PHD-Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies

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Rethinking Materiality on Social Identities: Archaeological Perspective of Thimlich Ohinga and Gedi Ruins, Kenya from 1000ce -1900ce
(kenyatta university, 2023) Muthegethi, D. Maina; Washington Ndiiri; David Okelo
This research explores the social identities of Thimlich Ohinga and Gede archaeological sites which are juxtaposed at the lacustrine environment in Lake Victoria and the Indian Ocean, respectively. The site of Thimlich Ohinga was roughly occupied from the middle of the second Millennium to the current era. At the same time, Gede had a continuous occupation from the tenth century onwards for over six hundred years before it was finally abandoned in the seventeenth century. Although the two sites are different in terms of their history, development trajectory and complexities, they offer a platform for examining how social identities were expressed and their implication on material records. The general objective of this study was to explore how social identities, especially gender and social hierarchies, were expressed and changed through time and space in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede archaeological sites. To that end, the specific objectives of the study were: to examine the materiality of gender identities; to investigate how gender was expressed in material form in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede; to explore how social hierarchies were expressed in material form in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede; to explore continuity and discontinuities of gender and social hierarchies in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede.The study adopted structural functionalism and Social Identity Theory (SIT) theories in conceptualizing material that remains in relation to social identities. The feminist theoretical framework was adapted as the basis of minimizing generalization as well as making gender visible in the interpretation process. Overall, processual, post-processual, and middle-range frameworks were employed in collecting and subsequent data analysis. Furthermore, the study used an exploratory and descriptive research design since this is a relatively new area of inquiry and also entailed to ascertain certain materials to specific social identities respectively. The study aimed to explore gender and social hierarchies’ signatures in the material record. To achieve that, extensive surveys were carried out in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede archaeological sites. Also, an examination of the cultural materials of both sites stored in various museums was undertaken. Besides examination of already excavated materials, an extensive excavation of Gede archaeological sites was carried out to supplement archival materials. Lastly, an extensive ethnographic study was undertaken of contemporary Luo and Swahili communities as the basis of making inferences and analogies concerning archaeological materials data. Key findings show that since Gede was more complex, gender and social hierarchies’ signatures were more visible as compared to Thimlich Ohinga. Furthermore, gender and social hierarchies were fluid and responsive to factors such as diversification of subsistence strategies, cultural diffusion and intensification of trade. Overall, this study reiterates the importance of employing multivariate approaches in examining social identities, especially gender and social hierarchies in archaeological inquiry. Most importantly, this study showed that methods advocated by processual archaeology of exploring social structures, including gender, are reliable methods. However, employing perspectives advocated by post-processual archaeologists and insights suggested by feminist’s aid in minimizing generalizations that often plague past archaeological interpretation. This study recommends that more studies methods, such as osteology, should be incorporated in future while examining social identities in the archaeological record. This trajectory is insightful, especially in mortuary data analyses. That is, it opens a path of correlating material cultures with the biological sex and social status of individuals hence opening an avenue of understanding how such identities were expressed in material form and subsequent impact on social landscapes
Chinese Special Economic Zone and Influence on Industrial Development in Nigeria, 1971-2014.
(Kenyatta University, 2023-09) Akuandna, Iliya Felix; Wasonga O. Joseph; Edwin A. Gimode
ABSTRACT The study investigates the influence of the Chinese Special Economic Zone and brings into question the prospects for industrial development in Nigeria. Over the years (1971–2014), Nigeria and China witnessed robust political and economic engagement, leading to the deployment of the Chinese-prescribed development model. These highlights are made against the background of China's growing influence in Africa, as well as the realities of the post-SAP era that shaped and defined the Nigeria-China bilateral relationship. To achieve the aim of this study, I examine the determining evolutionary development of Chinese economic zones for industrial development in Nigeria. The study also examines the practice of zone-defining actors and the nature of the economic zones in Nigeria. These highlights defined the zone's development as a product of Chinese-African policy and economic diplomacy. The study is guided by Modernization Theory and World Systems Theory as the appropriate lenses to study the Chinese special zone model in Nigeria. It offers a new perspective on interrogating the role and influence of the Chinese economic zone on industrial development in an African context. The study approaches the Chinese economic zones model based on certain assumptions in Africa for the purposes of attracting large-scale FDI projects for industrial growth and development. This is particularly the case in Africa, where economic development-driven models have produced few sustainable outcomes because the context-specific conditions and elements in these countries have been ignored. This study argues that the CSEZ projects in Nigeria are conceived as industrial models that operate on certain assumptions found in industrial production structures. The study used descriptive research design and employed a qualitative research approach. Further, the study made use of both primary and secondary sources of data. Sampling was done using purposive and snowballing techniques. The primary sources included key informants for in-depth interviews, document analysis, and direct observation. Secondary sources that were utilized comprised of books, journal articles, newspapers, and internet sources. The data that was gathered in this study was analyzed using contextual analysis and thematic analysis methods. The general objective of the study was to examine the Chinese special economic zone and its influence on industrial development in Nigeria. This study's findings reveal that the above assumptions are not accurate. The economic zones are a product of China’s economic diplomacy to protect its economic interests. The Chinese economic zone project, as it is currently conceived and practiced in Nigeria, is ill-suited to support industrial growth and development. This is because the role of the Nigerian state and its agencies are weak in comparative terms between Nigeria and China. This weakness led to the failure to customize the economic zone model with the industrial policy objective. This erodes the developmental prospects of the Chinese special economic zones in Nigeria. The study demonstrates that the Chinese economic zone practice entangled Nigeria and internationalized China’s economic objectives.
Development Aid Relations between the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Republic of India, 1960-2007
(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Usman, Ugboga Koku; Isaiah Oduor Otieno; Edward Kisiang’ani
ABSTRACT Development aid has its roots from the Post-World War II Marshall Plan of 1948, European Recovery Programs (ERP), to provide economic assistance in rebuilding Europe after the Second World War. The success of Marshall Plan in war torn Europe convinced the many leaders of developed countries that the newly independent countries including Nigeria should get similar assistance. In 1960 Nigeria after her independence embarked on various developmental policies, plans and programs which required development aid support from the donor countries such as the United States of America, the United Kingdom and Japan. However, the western aid failed to stimulate economic development, but rather it created dependency and debt trap. This informed the Nigeria- India development aid relations. It is against the aforementioned disquiet that this research study traces and evaluates development aid relations between Nigeria and India from 1960 to 2007. The research is based on the following objectives: to analyze the problems of donor funding in development aid relations to developing countries, assess the main features and trends of India’s development aid to Nigeria between 1960-1998, to examine the dynamics of India’s aid to Nigeria between 1999-2007, and finally, to evaluate the impacts of Nigeria-India aid relations on both countries. The study was guided by two theoretical perspectives: realism and dependency and underdevelopment. The realists’ perspective assisted to evaluate the political self- interest of India in the interactions. On the other hand, dependency and underdevelopment theory enables us to assess the actual beneficiary on Nigeria- India relationship. This study used descriptive research design. This involves reviewing of various literature, documents and oral information obtained through in-depth interviews. The study adopts the purposive sampling technique. Both primary and secondary sources of data have been used to extract data. The data are systematically analyzed and critically evaluated, in line with the objectives of the study. The study is based on the assumptions that the Indian’s development aid to Nigeria has favoured India. It also assumes that, Nigeria is getting more and more undeveloped because of India’s development aid, and also that India’s development aid to Nigeria has been misused by Nigeria. The study reveals that, both Nigeria and India have had development aid relations for many years. It has been demonstrated that India’s development aid to Nigeria is driven by its enlightened self-interest. The current pattern of development aid relations between Nigeria and India is inherently asymmetric. The asymmetry is manifested in the import of raw materials and export of manufactured goods by India to Nigeria, and it is a threat to economic development of Nigeria. Therefore the present skewed nature of trade and investment relations between India and Nigeria is capable of undermining Nigeria’s developmental efforts, if it continues. Therefore the relationship has to be restructured to allow for transparency and equal opportunity.
Civil Society and Socioeconomic Development of Isiolo County, Kenya 1963-2015
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Makhanu, Agatha; Joseph Wasonga; Edwin Gimode
Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) generally have been promoted by the International Financial Institutions (IFIs) and the international donor community in the developing countries from the early 1980s because of the assumption that they might help resolve the socioeconomic crisis. This study interrogates the role of International Civil Society Organizations (ICSOs) in socioeconomic advancement of Isiolo County in Kenya between 1963 and 2015. The objectives of this study were to evaluate Kenya’s socioeconomic policies in relation to Isiolo County from 1963-2015, to assess operations of ICSOs in Isiolo County from 1963 to 2015 and to propose a developmental framework that can synergize roles of both the state and CSOs for sustainable socioeconomic development in Isiolo County. The study used the Developmental State theory and the Social Exclusion theory to discuss the research findings. This study was premised on the assumption that state-led policies contributed to the marginalization of Isiolo County. This in turn led to the proliferation of developmental CSOs as the main engine of socioeconomic development because of the need of the locals. The study justification was based on the argument that although funding for CSO programs has increased alongside their explosion, effect of their work has remained marginal. Again, focus on socioeconomic development enables people to live long and meaningful lives. Therefore, an empirical study to explore the policies and practices of CSOs championing socioeconomic development in Isiolo County examines efforts made so far and identifies challenges. The significance of this study is to demonstrate that inequality and poverty are structural issues, which CSOs on their own cannot resolve without involving the state. This study used a descriptive and exploratory methodological design. It employed primary and secondary sources of data. Snowball and purposeful non-probability sampling approaches were utilized. To find ICSO officials involved in socioeconomic development, snowball and purposeful selection were used. Beneficiaries of ICSO programs and Key Informants were found using purposive sampling. In-depth interviews were conducted with ICSO representatives, while a semi structured questionnaire was administered on Focused Group Discussions (FGD). Both open-ended and closed-ended questionnaires were used to gather qualitative and quantitative data. The study respondents were 298 in total. The researcher observed the necessary ethical considerations. In terms of findings, this study revealed that the Kenyan state had developed several policies to address marginalization in Isiolo County. Some policies applied to the entire country, while others were tailor-made to suit the unique ASAL biophysical features. However, some entrenched marginalization, while some were unsuccessful. The ICSOs therefore came in to mitigate the circumstances and have contributed to socioeconomic development of Isiolo County. Despite their large and prolonged presence, socioeconomic indicators remain low compared to other regions in the country. Also, the current complementarity strategies, where the state and CSOs are engaged in different approaches to socioeconomic development have not borne fruit. Therefore, this study advocates for state-CSO collaboration as the way forward in addressing socioeconomic transformation in Isiolo County sustainably.
Religious Experience of the Kalenjin of Kerio-Valley Cultural Complex, Kenya, 1800-1965
(Kenyatta University, 2023-09) Shiyuka, Elvis Karani; Gimode Edwin; Biegon Eliud
This study explores the religious history of the Kalenjin people living in the Kerio- Valley Cultural Complex of Kenya. It overturns the conventional understanding, in religious studies, which portrays African religions as static and ahistorical entities, by introducing the theoretical dimension of agency. This revisionist interpretation presents the ancestors of the Kalenjin as creative agents who transformed their religion by absorbing ideas from other ethnic groups, in the Kerio-Valley, during interactions and infusing them into their culture. When confronted with new religious ideas, during cultural interactions, the ancestors of the Kalenjin engaged the repertoires of their past, projected hypothetical pathways in time, and adjusted their actions to meet the problems of emerging historical moments. This agentic intervention inevitably led to the fusion of ideas from various temporalities, the past and their present, to formulate syncretism. This study thus speaks to Africa‟s wider struggle for self-invention and self-definition that is at the center of the decoloniality movement. It is an attempt to demonstrate the African agency in religious change by examining how the Kalenjin navigated through the different religious universes presented to them, during interactions with their neighbours including the autochthonous groups, Ateker, Masaian groups, and later with western Christianity. This study used primary sources of data, especially oral traditions and archival materials, and secondary sources to examine how the Kalenjin used their agentic power to negotiate through the different ways of explaining cosmological meaning in their history.
Indians in State Policing in Colonial Kenya, 1884-1963
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Enock, Nyakundi Mogire; Peter Wafula Wekesa; Gordon Onyango Omenya
The rapid expansion in studies on security issues in the last fifty years reveals the growing need to understand the role of minorities in policing the state. In Kenya, despite the existence of considerable literature on minority representations in elected office and in the public bureaucracy, scholars have not systematically examined the role of Indians in security agencies in Kenya. It is against this background that this study sought to examine the history of the Indian involvement in State Policing in Kenya, 1884-1963. The specific objectives of the study were: to trace the emergence and early involvement of Indians in state policing in Kenya between1884- 1894; to examine the role of Indians in state policing in Kenya during the early colonial period 1895-1918, to examine the Indian involvement in state policing during the interwar and World II War period 1919 to 1944 and to analyse Indian involvement in state policing in Kenya during the decolonization period, 1945-1963. The study was conducted in Kenya, covering the period from 1884 to 1963. The period yielded important information as it covered the dynamics of Indian involvement in policing the Kenyan state during the pre-colonial and colonial periods. The study is significant because it will help in providing important data on how the colonial government used Indians in policing the Kenyan state. The study utilized both crucial elements of securitization and features of the theory of the modern state in an integrated theoretical approach. Methodologically, the study employed an elaborate scheme of oral interviews, archival investigation and library research to collect data. The data collected has been subjected to the securitization and modernization theoretical perspectives. The study has demonstrated that State policing existed in various societies in different historical contexts and geographies. The Imperial British East African Company played a big role in the establishment of state policing in Kenya. The company recruited security personnel from India to protect its businesses, marking the beginning of Indian policing in Kenya. The construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway further facilitated the growth of infant police forces inland which were manned by Indians. The study revealed that the Indians in colonial police played an important role in the establishment of colonial control in Kenya, protecting the economic interests of the colonizers, ending slavery and providing security services to missionary activities. Thus, the early colonial period in Kenya was characterised by a sustained effort to establish colonial control and the Indian police played a key role towards achieving this objective. The study further revealed that the Kenyan colonial police largely mirrored the widespread racial differences among police officers, and a racial hierarchy developed between the Europeans, Asians, and other local members of this colonial police force. These racial differences persisted even towards Kenya’s independence in 1963.The study concludes that Indians played an integral part in policing the colonial state in Kenya.
Rethinking Materiality on Social Identities: Archaeological Perspective of Thimlich Ohinga and Gedi Ruins, Kenya from 1000ce -1900ce
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Muthegeti, D. Maina; Washinton Ndiiri; David Okelo
This research explores the social identities of Thimlich Ohinga and Gede archaeological sites which are juxtaposed at the lacustrine environment in Lake Victoria and the Indian Ocean, respectively. The site of Thimlich Ohinga was roughly occupied from the middle of the second Millennium to the current era. At the same time, Gede had a continuous occupation from the tenth century onwards for over six hundred years before it was finally abandoned in the seventeenth century. Although the two sites are different in terms of their history, development trajectory and complexities, they offer a platform for examining how social identities were expressed and their implication on material records. The general objective of this study was to explore how social identities, especially gender and social hierarchies, were expressed and changed through time and space in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede archaeological sites. To that end, the specific objectives of the study were: to examine the materiality of gender identities; to investigate how gender was expressed in material form in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede; to explore how social hierarchies were expressed in material form in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede; to explore continuity and discontinuities of gender and social hierarchies in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede.The study adopted structural functionalism and Social Identity Theory (SIT) theories in conceptualizing material that remains in relation to social identities. The feminist theoretical framework was adapted as the basis of minimizing generalization as well as making gender visible in the interpretation process. Overall, processual, post-processual, and middle-range frameworks were employed in collecting and subsequent data analysis. Furthermore, the study used an exploratory and descriptive research design since this is a relatively new area of inquiry and also entailed to ascertain certain materials to specific social identities respectively. The study aimed to explore gender and social hierarchies’ signatures in the material record. To achieve that, extensive surveys were carried out in Thimlich Ohinga and Gede archaeological sites. Also, an examination of the cultural materials of both sites stored in various museums was undertaken. Besides examination of already excavated materials, an extensive excavation of Gede archaeological sites was carried out to supplement archival materials. Lastly, an extensive ethnographic study was undertaken of contemporary Luo and Swahili communities as the basis of making inferences and analogies concerning archaeological materials data. Key findings show that since Gede was more complex, gender and social hierarchies’ signatures were more visible as compared to Thimlich Ohinga. Furthermore, gender and social hierarchies were fluid and responsive to factors such as diversification of subsistence strategies, cultural diffusion and intensification of trade. Overall, this study reiterates the importance of employing multivariate approaches in examining social identities, especially gender and social hierarchies in archaeological inquiry. Most importantly, this study showed that methods advocated by processual archaeology of exploring social structures, including gender, are reliable methods. However, employing perspectives advocated by post-processual archaeologists and insights suggested by feminist’s aid in minimizing generalizations that often plague past archaeological interpretation. This study recommends that more studies methods, such as osteology, should be incorporated in future while examining social identities in the archaeological record. This trajectory is insightful, especially in mortuary data analyses. That is, it opens a path of correlating material cultures with the biological sex and social status of individuals hence opening an avenue of understanding how such identities were expressed in material form and subsequent impact on social landscapes.
The MStory of the Informal Enterprises in Kenya: A Case Study of the Jua Kali Sub-Sector of Nairobi, 1899-1998.
(Kenyatta University, 2006) Kiruthu, Felix Macharia; Eric Masinde Aseka; Mildred A. Jalang'o Ndeda
The study examined the origin and the transformation of the jua kali sector of Nairobi from 1899 to 1998, and its consequences on the African communities in the town. A case study research design based on qualitative procedures was adopted employing three types of data, .namely: Archival data, oral interviews and library research. Among the jua kali sites identified and examined in the study included: Gikomba, Kamukunji, Ziwani, Kawangware, Kariobangi ,Githurai and .Roysambu. 90 knowledgeable informants on the history of Nairobi and jua kali sector were interviewed from 2001 to 2005. These included jua kali operators, Non- Governmental Organisations' personnel, civil servants, and Asian business people. In order to analyse the complex relations in the jua kali sector of Nairobi, the study adopted an integrated theoretical approach comprising the dependency and underdevelopment approach, the articulation of modes of production and the concept of neo-patrimonialism. It is argued here that the city of Nairobi emerged as a colonial urban centre along the Uganda railway and was, therefore, the product of international capitalism, which creates a global division of labour that consigns the periphery to primary production. The prime motive behind the construction of the Uganda Railway was to facilitate British colonial authority, and transportation of resources to the East Coast enroute to the metropole in London. As the colonial headquarters in Kenya, Nairobi was strategic to the British. It served as the administrative, commercial and transport centre for organising the drainage of resources and surplus to the metropole. A number of Christian Missionaries, Asians and white settlers settled in the , country, particularly near Nairobi, after the completion of the railway in 1901. XII The three groups were by the First World War socialising the African communities to serve the colonial system, through western education, apprenticeship and wage labour. Moreover, the alienation of land, forced many Africans to migrate to the White settler farms, Nairobi and other urban centres, in search of wage labour. Those who failed to secure wage labour in Nairobi turned to hawking, prostitution and other marginal activities such as the brewing of illegal liquor. It is further argued that although a number of Africans acquired artisanal skills from the government departments and mission schools by the inter war period, very few of them practised artisanal businesses in Nairobi. Rather, most of them acquired jobs in the formal sector. Therefore, the African pioneer jua kali artisans were those who acquired their skills informally from the Asian artisans. The Second World War marked the increased exploitation of the Kenyan economy. Desperate for more labour, financial and agricultural resources to support the war effort, the British recruited more Africans into the war and even allowed for a small number of manufacturing enterprises to be set up in Nairobi. The war also led to an influx of Africans into Nairobi in search of wage- employment opportunities. Many of them turned to the informal sector particularly after the War. The demobilized soldiers and the African squatters evicted from white settler farms after the mechanization of agriculture also flocked into the city. Consequently, many Africans turned to petty theft, illegal brewing of liquor, and prostitution in Nairobi as a way of survival. Others turned to artisanal trades in Burma, Kariokor market and in the Nairobi African locations such as Kibera, Pumwani and Mathare. They engaged in carpentry, metal work, woodwork, bicycle and motor vehicle repair, as well as shoe repair. Evidently, these jua kali trades, were a direct consequence of the inadequate job opportunities in the waged sector of the economy. Xlll Unhappy with the illegal activities of the African entrepreneurs, the colonial authorities in Nairobi resorted to constant harassment and arrests of the African street traders and artisans. This contrasted sharply with the granting of business premises and licenses to the African elite, viewed as loyalists by the rest in Nairobi. It is, argued here that the harassment subjected to the unemployed Africans and jua kali artisans resulted in the emergence of the Mau Mau guerrilla movement in Nairobi. This could explain why the Mau Mau activity in Nairobi involved frequent murders and other forms of violence against the Europeans, Asians and the African loyalists who enjoyed colonial patronage. At independence in 1963, the influx control measures against African movement into Nairobi were lifted. This in turn accelerated the influx of thousands of the ex-detainees and other Africans who had been repatriated from Nairobi during the Emergency. These were soon followed by thousands of school leavers who sought better employment opportunities and higher wages available in Nairobi. Evidently, the capitalist-oriented policies of the Kenyatta government privileged the small group of Western investors and African elite. Educated individuals in official positions acquired patronage resources, including the best arable land. Consequently, the landless resorted to the jua kali sector for a means of livelihood. The Moi government inherited its predecessor's economic policies, at a time when the oil prices were high and the cash crops from Kenya were performing dismally at the international market. In the meantime, the international political environment also took a new dimension especially after the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1989. Multilateral and the bilateral donors began to enforce strict lending terms, including the Structural Adjustment Programmes, on the country. It is against this background that many Kenyans were pushed into the jua kali sector in the 1980s and 1990s. Although the Moi regime re~ognised the important role played by the sector in the face of the XIV economic crisis facing the formal sector of the economy, economic mismanagement due to political patronage worsened the economic situation of the jua kali operators. This was evident in the grabbing of jua kali plots and the subsequent demolition of their sheds by politicians and government officials. Conclusively, the jua kali sector produced several innovators and entrepreneurs but these could not succeed fully without the strategic and active support of the state.
An Environmental History of Machakos County, Kenya, C. 1895-1999
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Muendo, Lydia Kanini; Edwin Gimode; Pius Kakai Wanyonyi
This study examines the intersection of environmental change, government policy and the response of indigenous populations in Machakos County from around 1895 to 1999. The concern of this study is that there is a dearth of knowledge in the field of environmental change, policy and people response in spite abundance of studies carried out on Machakos County. This is the gap that the study has sought to fill. The main objective of the study was to analyse the relationship between the people of Machakos County and their environment in relation to government policy in the period between 1895 and 1999, although environmental history rarely falls into neat and specific dates. The first objective evolved from the pre-colonial period in an attempt to lay a foundation for assessing the interplay of colonial policies and the response of the indigenes on the environmental history of Machakos County up to 1963. The period after independence, up to the eve of the new millennium, examines the post-independence politics, policies and environmental change as played out in Machakos County. Political ecology as a perspective guided the study to explain the relationship between the expansion of colonial capitalism and the over-exploitation of resources and disorganisation of pre-colonial socio-economic relations that led to the environmental problems experienced in Machakos as elsewhere in Africa. The study demonstrates that government intervention in the environment did not stop at independence. Rather the government was increasingly involved in the environmental history of Machakos County. Hence, political ecology was found suitable for examining the extent to which the environment was politically conceptualised and handled in both the colonial and independence eras. The study was limited to the area occupied by the Akamba and historically known as Machakos from the pre-colonial era, through colonialism, to the post-independence time. Over this long stretch of time, its name and extent has been severally changed at the dictation of the politics of the day. Presently, the area goes by the name of Machakos County. Data for the study was drawn from both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources included archival records at the Kenya National Archives and oral interviews. Secondary data was obtained from both published and unpublished works. Descriptive data analysis using qualitative methods of content analysis followed immediately after data collection. The data was categorised according to themes in relation to the objectives of the study which formed the ultimate chapters of the final thesis write up. The findings of the study should be useful to policy makers who shall formulate informed policy decisions in environmental conservation and management as well as land use. It should also be useful to the residents of Machakos County who will, based on historical research, make better decisions concerning natural resource utilisation and rural development. It will add to the historiography of environmental change and policy-making laying the ground for further research for the twin but dialectical processes of environmental degradation and conservation.
Governance Mechanisms and Security Service Delivery in National Police Service, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kaviku, Kimolo Benjamin; Jane Njoroge; David Minja
Governance and security service delivery have been subjects of discourse in both academic and non-academic perspectives. Several legislations and policies by the Kenyan government have been established to improve the capability and performance of security services delivered by the National Police Service (NPS). The terrain of empirical studies, reports and statistics, however, depicts a persistent trend of citizens losing their lives and properties daily due to poor security services provided by the NPS. This study investigated the influence of governance mechanisms on the security services delivered by NPS in Kenya. The specific objectives of the study included; assessing the influence of administrative decisions, determining the influence of checks and balances, evaluating the influence of coordination; establishing the influence of policy formulation, establishing whether political influence has a moderating influence on the relationship; and determining whether police culture has a mediating influence on the relationship between governance mechanisms and security services delivered by the National Police Service in Kenya. The principal agency, regulatory capture, stewardship and new public management theories guided the study. The study adopted a pragmatic research philosophy that allowed combining both explanatory and descriptive survey research designs of a cross-sectional nature. The targeted study population is comprised of NPS officers (Kenya Police Service and Administrative Police Service), Director of Criminal Investigation (DCI) officers based at the headquarters in Nairobi City County, two sub-counties, and non-NPS entities that work closely with the NPS. The study had a population of 742 respondents, from which a sample size of 260 respondents was sampled using Yamane (1973) formulae. The study adopted stratified, purposive and random sampling techniques, utilizing primary and secondary data, which generated quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data analysis incorporated both descriptive and inferential statistics, which was facilitated by SPSS software version 21.The findings were presented in the form of charts, tables, graphs and pictorial evidence. Qualitative data analysis used content, narrative and framework analysis approaches and was presented thematically. The findings indicated that, administrative decisions, checks and balances, coordination and policy formulation significantly influenced the quality of services delivered by NPS. Political influence and police culture had complete moderation and mediation effects, respectively on the direct association between mechanisms of governance and the quality of security services delivered by NPS. In total, the study's four governance mechanisms, moderating and mediating variables contributed 81.23 percent of the variation in NPS security services. This study contributes largely to policy, theory and practice in the body of knowledge. The study recommends that governance mechanisms are key drivers in delivering security services in NPS. Therefore, there is a need to ameliorate the current governance mechanisms in NPS. Therefore, both non-police agencies and NPS services should be revamped to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of their security services. Finally, this study recommends further study be done on replicating the same study in other security service providers, especially Kenya's defense forces and private security service provider.
Continuity and Change in Indigenous Beer Entrepreneurial Activity of Women in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria: 1909-1995
(Kenyatta University, 2019) Menmak, Nimlan Rabi
Studies on women entrepreneurship in Jos focused on women in tomatoes enterprise and on the challenges of women entrepreneurs. Therefore, there is little knowledge on women in indigenous beer enterprise. This study examined the continuity and change that occurred in indigenous beer enterprise of women in Jos metropolis from 1909 to 1995. The study discussed the factors that led to the entry of women in burkutu enterprise and its transformation during the colonial period. It also focused on ho w developments like Nigeria’s independence, Biafra war, United Nations Women Conference of 1975 and Structural Adjustment Programme, influenced continuity and change in burkutu enterprise during the post-independence period. The changes that happened in the process of brewing and marketing burkutu by women in Jos were examined. The theories used in this study were the Women Agency and Social Capital theory. Qualitative design based on historical approach was adopted for this study. The data was collected from primary and secondary sources. The primary sources included archival materials and oral-interviews. Secondary sources comprised articles, books, and theses. The data was analysed qualitatively. It was presented based on themes and chronology according to the objectives of the study. This study revealed that burkutu was an indigenous beer that was brewed by women mainly for socio- cultural purposes during the pre-colonial period. However, during the colonial era, it was transformed to an article of trade due to monetization of the economy. Burkutu which was used for religious rite became a source of relaxation for tin labourers. Restriction on the consumption of burkutu diminished. This was because burkutu consumption was tied to purchasing power. In the post-independence period, it continued to thrive because it was a source of employment and income for women that participated in it. It also provided inexpensive alcohol for the urban low income earner particularly during the Structural Adjustment Programme era in Nigeria. The traditional brewing tools were replaced by grinding machine and aluminum pots for efficiency.
An Analysis of Grand Corruption and Anti-Corruption Institutions in Nigeria and Kenya; 1960-2015
(Kenyatta University, 2019-04) Adelabu, Nenpomingyi Sarah Gowon
Unlike in the past when it was perceived as a political issue, corruption is now considered as a global threat and a major obstacle to development. While corruption is a global problem, it is one of the greatest challenges that Africa is grappling with. With ratings as the most corrupt country in 1996, 1997, and 2000, Nigeria has been infamously popular for corruption. Although Kenya has not been rated as the most corrupt country like Nigeria, it has equally performed dismissably on global corruption perception surveys. Owing to international and local demands for national governments to take punitive actions in fighting corruption, the two countries like their African counterparts have established arrays of national anti-corruption institutions as antidotes to tackling the problem of corruption. In spite of the foregoing, new corruption scandals are continually reported. The study seeks to interrogate the role of anti-corruption institutions Nigeria and Kenya in fighting grand corruption with particular focus on the EFCC of Nigeria and Kenya’s EACC. The parliament in Nigeria and Kenya passed the anti-graft laws in 2003 thereby justifying the basis for the comparison. Apart from being both multi ethnic ex-colonies of Britain that gained independence during the 1960's, Nigeria and Kenya also occupy strategic socio-economic positions in their respective regions. The utility of this study is to unravel how the institutional frameworks in both countries have curbed grand corruption and identify lessons that could be learnt from their experiences. The study examines the manifestations of grand corruption in Nigeria and Kenya and political forces that abate the perpetuation of corrupt practices in both countries. It interrogates the measures that have been put in place by EFCC and EACC to tackle grand corruption and the challenges encountered by the institutions. The Study was guided by the Neopatrimonialism Theory and the Structural Functionalist Theory. Both primary and secondary data were used in the survey with a qualitative approach. An analytical research design was applied in the study. Purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were used in selecting the research participants. The findings indicate that Nigeria and Kenya manifest similar forms of corruption by government officials using similar rent-seeking and money-laundering practices. While the range of opportunities for corruption is broader in Nigeria than in Kenya because Nigeria’s main economic asset petroleum is state-owned, the processes of converting public to private assets are largely the same. The findings also maintain that donor pressure and the need for international funding was central to the establishment of anti-corruption institutions in post-colonial Kenya and Nigeria’s present democratic dispensation. The public awareness and education initiatives of the institutions have the most significant impact as a large segment of the society is now aware of the bane of corruption. It concludes that the EFCC has been able to achieve more in prosecution because of its prosecutorial power, broader mandate and political support in its early years of establishment. This led to an improvement in Nigeria’s profile in the corruption perception index. However, prosecution of senior public officials is minimal. Both commissions are faced with challenges that include poor funding, weak legal framework, lack of independence and low political will in fighting corruption. The study thus recommends the development of strong and independent institutions such as the judiciary, and courts, a vibrant civil society, political commitment and ethical change in attitude towards corruption.
Transformation of cattle rustling in west pokot county, kenya 1895-2000
(Kenyatta University, 2018-07) Lomoywara, Korir Meshack
This study focused on the transformation of cattle rustling in West Pokot County, Kenya in the period 1895-2000. The study aimed at identifying the main causes of cattle rustling in West Pokot County prior to 1895, establish the impact of cattle rustling on the people’s livelihoods in West Pokot County over time, discussing the weapons used in cattle rustling in West Pokot County, to establish means of ensuring people in West Pokot County did not keep arms and suggesting ways of managing cattle rustling in west Pokot County. In carrying out this study, attempts were made to test the following premises: There were many causes of cattle rustling in West Pokot County, Cattle rustling impacted on the livelihoods of people in West Pokot County, the type of weapons used in cattle rustling were changing over time, peace could be restored through awareness and conflict prevention. The study used both primary and secondary method of data collection. Primary methods included interviews and review of archival sources. Secondary data was collected from books, newspapers, reports, journals, magazines and research papers in order to get detailed information on the history of cattle rustling in West Pokot County. The theory used in this study was Cultural-Ecological Theory. Key findings included commercialization of conflict, joint raids, use of modern technology on raids, introduction of new actors to the conflict, seasons for cattle raids changed from time to time and displacement of population by cattle rustling. The study came up with recommendations on how to manage cattle rustling. They included establishing a fund to cushion pastoralists against harsh climatic conditions, mapping of entry and exit points of small arms and light weapons, initiating alternative sources of livelihoods, provision of security by the state and provision of universal education.
The Position of Women in the Luo Societies: Case Study of Jok'Onyango A.D. 1750-1920
(Kenyatta University, 1990-11) Ayot, Theodora Olunga O.
This thesis is a detailed study of the position and role of women in the political, economic and social life as well as decision-making processes. The study is based on four communities which were established by the Luo as they expanded their settlements into South Nyanza in the period between A.D. 1750 and 1920. The first Luo groups in the present-day South Nyanza District were Joka- Jok who arrived in the area from A.D. 1688 onwards, having crossed over the lake at the Uyoma peninsula. They established settlements in Kanyamwa, Kadem, Karungu and Karachuonyo. In the subsequent years these Luo groups have been referred to as Joka-Chwanya or Jok'Onyango. Chwanya is given in their tradition as one of the sons of Jok and that he was the son of Onyango Rabala. This is why these people are referred to as Joka-Chwanya or Jok'Onyango. The study is divided into three parts, comprising ten chapters. Part one centres on the founding of the society. It is composed of two chapters. Chapter one deals with identification of the area under study, the period chosen for the study and why that period was chosen. It contains the statement of the problem, the objective of the study and justification of the study. Also examined in this Chapter are the various modes of analysis in historical development. Methods of historical research used during the field work are fully explained as well as secondary sources and archival materials consulted. Sample questions used during the field work are also included. (See appendix I). Chapter Two gives a general geographical context of the study in terms of origin and expansion of Jok'Onyango. Part Two concentrates on the socio-cultural activities and economic set up of Jok'Onyango. It is composed of four chapters. Chapter Three discusses the importance of women in the Luo society and the role of matrilineal dominance in a society that was basically patrilineal in nature. It distinguishes patrilineal from patriarchal system. Chapter Four examines the role of women in the evolution and emergence of some of the Jok'Onyango communities where both women and men are eponymous founders especially at the clan level. Chapter Five addresses itself to the role of women in cultural history especially in the dissemination of knowledge to the youth in the society. Chapter Six concerns the historical analysis of the contribution of Luo women in subsistence production, the right to land use and the question of inheritance. Part Three deals with women and the world of politics. Chapter Seven surveys the nature of political institutions in the Luo society with a view to determine factors which contributed or hindered the participation of women in politics and decision-making processes. Chapter Eight deals specifically with the participation of women in political activities and military warfare, while Chapter Nine discusses the imposition of alien rule in Kenya and its impact on the women in the Luo societies and how the women responded to these outside forces.
Management of Postcolonial Intrastate Conflicts in Uganda: A Case of Northern Uganda
(Kenyatta University, 2015-08) Omona, Andrew David
This thesis analyses how the various postcolonial intrastate conflicts in Uganda and the Northern region in particular have been managed. In pursuit of this the nature, manifestation, causes, and effects of the postcolonial intrastate conflicts on the state and social cohesion of the local people were specifically teased out. The successes and failures of the mechanisms used for managing the conflicts were analysed with the intent to assess the efficacy of peace building from below in managing ethno-social conflicts in Northern Uganda. The researcher used qualitative design. The data for the study was collected by the use of interviews, focus group discussion, observation and literature analysis. Through using the phenomenological and descriptive approach of data analysis, the study established that apart from the first two years of independence, Uganda has gone through different sorts of conflicts. At different points and geographical spaces, the triggers and drivers of Uganda's postcolonial intrastate conflicts have been ethnicity, religion, natural resources, regionalism, and the struggle for power thus leading to a deep seated division between Ugandans at the national level. The degeneration of some of these conflicts at local levels in Northern Uganda worked negatively to set the local people against each other. As such, wanton destruction of lives and properties, wastage of national resources, and mistrust became characteristic at local levels. Consequently, it led to retardation of development, dehumanisation, the expression of revenge attitude and destruction of social cohesion amongst local communities in Northern Uganda. Of the many attempts made to address the different conflicts in Uganda and Northern Uganda in particular, the efforts of the local people within the conflict area was found to be very instrumental in addressing issues of conflicts at local levels. This is because such people understand the local context of the conflict well thus making them address such it contextually. To help promote the efforts of the local community in managing conflicts at local levels, there is need for respect of established traditions, respect for elders, empowerment of the local peace teams and sincerity in such processes, to mention but a few.
Dynamics in Party Politics in Kenya, 1963-2013; Beyond the Neoliberal Paradigm
(Kenyatta University, 2016-06) Otieno, Isaiah Oduor
Kenya attained independence in 1963 under a multi-party system. Within a year of independence party pluralism was abandoned for a single-party regime that was heralded for enhancing unity among the ethnically fragmented population. With the fall of communism in the late 1980s there emerged a new trajectory in world politics that ushered in multi-party politics in the African continent. With the re-introduction of multi-party politics in Kenya beginning 1991 it was highly expected that the transition to multi-party politics and regular elections would over time lead to qualitatively improved political institutions. To the disappointment of many citizens the return of party pluralism only resulted in the proliferation of a number of political parties. There seem to be a missing link between party pluralism and good governance. This study made a historical analysis of political party politics in Kenya between 1963 and 2013. To begin with, a historical reconstruction of the evolution of political parties in Kenya between 1919 and 1963 was undertaken. .The nature and character of party politics in the single party regime has been examined. The impact of the re-introduction of multi-party politics on party politics was also evaluated. With specific focus on KANU and ODM this study examined issues that dominate the operations of political parties in Kenya notably; structure, organization and management. Finally this study questioned the relevance of western neo-Iiberal thinking in the analysis of political parties in Africa. Anchored on the post-colonial theory, this study argued that political parties in Africa should be examined in the context of the African state as a colonial construct. This study did note that although political parties in Kenya emerged as colonial liberation movements the ruling elite in the post-independent period have used them to monopolize and maintain control of state power. The study also revealed that the re-introduction of party pluralism in Kenya never resulted in any substantial change in party politics, but only in the proliferation of political parties which were regional and ethnic in composition. It was further revealed that the political elite in Kenya continue to patronize and use political parties as tools of mobilization in their quest for the capture of state power.
The genesis, development and impact of cattle rustling in Teso sub-region, 1600-2001: a case of Katakwi district, Uganda.
(Kenyatta University, 2016-06) Okoboi, John Amodoi
This study examined the genesis, development and impact of cattle rustling in Teso sub-region in the period 1600-2001. It analysed the early history of the Iteso, origins of cattle rustling, the causes of cattle rustling, the changing dimensions of cattle rustling and the impact of cattle rustling on the people of Katakwi district. A case of Katakwi district was taken because of its proximity to Karamoja sub-region where the rustlers came from. In analysing the genesis, development and impact of cattle rustling in Teso sub-region, the theories of social conflict, ecological and materialist paradigms were applicable. The study considered cattle rustling as a form of conflict brought about by ecological factors and materialist gains. The descriptive survey research design was applicable in the study because the information collected from respondents, archives and secondary sources was analysed as regards the genesis, development and impact of cattle rustling in Teso sub-region. The study revealed that the Iteso and the Karimojong originated from South West Abbyssinia (Ethiopia) where they had once lived together as pastoralists. The two communities migrated into Karamoja where they separated in about 1620s. The study found that the separation of the Iteso and Karimojong partly contributed to stealing of Teso cattle by the Karimojong because the Iteso had moved with the cattle from Karamoja. The burning of the carcasses of the Karimojong captured cattle in 1952 largely sparked cattle rustling in Katakwi district as a wayof revenge.The acquisition of modern weapons ( machine guns) escalated cattle rustling especially in the 1980s. This changing dimension from using traditional weapons (spears, bows and arrows, clubs) to modern ones adversely affected the socio-economic and political development in the area of study. Though cattle rustling had been brought about by ecological disparities between Teso and Karamoja sub-regions thereby leading to conflict, this was overshadowed by materialist gain in the post-independence period. The study is significant as it contributes to the growing historiography of cattle rustling within the East African region and Uganda specifically. The study is also significant to the policy makers who cherish the value of peace and living in harmony in North-Eastern Uganda, Uganda as a whole and East Africa in general.
Changes in traditional Islamic higher education at the Kenyan coast from 1850-1978
(Kenyatta University, 2016-10) Nabende, Julius Simiyu
This study traces the origins, growth and transformation of traditional Islamic higher education in the coastal region of Kenya from 1850 to 1978. The study was guided by the following objectives; to examine the arrival of Islam and its contribution to the emergence of traditional higher Islamic education in the coastal region in Kenya in the period 1850-1900; interogate the social, economic, religious and political factors that led to the growth of non-formal and formal Islamic education in the coastal region from 1850-1978 , examine institutions which offered traditional higher Islamic education in coastal towns, assess the curriculum of this education from 1850-1978,examine the impact of British colonial rule on the development of traditional higher Islamic education in coastal Kenya in the period 1900-1963 and demonstrate the impact of Independence on the growth of Islamic higher education in coastal towns of Kenya from 1963 to 1978. The study employed John Dewey‟s egalitarian/problem solving theory, Emile Durkheim‟s theory of moral and sociology of education, Al-Ghazali‟s and Al-afendi”s theory of Islamic education. The study adopted a descriptive research design and used the historical method in the collection of data. Oral interviews, Archival material and library research were used in identifying, collecting and collation of data for this study. The data collected was analyzed qualitatively using historical techniques of narration, description, inference and logical explanation. The study findings were presented as a critical narrative of the rise, growth and decline of traditional higher Islamic education in coastal Kenya from 1850-1978. The study established that traditional higher Islamic education in Kenya emerged as a non-formal system of education conducted in mosques and informal lessons conducted in private houses of Islamic scholars who came to visit Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar and the Comoro islands in the 19th century A.D. Traditional higher Islamic education was in three levels: basic education, primary education and higher education. In 20th century traditional Islamic higher education changed from non-formal to a formal education with a comprehensive curriculum.This system of education was offered in specific institutions established in the towns of Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa and Zanzibar. The study also found out that the achievement of independence in Kenya led to establishment of secular education, which marginalized Islamic systems of basic, primary and traditional higher education. Muslims who wanted to access traditional higher Islamic education had to seek admission in Islamic universities in North Africa, Middle East and South Asia.
Cultural Continuity and Change: A Historical Study on Music and Dance among the Bukusu of Bungoma County, Kenya, Circa 1900 – 2012
(Kenyatta University, 2015-09) Barasa, Maurice Wekesa
Traditional Bukusu music and dance have suffered an authenticity crisis since the 20th century. This, we found out, has been as a result of globalization that has seen the adaptation and appropriation of Bukusu folk melodies and dance styles. Of significant influence on Bukusu music and dance have been the activities of colonialists, acculturation and the post- colonial socio-economic, political and cultural dynamics. Innovation and advances in media technology have also greatly impacted on Bukusu music and dance. This research established that blending of Bukusu traditional music and dance with foreign musical cultures has had profound effect on the former giving rise to a new genre of music and dance in the community. This study was necessitated by the fact that previous research works on Bukusu music and dance were anthropological and not historical. Through the use of in-depth interviews, content analysis of recorded music and observation of dance and music activities among Babukusu, we show how, when and why the function, form, presentation and performance of Bukusu birth, circumcision, marriage and death music and dance have been changing in the period 1900- 2012. The interviewees included local musicians, funeral orators, teachers of Oral Literature and Music, Bungoma County Director of Culture and Bukusu music programmes producers on radio. The period 1900 to 2012 was appropriate for this study because it was characterized by varying socio-cultural, political, economic and technological environments, all of which have influenced Bukusu music and dance. Continuity in aspects of Bukusu music and dance from 1900 to 2012 is discussed as well as the abandonment of some musical practices in the community. This study was guided by three theories: - diffusion, social learning and syncretism. Diffusionists believe that cultural traits move from one society to another through migration, trade, war or other contacts. The social learning theory acknowledges that people learn from one another through observation, imitation and modelling. It was used to explain the imitation of other music cultures by some Bukusu musicians. This study found out that indeed Bukusu music and dance have been changing over time due to the community’s interaction with and learning from foreigners. Syncretism was used to explain the impact of blending Bukusu musical traditions with exogenous ones. Change in Bukusu musical culture, we established, has also been due to the dynamism in the socio-political environments in which it is performed. However, some aspects of it were found not to have changed.
Rethinking frantz fanon in the co text of the Kenyan Decolonization experience, 1895-1992
(Kenyatta University, 2003) Kisiang'ani, Edward Namisiko Waswa
There is no doubt that the problematic of decolonization remains one of the most intriguing subjects in contemporary scholarship. With regard to the African continent, the mention of the term decolonization evokes profound emotions, debates and controversies, just as it raises some very fundamental questions. One of the questions that is often raised with regard to this subject is this: when did the process of decolonization in Africa actually begin and when did it end? Another question related to the foregoing one concerns the definition of the term decolonization. It: -for Africa, decolonization implies the dismantling of the European imperialist structures on the continent, has this so far been achieved? Is it possible to argue that, over forty years into the independence experience, Africa can confidently boast to be free of colonialism? These and many other stimulating questions have perennially consumed the intellectual energies of scholars and political theorists grappling with the historically complex relationship between the African continent and the Euro-American axis. Frantz Fanon is, possibly, a leading scholar and political theorist on the discourse of decolonization in Africa. Born in Martinique in 1925, Fanon spent most of his adult life in French North Africa. Indeed, he became the chief architect of the Algerian revolution that resulted into the political collapse of the French regime in Algeria. Throughout his writings, Fanon tackled critical colonial issues that embraced but were not confined to alienation, racism, exploitation, political participation, class struggle, liberation, socialism, culture, the nation-state, national leadership, neo-colonialism, tribalism and above all, violence. No doubt, these issues are crucial entry-points for anybody wishing to interrogate the structure of European colonialism in Africa. This study highlights and critiques some of these issues within the context of Kenya's decolonization experience. Given that Fanon's discourse on colonialism was derived from his own experience under French imperialism, this study appropriates some of his ideas to an alternative British colonial situation in Kenya in order to ascertain if his conclusions could polymorphously be employed to interpret any given imperial situation. Guided by Fanon's pessrrrusrn about what seemed to be Africa's premature celebration of independence in the early 1960s, the study adopts the view that, in Kenya, the formal colonialism which began in 1895 did not end with the political collapse of the British rule. Rather, the study looks at the attainment of Kenya's independence in 1963 as a well-calculated transitional move by the British to re-invent and Africanize colonialism so as to maintain their hegemony over the African country. Consequently, the study treats both the Kenyatta and Moi states as continuities in the colonial project which began in the late 19th century. To capture this reality, the study has employed the analytical devices of the postmodernist and the postcolonialist theoretical dispositions. Notably, through the post-modernist perspective, the study finds space to generally question the grand narratives of the West, some of which came to justify the installation of colonial rule in Africa while others have tended to influence the way in which the discourse on decolonization has been developed. On the other hand, the postcolonial theoretical standpoint has enabled the study to question Eurocentric forms of knowledge which seem to give Africa and its people certain identities of disability and inferiority and which have, in turn, justified colonialism in both its formal and hegemonic dispensations. Thus, through the postcolonial domain, the study enriches the counter-hegemonic discourse that. remains fundamental to the realization of the goal of true liberation in Africa. The study derived its data from both primary and secondary sources. While secondary data was fundamentally limited to library research, primary data was procured from the Archives and from the oral respondents. Finally, this study demonstrates that there is a lot of literature dealing with Kenya's experience with formal and informal variations of colonialism (for example Odinga 1967, Kanogo 1987, Ngugi 1980, 1981, 1986; Furedi 1989, Edgerton 1990, Rosberg and Nottingham 1966, among others), but no study has so far been undertaken to specifically interrogate Fanon in the light of the Kenyan decolonization experience. Consequently, this study undertakes a modest intervention to address this intellectual gap.

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