launched in order include the youth in agriculture for the year 2050 and beyond if the future of Kenya's agriculture will have to remain competitive.
The Role of Infrastructure and Government Policies in Determining the Efficiency of Kenya’s Maize Marketing System in the Post- Liberalization Era
(2012-09-24) Wambugu, Stephen K.
Although Kenya has liberalized its agricultural market, it continues to experience frequent food shortages that greatly compromise the welfare of its citizens, especially the poor. In Kenya food shortages are synonymous with maize shortages. Persistent maize crises sometimes manifest themselves in simultaneous existence of grain surpluses in some regions and grain shortages in others. This situation has placed great doubt on the efficiency of the Kenyan food marketing system. Improved market efficiency was an expected outcome of agricultural market liberalization. Partial liberalization of the maize market started in the early 1980s, and full liberalization commenced in 1992, when the National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB) lost it monopoly as the sole buyer and importer. Liberalization of the maize market was fully effected in December 1993, when consumer prices were decontrolled, grain movement restrictions were lifted, and the NCPB was assigned the role of stabilizing markets and maintaining strategic grain reserves.This study examines the maize marketing system in order to understand the effects of liberalization on its efficiency. Several measures of efficiency are used to assess the performance of the maize marketing system. These measures include the degree of market integration between surplus and deficit regions, the level of marketing costs, and the flow of price information. The study also considers the role of different infrastructure components in enhancing the efficiency of the marketing system. It further addresses the issue of government policy in facilitating or impeding the private sector’s ability to respond to liberalization.Data for the study came from both secondary and primary sources. Price data came from reports of the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) and the Ministry of Agriculture. These data were supplemented with data from other published sources. The analysis also relies on survey data collected from a sample of 234 maize traders in Nairobi, Trans Nzoia, Migori, and Mbeere districts using a structured questionnaire.The main methods of data analysis used in the study are computation of descriptive statistics,cross tabulations of survey data, and use of cointegration regression techniques to study price data. Data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) and Microfit 4.1. This study finds that liberalization policy has enhanced market integration and the flow of information among markets. This finding suggests that potential arbitrage opportunities exist between maize surplus and deficit regions. The study also reveals, however, that substantial infrastructural, institutional, and policy constraints hinder the exploitation of these opportunities. The constraints undermine the development of private trade in the maize marketing system and lead to high marketing costs, barriers to entry and expansion by traders, and an uncertain business environment. In addition to filling gaps in the literature on maize marketing in Kenya, this study recommends a number of policies that the government and the private sector could undertake to enhance efficiency of the maize marketing system. The study recommends that the central and local governments play a greater role in improving marketing infrastructure, enhancing the performance of the various institutions involved in maize marketing, and reducing uncertainty caused by government policy regarding maize marketing. Farmers and traders should organize themselves into groups to increase their bargaining power in the marketplace and to exploit economies of scale in acquiring marketing inputs such as storage and transport facilities and access to credit. Both government and nongovernmental organizations could play a catalytic role in the formation of these organizations.
Pesticide Handling Practices by Vegetable Farmer in Kenya
(Springer Science, 2012-11) Macharia, Ibrahim; Mithofer, D.; Waibel, H.
Pesticide handling practices have a strong bearing on the exposure of toxic effects to target and nontarget organism. A clear understanding of determinants of pesticide handling practices is a precondition in the design and implementation of policy intervention. To accomplish this, a household survey of 425 respondents was conducted in 2008. Majority of the farmers (85 %) had inappropriately handled pesticides, mainly through, unsafe storage (23 %), unsafe disposal of leftover in either sprays solutions, or rinsate and empty pesticide containers (40 %), failure to wear the required minimum protective gear (68 %), or overdosed pesticides (27 %). However, majority of those farmers were aware of the risks of pesticide use, with over 81 % expressing the view that pesticides have harmful effects on human health, livestock, beneficial arthropods, and on water. Econometric models showed that pesticide handling practices were significantly influenced by variation in record keeping, main source advice on pesticide use, toxicity of pesticide, and geographical location. Pesticide risk perception and negative impacts experiences had no association with handling practices. The study recommends policymakers to design effective, participatory, and location targeted outreach programmes, which deal specifically on promotion of record keeping and reduction in use of harmful pesticides.
Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Farmers’ Participation in Grain Warehouse Receipt System and the Extent of Participation in Nakuru District, Kenya
(www.iiste.org, 2013) Njehia, Bernard K.; Mutai, Julius K.; Mshenga, Patience; Kosgei, Geoffrey K.
Post harvest losses in Sub-Saharan Africa (excluding South Africa) are generally high, arising from handling, transportation, storage, processing and packaging and marketing. In Kenya, it is estimated that 21.1% of total annual maize production is lost through poor post harvest handling techniques. As an effort to mitigate post-harvest losses, the Government together with development partners introduced the Grain Warehousing Receipt System (GWRS). Under this system, farmers store their marketable surplus in parastatal storage capacity or private grain handling service providers. The farmers are charged for storage service. As certification of their deposition, farmers are issued with receipts from the warehouses. The receipts can be used to access credit facilities from cooperating financial institutions up to 80% of the prevailing maize market prices. After waiting for prices to rise over the storage season, the farmers market the produce and payment made through respective financial institutions. Methods: The study was carried out in Nakuru District, Kenya. Double Hurdle model was used to estimate factors influencing farmers’ participation in GWRS and the extent of participation. The sample size was 178 farmers using multistage sampling technique where two divisions, Mauche and Gilgil were chosen to represent zones where maize farming is commercialized. Each of these divisions had 89 farmers randomly selected.The determination of sample size was through the approach based on the precision rate and confidence level. Results: Six explanatory variables were found to significantly influence participation in GWRS. Gender and distance to warehouse negatively influenced participation in GWRS while gender land size under maize production, off farm income, group membership positively influenced participation in GWRS. On the extent of participation in GWRS, five dependent variables were found to significantly influence participation in GWRS. Gender, household size and distance to warehouse negatively influenced while land size under maize production, group membership positively influenced the extent of participation. From the study the following recommendations are made; Strengthening of farmer owned organizations is highly recommended. This is achievable through capacity building and training on organizational development. Empowering women in agricultural activities is desirable. Offline diversification should be promoted to enhance household income. Grain driers and collection points should be made available at distance which farmers access them with ease to counter quality and transport challenges experienced by farmers. Storage costs charged by warehouses, interest on loan and loan arrangement fees should be brought down through research for farmers to optimize profit. This can be achieved by approving more warehouses, involving more cooperating financial institutions, warehouses diversifying to offer farm inputs and financial services and offer contract farming
Impact of Interventions by Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA) on Food and Nutrition Security of Farmer Households
(2013) Macharia, Ibrahim; Lange, M.D.; Nakhauka, E.B.; Garming, H.; Ouma, E.; Birachi, E.; Asten, P.V.; Lauwe, B.V.; Blomme, G.
Impact of adopting products promoted by the Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA) on food and nutrition security was tested. Multi- stage sampling was used to select 7 project mandate areas, 5 villages/mandate area (stratified into action, satellite and control sites) and 913 households. Structured questionnaires were administered; analysis of impact based on comparison between stratums, differences in means tested by ANOVA and significance of difference obtained by Tukey's HSD multiple rank tests. Perception of adequate food sufficiency received a higher rating in action and satellite sites compared to control sites reason being improved agricultural technologies. For >60% of households, worsened food security was due to climatic conditions. Although a higher proportion of households in action and satellite was meeting calorie RDIs in DRC and Burundi the difference was insignificant from control sites. 53% of respondents in control sites indicated a decrease in intake of protein rich foods, this was significantly higher than the proportion in the action (46%) and satellite (41%) sites.
Effects of biological techniques in soil conservation and subsoil inorganic-N accumulation in the central highlands of Kenya
(UNICEF, 2013) Kung'u, J.B.; Mutegi, J. K.; Mugwe, J. N.; Mugendi, D.N.
Soil erosion and nutrient leaching are some of the factors hindering realization of full crop production potential in the central highlands of Kenya. A participatory trial involving use of calliandra, leucaena, napier, leucaena + napier and calliandra + napier contour hedges was started in farmers' fields . of central highlands of Kenya in September 2001 to evaluate the effectiveness of hedges in soil conservation and nutrient cycling. At the start of the trial there was a substantial accumulation of inorganic N with depth. Twenty months later, leucaena,' calliandra, and leucaena + napier substantially depleted the subsoil inorganic N by more than 50%. On the other hand napier decreased mineral-N leaching slightly and showed a small bulge beyond 30-90 cm depth. Treatments on 10-20 % slope category registered a higher average soil loss compared to others on 5-10, 10-20, 20-30 and30 % slope categories. There was soil loss of up to 140 t ha-' on the control at 10¬20% slope category over the study period and a reduction of up 78% of this by sole napier (Pennisetum purporeum) hedge. The overall efficiency of the hedges in soil erosion control followed the order: napier calliandra + napier leucaena + napier calliandra leucaena control.

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