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Item The Position of Women in the Luo Societies: Case Study of Jok'Onyango A.D. 1750-1920(Kenyatta University, 1990-11) Ayot, Theodora Olunga O.This thesis is a detailed study of the position and role of women in the political, economic and social life as well as decision-making processes. The study is based on four communities which were established by the Luo as they expanded their settlements into South Nyanza in the period between A.D. 1750 and 1920. The first Luo groups in the present-day South Nyanza District were Joka- Jok who arrived in the area from A.D. 1688 onwards, having crossed over the lake at the Uyoma peninsula. They established settlements in Kanyamwa, Kadem, Karungu and Karachuonyo. In the subsequent years these Luo groups have been referred to as Joka-Chwanya or Jok'Onyango. Chwanya is given in their tradition as one of the sons of Jok and that he was the son of Onyango Rabala. This is why these people are referred to as Joka-Chwanya or Jok'Onyango. The study is divided into three parts, comprising ten chapters. Part one centres on the founding of the society. It is composed of two chapters. Chapter one deals with identification of the area under study, the period chosen for the study and why that period was chosen. It contains the statement of the problem, the objective of the study and justification of the study. Also examined in this Chapter are the various modes of analysis in historical development. Methods of historical research used during the field work are fully explained as well as secondary sources and archival materials consulted. Sample questions used during the field work are also included. (See appendix I). Chapter Two gives a general geographical context of the study in terms of origin and expansion of Jok'Onyango. Part Two concentrates on the socio-cultural activities and economic set up of Jok'Onyango. It is composed of four chapters. Chapter Three discusses the importance of women in the Luo society and the role of matrilineal dominance in a society that was basically patrilineal in nature. It distinguishes patrilineal from patriarchal system. Chapter Four examines the role of women in the evolution and emergence of some of the Jok'Onyango communities where both women and men are eponymous founders especially at the clan level. Chapter Five addresses itself to the role of women in cultural history especially in the dissemination of knowledge to the youth in the society. Chapter Six concerns the historical analysis of the contribution of Luo women in subsistence production, the right to land use and the question of inheritance. Part Three deals with women and the world of politics. Chapter Seven surveys the nature of political institutions in the Luo society with a view to determine factors which contributed or hindered the participation of women in politics and decision-making processes. Chapter Eight deals specifically with the participation of women in political activities and military warfare, while Chapter Nine discusses the imposition of alien rule in Kenya and its impact on the women in the Luo societies and how the women responded to these outside forces.Item Rethinking frantz fanon in the co text of the Kenyan Decolonization experience, 1895-1992(Kenyatta University, 2003) Kisiang'ani, Edward Namisiko WaswaThere is no doubt that the problematic of decolonization remains one of the most intriguing subjects in contemporary scholarship. With regard to the African continent, the mention of the term decolonization evokes profound emotions, debates and controversies, just as it raises some very fundamental questions. One of the questions that is often raised with regard to this subject is this: when did the process of decolonization in Africa actually begin and when did it end? Another question related to the foregoing one concerns the definition of the term decolonization. It: -for Africa, decolonization implies the dismantling of the European imperialist structures on the continent, has this so far been achieved? Is it possible to argue that, over forty years into the independence experience, Africa can confidently boast to be free of colonialism? These and many other stimulating questions have perennially consumed the intellectual energies of scholars and political theorists grappling with the historically complex relationship between the African continent and the Euro-American axis. Frantz Fanon is, possibly, a leading scholar and political theorist on the discourse of decolonization in Africa. Born in Martinique in 1925, Fanon spent most of his adult life in French North Africa. Indeed, he became the chief architect of the Algerian revolution that resulted into the political collapse of the French regime in Algeria. Throughout his writings, Fanon tackled critical colonial issues that embraced but were not confined to alienation, racism, exploitation, political participation, class struggle, liberation, socialism, culture, the nation-state, national leadership, neo-colonialism, tribalism and above all, violence. No doubt, these issues are crucial entry-points for anybody wishing to interrogate the structure of European colonialism in Africa. This study highlights and critiques some of these issues within the context of Kenya's decolonization experience. Given that Fanon's discourse on colonialism was derived from his own experience under French imperialism, this study appropriates some of his ideas to an alternative British colonial situation in Kenya in order to ascertain if his conclusions could polymorphously be employed to interpret any given imperial situation. Guided by Fanon's pessrrrusrn about what seemed to be Africa's premature celebration of independence in the early 1960s, the study adopts the view that, in Kenya, the formal colonialism which began in 1895 did not end with the political collapse of the British rule. Rather, the study looks at the attainment of Kenya's independence in 1963 as a well-calculated transitional move by the British to re-invent and Africanize colonialism so as to maintain their hegemony over the African country. Consequently, the study treats both the Kenyatta and Moi states as continuities in the colonial project which began in the late 19th century. To capture this reality, the study has employed the analytical devices of the postmodernist and the postcolonialist theoretical dispositions. Notably, through the post-modernist perspective, the study finds space to generally question the grand narratives of the West, some of which came to justify the installation of colonial rule in Africa while others have tended to influence the way in which the discourse on decolonization has been developed. On the other hand, the postcolonial theoretical standpoint has enabled the study to question Eurocentric forms of knowledge which seem to give Africa and its people certain identities of disability and inferiority and which have, in turn, justified colonialism in both its formal and hegemonic dispensations. Thus, through the postcolonial domain, the study enriches the counter-hegemonic discourse that. remains fundamental to the realization of the goal of true liberation in Africa. The study derived its data from both primary and secondary sources. While secondary data was fundamentally limited to library research, primary data was procured from the Archives and from the oral respondents. Finally, this study demonstrates that there is a lot of literature dealing with Kenya's experience with formal and informal variations of colonialism (for example Odinga 1967, Kanogo 1987, Ngugi 1980, 1981, 1986; Furedi 1989, Edgerton 1990, Rosberg and Nottingham 1966, among others), but no study has so far been undertaken to specifically interrogate Fanon in the light of the Kenyan decolonization experience. Consequently, this study undertakes a modest intervention to address this intellectual gap.Item The MStory of the Informal Enterprises in Kenya: A Case Study of the Jua Kali Sub-Sector of Nairobi, 1899-1998.(Kenyatta University, 2006) Kiruthu, Felix Macharia; Eric Masinde Aseka; Mildred A. Jalang'o NdedaThe study examined the origin and the transformation of the jua kali sector of Nairobi from 1899 to 1998, and its consequences on the African communities in the town. A case study research design based on qualitative procedures was adopted employing three types of data, .namely: Archival data, oral interviews and library research. Among the jua kali sites identified and examined in the study included: Gikomba, Kamukunji, Ziwani, Kawangware, Kariobangi ,Githurai and .Roysambu. 90 knowledgeable informants on the history of Nairobi and jua kali sector were interviewed from 2001 to 2005. These included jua kali operators, Non- Governmental Organisations' personnel, civil servants, and Asian business people. In order to analyse the complex relations in the jua kali sector of Nairobi, the study adopted an integrated theoretical approach comprising the dependency and underdevelopment approach, the articulation of modes of production and the concept of neo-patrimonialism. It is argued here that the city of Nairobi emerged as a colonial urban centre along the Uganda railway and was, therefore, the product of international capitalism, which creates a global division of labour that consigns the periphery to primary production. The prime motive behind the construction of the Uganda Railway was to facilitate British colonial authority, and transportation of resources to the East Coast enroute to the metropole in London. As the colonial headquarters in Kenya, Nairobi was strategic to the British. It served as the administrative, commercial and transport centre for organising the drainage of resources and surplus to the metropole. A number of Christian Missionaries, Asians and white settlers settled in the , country, particularly near Nairobi, after the completion of the railway in 1901. XII The three groups were by the First World War socialising the African communities to serve the colonial system, through western education, apprenticeship and wage labour. Moreover, the alienation of land, forced many Africans to migrate to the White settler farms, Nairobi and other urban centres, in search of wage labour. Those who failed to secure wage labour in Nairobi turned to hawking, prostitution and other marginal activities such as the brewing of illegal liquor. It is further argued that although a number of Africans acquired artisanal skills from the government departments and mission schools by the inter war period, very few of them practised artisanal businesses in Nairobi. Rather, most of them acquired jobs in the formal sector. Therefore, the African pioneer jua kali artisans were those who acquired their skills informally from the Asian artisans. The Second World War marked the increased exploitation of the Kenyan economy. Desperate for more labour, financial and agricultural resources to support the war effort, the British recruited more Africans into the war and even allowed for a small number of manufacturing enterprises to be set up in Nairobi. The war also led to an influx of Africans into Nairobi in search of wage- employment opportunities. Many of them turned to the informal sector particularly after the War. The demobilized soldiers and the African squatters evicted from white settler farms after the mechanization of agriculture also flocked into the city. Consequently, many Africans turned to petty theft, illegal brewing of liquor, and prostitution in Nairobi as a way of survival. Others turned to artisanal trades in Burma, Kariokor market and in the Nairobi African locations such as Kibera, Pumwani and Mathare. They engaged in carpentry, metal work, woodwork, bicycle and motor vehicle repair, as well as shoe repair. Evidently, these jua kali trades, were a direct consequence of the inadequate job opportunities in the waged sector of the economy. Xlll Unhappy with the illegal activities of the African entrepreneurs, the colonial authorities in Nairobi resorted to constant harassment and arrests of the African street traders and artisans. This contrasted sharply with the granting of business premises and licenses to the African elite, viewed as loyalists by the rest in Nairobi. It is, argued here that the harassment subjected to the unemployed Africans and jua kali artisans resulted in the emergence of the Mau Mau guerrilla movement in Nairobi. This could explain why the Mau Mau activity in Nairobi involved frequent murders and other forms of violence against the Europeans, Asians and the African loyalists who enjoyed colonial patronage. At independence in 1963, the influx control measures against African movement into Nairobi were lifted. This in turn accelerated the influx of thousands of the ex-detainees and other Africans who had been repatriated from Nairobi during the Emergency. These were soon followed by thousands of school leavers who sought better employment opportunities and higher wages available in Nairobi. Evidently, the capitalist-oriented policies of the Kenyatta government privileged the small group of Western investors and African elite. Educated individuals in official positions acquired patronage resources, including the best arable land. Consequently, the landless resorted to the jua kali sector for a means of livelihood. The Moi government inherited its predecessor's economic policies, at a time when the oil prices were high and the cash crops from Kenya were performing dismally at the international market. In the meantime, the international political environment also took a new dimension especially after the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1989. Multilateral and the bilateral donors began to enforce strict lending terms, including the Structural Adjustment Programmes, on the country. It is against this background that many Kenyans were pushed into the jua kali sector in the 1980s and 1990s. Although the Moi regime re~ognised the important role played by the sector in the face of the XIV economic crisis facing the formal sector of the economy, economic mismanagement due to political patronage worsened the economic situation of the jua kali operators. This was evident in the grabbing of jua kali plots and the subsequent demolition of their sheds by politicians and government officials. Conclusively, the jua kali sector produced several innovators and entrepreneurs but these could not succeed fully without the strategic and active support of the state.Item Gender relations and food crop production: a case of Kiambu district Kenya, 1920-1985(2011-08-09) Musalia, Wangari MarthaThe study examined gender relations and on food crop production in Kiambu district between 1920 and 1985. The socialeconomic relations between females and males are characterised often by different assignments to labour tasks, control over decision-making and differential access to and control over resourses has changed over time. These relations of production has been influenced by the social-political and economic transformation that has taken place over the period of the study. The study employed gender analysis to analyse the alterations of gender relations and food crop production since if focuses on the systems which determines gender roles/ responsibilities, access to and control over resourses and decision-making and not on the individuals women and men. Gender analysis was significant in the identification and understanding of the inequalities, challenges and responses of Kiambu women and men in their endeavour to produce food during the period of study. The study was done in three locations, namely, Limuru, Kiganjo, and Komathai of Kiambu District, using both primary and secondary data. A total of 56 informants both men and women of varying ages were interviewed. The study established that changes in land tenure, labour provision as well as promotion of cash crops had affected production of food crops. The alienation of kikuyu land and later consolidation and registration on an individual basis were major in affecting people's access to productive land. This was, however, gendered with women being the most affeted because of the existence partriarchal system which undermined women's ownership rights. Gender division labour had also changed over the years and was particularly enhanced by migrant labour system. Change in both land and labour organisation affected the decision-making on the type of food crops that were grown in the district. There was shift from the dependence on indigenous crops like millet, sorgum cassava yams, and traditional maize to more market-oriented horticultural crops like irish potatoes, carrots, kale, spinach and cauliflower, and cabbage among others. In effect, the district was producing less staple food crops by mid-1980s than it did by the beginning of the 20th century. But women continued to dominate in food crop production. Nevertheless, the study noted that though women continued to provide most labour, they did not remain passive victims of patriarchial control but they engage productive activities for instance, food - related trades to make of their own money.Item The history of community relations across the Kenya-Uganda boarder; the case of the Babukusu and the Bagisu, C. 1884-1997(2011-11-04) Wekesa, Peter WafulaThis study examines the history of community relations across the Kenya-Uganda border using the case of the Babukusu of Western Kenya and the Bagisu of Eastern Uganda from 1884 to 1997. From this microcosmic level, the study explores forms of transborder social, economic and political relations that have evolved between the two communities since the pre-colonial period. The study is justified on the reality that despite the increasing importance that borders continue to generate globally, the African and specifically East African context has not been given a systematic and sufficient analysis by historians. Border regions, or specifically borderlands, as sub-national areas whose social, economic and political life is directly and significantly affected by proximity to international boundaries, remain the centre at which questions of territoriality and citizenship are negotiated and settled the world over. More specifically, in regard to the community relations across borders, this study contends that these have historically functioned as catalysts and compelling influences on the quality of communication in the respective regions. As barometers for testing good neighbourliness, national peace and regional integration, Babukusu-Bagisu border relations are studied within the diverse historical context defining their evolution and transformation. The study utilizes a variety of both primary and secondary sources to analyze the context within which border relations between the Babukusu and the Bagisu emerge and are transformed before and after the colonial configuration of the Kenya-Uganda border. It delves into the history of relations between the two peoples that had long developed in the region before the European political and economic activities that finally culminated in the evolution of the border. The latter activities, as the study observes, not only ignored African interests, but were also generally conceived within western notions of the border that contradicted African conceptions of space. These European activities were further augmented by colonial and independent government policies to freeze the historical solidarities between the two communities. As the study demonstrates however, both colonial and independent government policies generated contradictions over the BukusuBugisu borderland area that made the control of interactions between the two communities with distinct geopolitical spaces problematic. Both formal and informal social, economic and political dynamics made the common Bukusu-Bugisu borderland a site of numerous state and community permutations. In examining the diverse dynamics informing the Babukusu-Bagisu relations across the Kenya-Uganda border, the study traverses through two theoretical traditions generally categorised into statecentric and borderlands perspectives. This study reveals that the two theoretical perspectives offer connected but contradictory perspectives on borders and border community relations in general and on Babukusu-Bagisu relations specifically. While statecentric perspectives conceptualise borders as tools of separation and control, borderland perspectives see borders as instruments that impede the free movement of capital, people, goods and services. This study adopts an integrative approach to critique the overwhelming top-down emphasis on state power and also borrow some useful insights that complement the bottom-up processes that uncover complex mechanisms operating at the local , national and regional levels.Item The history of the informal enterprises in Kenya : a case study of the jua kali sub-sector of Nairobi, 1899-1998(2011-12-08) Kiruthu, Felix MachariaThe study examined the origin and the transformation of the jua kali sector of Nairobi from 1899 to 1998, and its consequences on the African communities in the town. A case study research design based on qualitative procedures was adopted employing three types of data, namely: Archival data, oral interviews and library research. Among the jua kali sites identified and examined in the study included: Gikomba, Kamukunji, Ziwani, Kawangware, Kariobangi Githurai and Roysambu. 90 knowledgeable informants on the history of Nairobi and jua kali sector were interviewed from 2001 to 2005. These included jua kali operators, Non- Governmental Organisations' personnel, civil servants, and Asian business people. In order to analyse the complex relations in the jua kali sector of Nairobi, the study adopted an integrated theoretical approach comprising the dependency and underdevelopment approach, the articulation of modes of production and the concept of neo-patrimonialism. It is argued here that the city of Nairobi emerged as a colonial urban centre along the Uganda railway and was, therefore, the product of international capitalism, which creates a global division of labour that consigns the periphery to primary production. The prime motive behind the construction of the Uganda Railway was to facilitate British colonial authority, and transportation of resources to the East Coast enroute to the metropole in London. As the colonial headquarters in Kenya, Nairobi was strategic to the British. It served as the administrative, commercial and transport centre for organising the drainage of resources and surplus to the metropole. A number of Christian Missionaries, Asians and white settlers settled in the country, particularly near Nairobi, after the completion of the railway in 1901. The three groups were by the First World War socialising the African communities to serve the colonial system, through western education, apprenticeship and wage labour. Moreover, the alienation of land, forced many Africans to migrate to the White settler farms, Nairobi and other urban centres, in search of wage labour. Those who failed to secure wage labour in Nairobi turned to hawking, prostitution and other marginal activities such as the brewing of illegal liquor. It is further argued that although a number of Africans acquired artisanal skills from the government departments and mission schools by the inter war period, very few of them practised artisanal businesses in Nairobi. Rather, most of them acquired jobs in the formal sector. Therefore, the African pioneer jua kali artisans were those who acquired their skills informally from the Asian artisans. The Second World War marked the increased exploitation of the Kenyan economy. Desperate for more labour, financial and agricultural resources to support the war effort, the British recruited more Africans into the war and even allowed for a small number of manufacturing enterprises to be set up in Nairobi. The war also led to an influx of Africans into Nairobi in search of wage- employment opportunities. Many of them turned to the informal sector particularly after the War. The demobilized soldiers and the African squatters evicted from white settler farms after the mechanization of agriculture also flocked into the city. Consequently, many Africans turned to petty theft, illegal brewing of liquor, and prostitution in Nairobi as a way of survival. Others turned to artisanal trades in Burma, Kariokor market and in the Nairobi African locations such as Kibera, Pumwani and Mathare. They engaged in carpentry, metal work, woodwork, bicycle and motor vehicle repair, as well as shoe repair. Evidently, these jua kali trades, were a direct consequence of the inadequate job opportunities in the waged sector of the economy. Unhappy with the illegal activities of the African entrepreneurs, the colonial authorities in Nairobi resorted to constant harassment and arrests of the African street traders and artisans. This contrasted sharply with the granting of business premises and licenses to the African elite, viewed as loyalists by the rest in Nairobi. It is argued here that the harassment subjected to the unemployed Africans and jua kali artisans resulted in the emergence of the Mau Mau guerrilla movement in Nairobi. This could explain why the Mau Mau activity in Nairobi involved frequent murders and other forms of violence against the Europeans, Asians and the African loyalists who enjoyed colonial patronage. At independence in 1963, the influx control measures against African movement into Nairobi were lifted. This in turn accelerated the influx of thousands of the ex-detainees and other Africans who had been repatriated from Nairobi during the Emergency. These were soon followed by thousands of school leavers who sought better employment opportunities and higher wages available in Nairobi. Evidently, the capitalist-oriented policies of the Kenyatta government privileged the small group of Western investors and African elite. Educated individuals in official positions acquired patronage resources, including the best arable land. Consequently, the landless resorted to the jua kali sector for a means of livelihood. The Moi government inherited its predecessor's economic policies, at a time when the oil prices were high and the cash crops from Kenya were performing dismally at the international market. In the meantime, the international political environment also took a new dimension especially after the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1989. Multilateral and the bilateral donors began to enforce strict lending terms, including the Structural Adjustment Programmes, on the country. It is against this background that many Kenyans were pushed into the jua kali sector in the 1980s and 1990s. Although the Moi regime recognised the important role played by the sector in the face of the economic crisis facing the formal sector of the economy, economic mismanagement due to political patronage worsened the economic situation of the jua kali operators. This was evident in the grabbing of jua kali plots and the subsequent demolition of their sheds by politicians and government officials. Conclusively, the jua kali sector produced several innovators and entrepreneurs but these could not succeed fully without the strategic and active support of the state.Item The syncretising dialectic in the historical development of religion: the case of selected western Kenyan cultural zones communities, c. 1700-1950(2012-01-05) Gimode, E. A.The renewed discourse of syncretistsm in the study of religion brings into question the idea of purity of cultures in general and religious in particular. It dismisses the question of purity, orthodoxy and essentialism as a chimera and instead celebrates the acknowledgement of interpenetration of cultures and beliefs leading to hybridities. This study has been conceptualized and undertaken on these premises. It has argued that syncretism is not a bizarre concept, but rather the correct framework in studying history of all religions. It has taken, for broad purposes of comparison and vindication of the syncretising dynamic, two contrasting geographical areas and periods. The study instantiates and demonstrates that Western Christianity is a highly syncretic product of centuries of a dialectical process of encounter and interaction between indigenous European cosmologies and biblical concepts. This dismisses the rhetoric of mission Christianity as orthodox or pure, and explains the failure of the Western missionary programme of ethnocide and religiocide in Africa. The study has highlighted the syncretising dynamic in a Western Kenya cultural borderzone consisting of three ethnic groups and how they engaged in bartering of concepts in the pre-Christian or pre-colonial period. The dynamic underlay an active and long history of religion in the area to which Western Christianity was implanted and synthesized for yet another pattern f syncretism in the first three decades of the twentieth century. The emergence of the indigenous independent church movement in Western Kenya at the close of the third decade of the twentieth century is explained and illustrated as a reaction against the imposition of Christianity in the Western cultural mold upon the Africans, and as a divestiture of these Western swaddling clothes in order to allow unfettered cross-fertilization between the indigenous cosmologies and the biblical on key beliefs and practices. The study couched within a theoretical framework that appropriates aspects from the Hegelian dialectical triad and Aseka's triune nature of human consciousness. The former holds that historical processes develop in a dialectical manner, binging into constant clash different ideas, which nevertheless do not decimate each other, but rather effect syntheses out of each other which become new theses for subsequent clashes. The second holds that the triune components of the human being are the physical body, the intellectual soul and the spirit; and that religion in whichever form is not possible and not conceivable without the last component coming into playItem Your Monument Our Shrine: The Preservation of Great Zimbabwe(2012-02-06) Ndoro, WebberCultural heritage management in African and in other non-western societies, has mainly been concerned with the preservation and presentation of archaeological monuments primarily from a technical point of view. In Zimbabwe the emphasis has been on the preservation of spectacular monumental architectural places like Great Zimbabwe. Most efforts to preserve and present the archaeological heritage in Southern Africa suffer from a failure to fully understand the sig-nificance of the cultural heritage and its value to local communities. Following independence, many Southern African nations realised the value of the past in nation building and the need to restore cultural pride, which had seriously been eroded by colonialism. However, local community interests are often ignored at the expense of international guidelines and frames of operation. Despite the attainment of independence heritage management in Southern Africa assume that local communities are irrelevant to a `scientific' approach of managing their own heritage. This thesis explores traditional ways of heritage management. They are discussed in relations of the various experiences at the Great Zimbabwe National Monument. The architectural conservation programmes implemented at Great Zimbabwe are outlined and reviewed in the context of archaeological heritage managers in Southern Africa. The thesis emphases the need for integrative planning and management structures that promotes a rapprochement between scientific and local knowledge structures. This provides the best chance of avoiding irreversible cultural degradation resulting from arbitrary decisions of management and policy makers.Item The agricultural changes in the Kipsigis land, C.1894-1963: an historical inquiry(2012-02-14) Omwoyo, Samson MoengaThe study focuses on the organization, and transformation of agriculture among the Kipgisis of Western Kenya in the period proceeding and during colonialism. Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources and subjected to corroborative analysis using the historical method. An eclectic approach borrowing certain paradigms from the underdevelopment and dependency and articulation of modes of production theories were employed as the major tools of analysis. From the beginning it is demonstrated that the pre-colonial agriculture in the Kipsigisland was dynamic, innovative, diverse, efficient, self-reliant and suited to the needs of the Kipsigis people. It is argued that the Kipsigis agricultural organization was sound and rational and based on the people's knowledge of their environment. The colonial penetration set a chain of events in motion, which systematically modified, marginalized and subordinated the Kipsigis indigenous agriculture. Animal husbandry fell prey to the colonial maneuvers of depleting the Kipsigis stock. The Kipsigis farmers were peasantised and their role as commodity producers was articulated and firmly enforced. Part of the Kipsigis labour was proletarianised as migrant and resident workers in settler farms, and later as a semi proletariat in the Kipsigisland. The Kipsigis local industry was marginalized by the incoming merchant capital and as more and more Kipsigisland was alienated for European settler farming activities, the Kipsigis indigenous land tenure systems was gradually changed and tended to forms of privatization. However, it is argued, indigenous agricultural organization did not disappear; it kept readjusting was articulated and co-existed with the colonial capitalist sector in a contradictory manner of ''destruction/preservation'' or ''conservation/dissolution''. It emerges more clearly from the study that although agricultural land, animal husbandry, labour, and trade policies were aimed at achieving maximum benefits for the white settlers and the colonial state, the Kipsigis seem to have reacted in their own ways to exploit such policies for their own economic advantages. The Kipsigis were definitely not passive to the new colonial agricultural policies-they perceived them correctly accepting those that were of benefit to them while rejecting the undesirable ones, even if for a while as was the case of maize. The dependency theoretical formulations are replete in the study as the Kipsigis households suffered from insufficient labour and traditional chores were gradually changed, resulting in food shortages and the intensification of female labour. Extensive cultivation of maize for export led to soil degradation and erosion besides exploiting African labour through unequal exchange and differential pricing of their agricultural products. The introduction of cash crops severely affected food production and led to new systems of land tenure. Colonial capitalism also provided for unequal and uneven development throughout the Kipsigisland as Bureti and Belgut emerged as magnets of development and Sotik and Chepalungu relegated to the backwaters of economic development. It is also argued that while colonial capitalism provided new opportunities for some Kipsigis to accumulate wealth and expand agricultural output, it also pauperized part of the population. The notion of accumulation is intricately related to and engendered the processes of class formation. That by independence the Kipsigis were not a mass of undifferentiated and unstratified class is easily defended in the study. The emergence of stratified social categories invariably led to the ubiquitous aspect of class struggles. Thus, the new mode of production hindered and ruined some indigenous patterns of social formations by effecting changes in the agricultural sector of the Kipsigisland. During World War 11, agricultural production was intensified to produce enough food for war purposes. But in the post war period, emphasis shifted to the production of cash crops, and little attention was paid to the subsistence food needs of the Kipsigis. But more than ever before as the colonialists started giving recognition to African agricultural activities, aspects of class differentiation, unequal exchange, uneven development, wealth accumulation were even more amplified, as was the proletarianisation of the Kipsigis population and its dependency on the capitalist structures and institutions. By independence, therefore, the Kipsigis agriculture had been fundamentally transformed and integrated into the Kenyan colonial economy as part of the world capitalist system.Item History of socio-economic adaptation of the Turkana of Kenya, 1850-1963(2012-02-14) Nyanchoga, Samuel AlfayoThis is a study of the history of social and economic adaptation of the Turkana of Kenya from 1850 to 1963. The study is based on primary and secondary sources in archives and libraries in Kenya and on oral interviews with some informants. The study is set in the context of pre-colonial and colonial Kenya. The study set to investigate the impact of ecology and colonialism on the social and economic activities of the Turkana as well as how the Turkana people responded to the varied situations confronting them. The study uses the following theoretical framework; ecological and articulation of modes of production. The theories have been brought into the study with a view of analysing the role of ecology in shaping human social and economic institutions. The study demonstrates the centrality of the interactions between physical environment and human population as crucial in understanding the dynamics of Turkana social and economic activities. In the process of interaction between the physical environment and human population as crucial in understanding the dynamics of Turkana social and economic activities. In the process of interaction between the physical environment and human population, there evolved viable, social and economic institutions among the Turkana. Among some of the social and economic institutions discussed are pastoralism, hunting, garthering, agriculture, fishing, age-set system, stock associateship and traditional legal system. The study therefore underscores the importance of both the physical environment and the Turkana, given that they (Turkana) did play a critical role in shaping the outcome of their social and economic organisation. Articulations theory has been applied in the study to demonstrate the impact of the capitalist mode of production on the pre-capitalist modes of production once incorporated into the capitalist mode of production resulted in historical relationship which tends to dissolve undesired elements while conserving useful elements in the former. The process of intergration of the Turkana pre-colonial economy with colonial capitalist economy involved the use of coercive and non-coercive powers. Coercive powers involved unleashing violence on the people by the military personnel, seizure of livestock and punitive taxation. While non-coercive powers involved establishing institutions of chifdom as instrument of co-optation and local control. The process of integration led to the dissolution or distortion of certain features of Turkana pre-capitalist social and economic set-ups while conserving desirable institutions for the purpose of enhancing the functionality of capitalist activities in the region. The colonial capitalist policies introduced in the Turkanaland resulted in social and economic changes among the Turkana. The study concludes that despite the destructive nature of the colonial state and capitalist structure through depastoralisation programmes and anti-raiding policies, forced labour and taxation, the Turkana were able to evolve various adaptive strategies. The Turkana people developed profitable and adaptive linkages between agriculture, wage labour and pastoralism as this study demonstrates.Item The utilisation of African traditional and modern "western" medicine in Nairobi city, Kenya(2012-03-14) Ng'etich, Kibet A.Medical pluralism is a widespread phenomenon in Kenya's health care sector. In the Kenyan context, a form of dualism has emerged with traditional and modern Western medicine being the most dominant medical systems. The co-existence of these two health care systems presents users with an issue of choice. This study sought to examine the utilisation of traditional and modern health care options in Nairobi. The main objectives of this study were: first, to examine patterns of utilisation of traditional and modern medicine and; second, to examine illness concepts, socio-economic and demographic factors in relation to utilisation of health care options. The study is based on a sample of 208 patients visiting modern and traditional health facilities and 48 health practitioners in Nairobi. Information on the patient respondents and their utilisation of traditional and modern medicine was obtained using interview schedules and analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative analyses involved intuitive interpretation of interview data while quantitative analyses entailed the use of descriptive and correlational statistics. In particular Chi-square was used to determine the relationship between socio-economic, demographic and structural factors and the type of health care practitioner consulted. The key findings indicate that concepts of illness are important in the use of health care option. Traditional conceptions of an illness tend to be associated with the use of traditional medicine while modern conceptions of illness tend to be associated with the use of modern Western medicine. It was observed that mixing of traditional and modern concepts of illness have resulted in medical syncretism and the use of both health care systems. In addition, the study revealed that some illnesses were perceived to be best handled by traditional health practitioners; while other illness were perceived to be best handled by modern health practitioners and in a few cases both practitioners. Consequently, the use of a health care option depended on perceived compatibility with the illness. The study also found that some socio-economic and demographic factors play a decisive role in the use of either traditional or modern health service. Although the study found sex, age, duration of residence, ethnicity, education, occupation, income and modes of payments to influence health care use, some of these factors were not significant on the basis of the chisquare test. Furthermore, control of some variables revealed that the apparent relationships were indeed mediated by intervening factors. The study concludes that concepts of illness, socio-economic and demographic factors influence the use of health care options. This implies that there is need to not only promote the use of traditional medicine but also improve it and integrate it into the national health care grid. This study makes a number of recommendations for policy and research. First, structural factors which disadvantage traditional health care practice such as the lack of payments through insurance need to be removed. Second, the provision of health care needs to be brought under one ministry. Third, a legal framework for traditional health practitioners is necessary. Fourth, there is need for cooperation between traditional and modern health practitioners in their areas of expertise. Fifth, more sociological and biomedical research is needed to establish areas of cooperation between the two medical systems.Item Creative arts and cultural dynamism: a study of music and dance among the Abagusii of Kenya, 1904-2002(2012-04-12) Nyamwaka, Evans OmosaThis study was set out to trace the historical development of music and dance among the Abagusii of Kenya in a period extending from 1904 to 2002. It further investigated the dynamism of these cultural aspects and how music and dance changed the cultural history of the Abagusii community overtime. The study was guided by diffusion, structural functionalism, theory of musical change and syncretism theories. Diffusion theory facilitated the identification and analysis of Gusii music and dance cultures which compare favourably with those of other parts of the world gained through the process of diffusion. Functionalism theory was applied in the study of the functionality of music and dance among the Abagusii. The theory of music change was used in the study of changes that took place in Gusii music and dance due to their contacts with other peoples. The theory of syncretism was used to study the relationship between Gusii musical instruments with those of other parts of Africa and outside Africa.It was found out that music and dance has a direct role in the understanding of the cultural history of the Abagusii and those of other African communities. This was especially so in the traditional societies where other forms of communication such as written word had not fully developed. It was also evident that traditional music and dance among Abagusii transformed immensely as a result of the community's contact with other African communities and the Europeans. Most of these transformations came with missionary education, Western policies and cultural practices, World Wars,World Economic order among other events. After independence,Gusii music and dance seem to have undergone major changes as a result of emergent cultures both in Gusiiland and Kenyan society. Purposive sampling procedure was used to obtain a total of 61 informants from whom data was collected, analysed and documented. Both primary and secondary sources were utilized in data collection. Primary sources involved filed interviews while secondary sources included published works. Data analysis was done using descriptive as well as inferential statistics. Findings from this study provide useful information which adds value to the repertoire of African art of music and dance. Further, it will provide reference material and theoretical approach for music and dance analysis to researchers of African creative and performing arts. Teachers and students in schools and colleges where subjects such as poetry, music, dance and creative arts in general will find this work valuable in the promotion and preservation of Gusii music and dance and those of other African societies.Item Environment and settlement in the lower Tana during the holocene(2012-04-12) Ndiiri, WashingtonThis study is an interrogation of the role of environment on settlement on the lower Tana. Data recovered was filtered through an interdisplinary prism to show that there were a multiplicity of variables at play in the environmental matrix formation. The net process ultimately impacted on settlement configuration on the lower Tana. There were a number of f' research questions whose answers addressed the thrust of the research. An inquiry was undertaken on the impact of climatic variability through time,the impact of the changes in the subsistence base and the consequences of the Elnino phenomenon in the quest for settlement. The research took recourse to various methodological approaches viz oral interviews,excavations and ethnoarchaeological approaches that were used in tandem with written sources. Excavation of the sites of MuyuwaKae ,Kijiuni and Chikamba was done with a discriminative approach in order to address environmental questions in relation to their settlements during the Holocene. The process resulted in the recovery of zoo archaeological material which included the remains of animals, insects, human, fish, and bird bones especially the former may sufficiently be used in explanation of the kind of environment the animals thrived in. This faunal material was also used in the interpretation of environmental variability qver time. On the other band palynological evidence was.crucial for conclusions on the past vegetation and by implication past climate. In this connection pollen investigation executed in this research was crucial. The study is about environmental variability and the capacity of man to meet the challenge of the change. The work was encased in the theoretical underpinning of cultural ecology. Aspects of systems theory and human ecology were useful in, their subsidiary support in the concretization of the theoretical thrust. This study has shown that while the role of the environment cannot be underestimated there were other factors at play when it came to the choice for areas for settlement in the Lower Tana .Item The impact of male labour migration on rural women: a case study of Siaya district, C.1894-1963(2012-06-07) Jalang'o-Ndeda, Mildred AdhiamboThis study discusses the effects of male labour migration on rural women of Siaya District during the colonial era. In that period, Siaya was the chief labour "reserves". It was a source of labour for the European economy both in the rural and urban set up and the main feature of the relationship was massive circular migration culminating in limited income generating activities in this area. The transmission of the Siaya population into an African wage labour force passed through several phases. The first twenty years of colonial rule involved several experiments with the alternative methods of development, friction between settlers and officials over regular supplies of labour. The First World War heightened the official sense of urgency about labour problems and the impetus for mobilization of African labour. The period after the war marked the establishment of a regular labour supply. Many of the experiments used before and during the First World War were not operational. During the Second World War only a little pressure needed to be applied for people to go to work or to be recruited. After the war it became increasingly difficult to keep most men in their localities. This widespread introduction of male wage labour and other factors beyond the scope of this study created enormous transformation of the position of Luo women of Siaya. The transformation was determined by the interplay of local conditions, the demands of the colonial state and the interests of the European settlers. The primary purpose of the colonial state was to affect a transfer of surplus from the local economies to the colonial sector. The transfer could only take place materially with a certain amount of violence but after a while with more efficiency but with decreasing violence. The transfer had to take place with the bending of institutions and roles of the original social organization. Since this was based on exploitation of existing technological base or order the colonial personnel were dedicated to uphold aspects of the traditional order. In fact, the most important aspects to be, maintained were the household. It was left intact and formed a pre-capitalist pocket in the new system because it was useful to the colonial sector. Women were left responsible for most households while men were drawn into the colonial wage labour force. In this study we try to indicate the new mode, in the course of articulation, heightened some of the pre-existing male-female disparities and created new trends in the household social-economic relationships. Women had to maintain part of the labour force in the rural areas and to produce the labour force. Their work in the household freed men from family responsibilities and allowed them to act as cheap mobile source of labour for the colonial sector. As a result of involvement ion wage labour Siaya society and economy deteriorated and the benefits said to accrue from labour, such as remittances, new ideas and high status for certain families did not mean much. Infact, the colonial government ignored the central role played by women in subsistence until after the second world war-but this recognition did not alter the course of event. A system had been set in motion, which was now accepted and practiced by the Siaya population as the only reliable means of getting cash. Constrained by the demands of colonial economic interests, somehow most women persisted in performing their subsistence tasks and absorbed most of the work previously done by men. And yet this whole system was destructive to the position of women. Women who were unable to cope with rampant male absences freed their marital homes. The economic situation of Siaya today has its genesis in the production system evolved in the colonial period.Item An Investigation of Strategies to Control Corruption in the Police Service: A Comparative Study of Kenya and Korea from 1963 To 2007(Kenyatta University, 2015) Hyun, Ha TaeCorruption has, over the years, become a reality of monumental proportions worldwide. In the recent past, it has grown bigger in terms of the participating personalities and the amount of money involved. The forms of corruption committed by police officers are classified as follows: corruption of authority, kickbacks, protection for illegal activities, internal payoffs and tickets. Thus if remedial measures are not put in place to quickly contain the vice, corruption could become perpetual. Scholars, practitioners and experts have argued that in the management of corruption, one has to concentrate on the epicenter of corruption. The purpose of this study was to analyze comparatively strategies adopted by Kenya with Korea to deal with corruption in the police service. The study employed two theoretical framework approaches namely Ecological theory by Fred Riggs and Structural functional theory by Talcott Parsons. The methodology used was comparative approach and selection of respondents was carried out using purposive sampling with the police, members of the public, KACC and KICAC officers and experts providing feedback. Data was collected using interviews and questionnaires. The findings showed that the historical origin of corruption in Kenya could be traced back in 1887 and in Korea during the old Japanese colonial systems in 1945. The study established that police officers holding other jobs and the levels of salaries paid as factors promoting corruption in the police service. On impact of corruption the study established that corruption has a significant influence on how the country is perceived internationally which may affect engagements between the countries and many development and aid agencies. The strategies for controlling corruption seemed weak in both countries hence policy makers should revaluate the existing frameworks. The study recommended that the recruitment processes for police officers to be based on proper examinations systems rather than physical abilities, there should be measures to ban Kenyan police officers from engaging in other jobs and businesses. The study also recommended that police service in both countries need to create a functional framework for complementing, motivating and rewarding officers for effective corruption control. Kenya ought to put measures to shield officers from undue influence from senior officers and the public. Both countries need to undertake cultural restructuring within the police service in both countries both at the general level and the leadership level. Further, the respective societies need to deal with morality both in the public and within the force since corruption is an affair involving the police and the civiliansItem Absentee landlords and land utilization in Uganda: the case of Kibaale District, 1894 – 1995(2015) Magezi, James WilsonThis research focuses on absentee landlords and land utilization in Uganda, taking the case of Kibaale District in present-day Bunyoro Kingdom. It covers the period between 1894-1995. The study covers the economic history of Kibaale District during the colonial and post-independence period up to 1995.The objectives of this study were to identify the origins of absentee landlords, the commoditization of the land resource and its impact on land use between the landlords and the tenants. The study also examines how land policies of the colonial and post-independence governments tackled the issue of absentee landlords. The significance of this study is to add to the existing knowledge about the land tenure system in Kibaale District especially in relation to the politics of land allocation and utilization during both the colonial and post-independence periods. The study employed a number of theories including the theories of the articulation of the modes of production, neo-patrimonialism, conflict and relative-deprivation. The study adopted an historical approach in data collection and interpretation. Both primary and secondary data were collected. The study employed both the qualitative and quantitative methods of research to analyze and interpret the data. Both primary and secondary methods of data collection were used. A variety of informants were interviewed namely civil servants, peasants, teachers, landlords, landowners, politicians, and Kingdom leadership. The Uganda national archive in Entebbe was also a major source of information especially on correspondences of the colonial administrators. The research established that absentee Baganda landlords disrupted land use in Kibaale District during both the colonial and post-independence period. They were the holders of the land titles, and yet they were always absent which created insecure land-tenure among their Banyoro tenants. This research, therefore, recommends that the government should effect a land legislation that will solve the land question in Kibaale District.Item Development Assistance in Kenya: An Evaluation Of German Donor Aid in Post Independent Kenya, 1963-2003(Kenyatta University, 2015) Imbisi, Mukilima JoelThis study traces, analyses and accounts for German and Kenyan development bilateralism from 1963 to 2003. It highlights the origins, characteristics and development of Germany's development assistance programme to Kenya. It demonstrates the evolution of the major features of the German foreign policy and donor assistance to Kenya. Moreover, it seeks to analyse the trends in the German-Kenya bilateral relations over the period under study and to evaluate and account for the impact of German development assistance on Kenya's development. These highlights are made against a background of the Cold War politics and contexts in which Kenya-German bilateral relations were developed and thrived. The study seeks to identify the various capitalist beliefs and practices that inform the German economic policy towards Kenya and analyses the nature of its development assistance programme. The significance of the study is embedded in the fact that Germany is one of the major industrial countries of the world today, the third largest economy in the world after America and Japan, whose bilateral relations call for historical analysis. An account of Germany‘s major transformations is made within the Habermarsian theory as well as the dependency theory. These enable us to account for how that nation which had experienced great political and economic turmoil in the first half of the twentieth century became so successful in its socio-economic reconstruction. These processes are posed within the communicative action theory as well as the purposive dialogue theory of Habermas in an integrated way with the dependency perspectives. This work is, therefore, largely a historiographical and documentary review based study in its research design. The various literature, documents and harnessed oral information are subjected to historical analysis, interpretation as well as historical explanation within the Habermasian communicative action and purposive dialogue theories as well as the dependency conceptual framework. It has been demonstrated that in order to solve problems of diplomacy and national interest, Germany operationalized her foreign aid policy and donor assistance within official policy frameworks identified as Hallstein, economic self-interest and Friedenpolitik doctrines and other reports that spelled out official aid policies and practices for the country. The study has demonstrated how these policy frameworks have determined German development aid policy over the years. Finally, the study highlights the Cold War ideological setting in which Kenya-German bilateral relations emerged and blossomed. The study is based on the primary assumption that Kenya's development strategy of partnering with Germany was a product of the Cold War context of world politics. It also assumes that Germany‘s economic development has enhanced its capacity as a development assistance donor to Kenya and that Germany's donor assistance programme with Kenya began at independence in 1963, and was part of Germany's general foreign aid policy to Africa. Moreover, it argues that Germany's foreign aid policy enhanced Kenya's development in the modernization and neo-classical sense while in our view it has entangled Kenya further in a dependency relationship. An interdependence relationship has also been fostered between the two nations.Item Chiefs and Local Government Administration in West Budama County in Uganda During The Colonial Period, 1900-1962(Kenyatta University, 2015) Ogola, Y.This study is about the role of chiefs in colonial local government administration in Padhola County in Uganda, 1900-1962. Very little had been done on this aspect of Padhola history, the part played by local government chiefs in colonial local government administration therefore, needed a serious scholarly attention. Chiefs were indeed instrumental in facilitating local government administration, a situation that put them in prestigious positions which they guarded jealously. The Jupadhola were chosen for this study because they arrived in that ecological zone way back around 1650, they constituted a large population in the former Bukedi district and had absorbed a good number of people from neighboring ethnic communities. How their chiefs were identified and recruited, the kind of duties they performed, challenges they faced and the overall impact of their activities on Padhola communities constituted a problem that this study investigated. The main objective was therefore, to establish the role of Padhola chiefs in local government and resultant legacy. Qualitative methodology was used in data collection and analysis. Instruments used included library, archival and oral interviews, mindful of reliability, validity and ethical concerns. Several theories were used to inform the study, depending on specific chapters. However, the main theories included: Lugard‟s theory of indirect rule (1922), Ehiedu‟s theory on colonialism and indirect rule (2002), Heldring and Robinson‟s arguments on Colonialism and Development in Africa (2013) and Mamdani‟s arguments on Decentralized Despotism (1996). It is established that chiefs indeed played significant roles in colonial local administration, they were highly privileged and protected but they were extremely constrained by the ambivalent and contradictory positions they occupied. Besides, through their activities as collaborators, chiefs set the pace for the systematic development of underdevelopment in Padhola. This was established from their roles in enforcing cotton production, forced labour, tax payment and maintaining peace, law and order. This study is significant as it contributes to the existing body of knowledge and widens the horizon of African history in general and Uganda‟s history in particular.Item Voter Behaviour in General Elections in Kenya, 1992-2007: Implications for the Development of Liberal Democracy(Kenyatta University, 2015-01-22) Wafula, Justus OtiatoThe aim of this study was to examine voter behaviour in general elections and its implications on the development of liberal political democracy in Kenya. An examination of voting behaviour in general elections might shed some light to the country‘s pursuit of a ‗stable‘ political democracy. Consequently, this study endeavoured to examine the factors that structure voting behaviour, namely; purposive corporate social bonds, primordial corporate social bonds and socio-demographic variables. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design with a multi-stage sampling technique involving purposive and systematic random sampling methods to select 600 informants from six constituencies of which two were urban and four were rural in four regions of the republic of Kenya. Because of delimitations in terms of resources and logistics, only four regions were sampled out of the possible then eight provinces of Kenya. These four regions were the then Nairobi Province, NEP, Western Province and Nyanza Province. The four regions were chosen based on their unique voting behaviour in general elections. The main data collection instrument was structured questionnaire and where necessary secondary data were used to augment the study findings. SPSS was used in data management and analysis. The descriptive statistics used in this study included frequency distributions; percentages, means and later cross-tabulations were computed. Inferential statistics such as ANOVA, t-test and linear regression were also employed to test relationships, predictions and draw conclusions. Focus group discussions were carried out, summarised, categorised and emerging themes used in the discussion to augment quantitative information. Research findings obtained revealed that region, religion and income were the best predictors of voting behaviour. Voters in the then Nyanza (Luo) were highly influenced by social bonds in their voting behaviour , while Islam had a persuasive influence in shaping voting behaviour of its adherents more than any other religion. Voters earning more than Ksh. 10,000 were found to be independent of social bonds in their voting behaviour. On the basis of these findings, the research concluded that this might be some kind of modern day functionalism. Some form of ‗function‘-tangible or intangible that some regional or religious affiliation performs for voters which is why they are more likely to stick to one of their kind (or against as the case may be) or vote the highest bidder for those with low incomes. It was also concluded that it is because of lack of civic education coupled with strong primary social bonds (i.e in-group identity writ large). This means that voters are more likely to vote for candidates who originate from their regions, confirming voters‘ strong attachment to the notion of home district‖. The notion of home district‖ or region in Kenyan politics is a surrogate for ethnicity and/or clanism. On the basis of this finding, this research recommended that a policy framework be worked out for IEBC, NCIC and other players involved in civic education to engender liberal civic principles and consciousness in their curriculum that will inculcate in the citizens liberal democratic ethos necessary for the development of liberal democracy in Kenya.Item Management of Postcolonial Intrastate Conflicts in Uganda: A Case of Northern Uganda(Kenyatta University, 2015-08) Omona, Andrew DavidThis thesis analyses how the various postcolonial intrastate conflicts in Uganda and the Northern region in particular have been managed. In pursuit of this the nature, manifestation, causes, and effects of the postcolonial intrastate conflicts on the state and social cohesion of the local people were specifically teased out. The successes and failures of the mechanisms used for managing the conflicts were analysed with the intent to assess the efficacy of peace building from below in managing ethno-social conflicts in Northern Uganda. The researcher used qualitative design. The data for the study was collected by the use of interviews, focus group discussion, observation and literature analysis. Through using the phenomenological and descriptive approach of data analysis, the study established that apart from the first two years of independence, Uganda has gone through different sorts of conflicts. At different points and geographical spaces, the triggers and drivers of Uganda's postcolonial intrastate conflicts have been ethnicity, religion, natural resources, regionalism, and the struggle for power thus leading to a deep seated division between Ugandans at the national level. The degeneration of some of these conflicts at local levels in Northern Uganda worked negatively to set the local people against each other. As such, wanton destruction of lives and properties, wastage of national resources, and mistrust became characteristic at local levels. Consequently, it led to retardation of development, dehumanisation, the expression of revenge attitude and destruction of social cohesion amongst local communities in Northern Uganda. Of the many attempts made to address the different conflicts in Uganda and Northern Uganda in particular, the efforts of the local people within the conflict area was found to be very instrumental in addressing issues of conflicts at local levels. This is because such people understand the local context of the conflict well thus making them address such it contextually. To help promote the efforts of the local community in managing conflicts at local levels, there is need for respect of established traditions, respect for elders, empowerment of the local peace teams and sincerity in such processes, to mention but a few.