CW-Department of Educational Communication and Technology

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An Adaptive Gamification Model for E-Learning
(IST-Africa 2020 Conference Proceedings, 2020) Kamunya, Samuel; Mirirti, Evans; Oboko, Robert; Maina, Elizaphan
Gamification has gained currency in the recent past and has widely being deployed in various disciplines such as health, education, marketing amongst others. The main driving factor of deploying gamification is due to its motivational element. Gamification, particularly in education, has been used to motivate and elicit engagement in learners. However the implementation of gamification within elearning platforms has been of the "One size fits all" i.e., uniform application of gamification elements to all learners, albeit learners possess different characters which are distinct from each other. The need to embrace the "One size does not fit all" approach necessitates introduction of adaptive gamification. This study sought to develop an adaptive gamification model. The study used the Design science research methodology (DSRM) using the problem instantiation approach to develop the adaptive gamification model, which can be used to guide and implement adaptivity within e-learning platforms. In the development of the model the study reviewed 15 adaptive gamification studies from which the key components of an adaptive gamification model were synthesized and a final model proposed.
The African Universities' Response to the Undergraduate Students' Need for Independent Learning and Critical Thinking Skills
(Kenyatta University, 2003) Ndethiu, Sophia M.
In this paper, the author challenges leaders, teachers and other stakeholders in institutions of higher learning in Africa to give the promotion of independent learning and critical thinking skills the seriousness that it deserves. Many students that join university do so with only "lower-order" learning abilities so that higher institutions of learning need to respond by stepping in specific measures to bridge this gap. Universities have to be prepared to equip students with "high-order" learning abilities that will guarantee independence, engender intellectual stimulation and encourage independent scholarship while at the same time preparing them for life-long learning and critical thinking that are the defining attributes of life in an information based society. It challenges those universities that already have academic interventions for first-year students to interrogate the role being played by these structures with a goal to strengthening their core aims and missions. The role that universities can play to meet this very noble end is extrapolated against the current trends and realities within the teaching/learning environments of African universities. The paper proposes that African universities should adopt the "constructivist learning paradigm" which could guide our pedagogical choices if we are to develop learners with greater capacities for learning now and in the future. It ends by offering some recommendations
Baseline survey on the quality and efficiency of teaching Practice in middle level colleges: the case of Kenya Technical Teachers College, Nairobi, Kenya
(2015-07) Mwancha, Benedicto; Ondigi, S. R.; Khatete, D. W.
This is a survey carried out in 2014. The main objective was to determine the important indicators against which the quality and efficiency of future Teaching Practice will be compared. There were 256 students on teaching practice. A sample of 141students was randomly selected representing 54% of the population. All the assessment reports for all the students were used to determine the student performance. A sample of 10 heads of institutions and 31 Heads of departments and cooperating teachers supplied some needed data. Data was also generated from 11 external assessors. Questionnaires were used for data collection except for the case of heads of institutions where an interview schedule was used. The relevant documents available in college were also used as data sources. All the instruments were tested and validated by using experts for both content and technical accuracy. Quantitative data analysis was done by using SPSS. The means were worked out and where there was need to establish significance of differences, the “t” and “F” tests were carried out. The indicators for quality and efficiency of teaching practice were as follows: Average number of assessments per student was 2.9; Average performance was 72.14%; Overall Cost per student was Ksh. 25,507; Mileage per student was 120.516Km; Fuel consumption per student was 16.121 liters; Fuel cost per student was 1797.98 Ksh; Completion rate was 97.7% and TP student satisfaction 87.37%. Other findings included: The use of teaching aids and scheming are performed poorly. The components of self-presentation and learning environment have the highest score. The females have a higher mean performance than the males; the students’ grades are not dependent on the gender of the assessor. The higher the job groups of the assessors, the higher the mean score. The TP customers are highly satisfied with the services they receive. TP costs, placement, transport, frequent changes in timetables are some of the challenges facing the exercise. It is safely concluded that Kenya Technical Teachers College has maintained high standards in the management of teaching practice. The following recommendations are made: The approaches used in training students in scheming and lesson planning should be re-examined; the media should be better equipped in order to train students better in the development and use of teaching aids.
Case study of university of Nairobi and Kenyatta University
(2011) Kithinji, C. T.; Mburugu, K. G.; Kimemia, J. N.
This study had sought to identify the nature and types of mentoring programs in our universities; to identify the challenges/problems encountered by staff and students in the process of mentoring; to find out the coping mechanisms and resolutions of conflicts arising from students, unrest, drug use and abuse as well as deviant misbehaviuors in higher learning institutions and to suggest ways of improving mentoring programs in institutions of higher learning. The analysis and description of mentoring and development strategies as an integral component in youth empowerment and social emancipation was based on the theory of Mentoring Mosaic by Darling (1990). The study population was drawn from two Kenyan public universities namely; Kenyatta University, and University of Nairobi. Using the purposive sampling technique, the researchers selected twenty five students per institution. The data from respondents was classified according to the variables and the variable was then related to the research objectives. This research exposes the problem of mismatch between the expectations of a mentoring programme and the situation in practice. This includes: lack of a clear method of matching of mentor and the mentoree, low level of motivation of both mentors and mentorees among others. The administrators do not have a clear guideline on how to match mentors and mentorees and focus more on coordination. T he study recommends that a mechanism of matching mentors and mentorees be put up.; management to motivate mentors and mentorees ; set a day when each mentor is not occupied with any official duty so as to meet the mentorees ; create awareness of the existence of mentoring programmme to both students and staff and increase both administrators and mentors.
Challenges facing teachers in integrating educational technology into Kiswahili teaching. a case of selected secondary schools in Kisii county, Kenya.
(2011) Omariba, A.; Ondigi, S. R.; Oyot, H. O.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has brought about profound changes in this 21stcentury era.ICT has changed the way people communicate and do business. In education, the role of ICT and whether or not it positively influences the learners’ attitudes to work and particularly in language (Kiswahili) has been a matter of much debate. Globally, Kiswahili is taught as a language in universities such as Harvard, Yale, Germany, Osaka-Japan, China, South Korea, South Africa, Ghana and Nigeria just to mention a few. Further, the African Union meetings recognize Kiswahili as one of the languages of communication. The use of ICT creates an environment which moves away from the traditional teacher-centered approaches that have been devoid of learner enjoyment and explorativeness which are important characteristics of effective and meaningful learning. ICT allows learners to create, collect, store, use knowledge and information; and it enables learners to connect with people and resources all over the world (Alberta Learning, 2000). The emphasis of teaching Kiswahili language in Kenya is becoming commonplace. The professional development of teachers on the use of ICT enables them develop and update themselves on the ever changing trends and techniques of integrating Educational Technology (ICT-based ) in teaching. The Ministry of Education in Kenya as in many countries in the world realized and accepted the importance of ICT in teaching. It was with this regard that New Partnership for Africa Development (NEPAD) a pilot project was started with an aim of trying to find out the possibility of realizing the dream of integrating ICT in teaching in secondary schools. However, like any new project, there is a possibility of certain challenges such as students’ attitudes and how to impart knowledge and skills which may first need to be addressed in order to guarantee full implementation and success of the project in Kenyan secondary schools. The presenters of this paper did a study of selected secondary schools in Kisii County Kenya. The purpose of the study was to investigate the professional preparedness of the Kiswahili teachers in integrating educational technology into the teaching of the language and establish challenges teachers face while trying to integrate technology into Kiswahili instructional process. The findings have important implications for the future integration of educational technology in the teaching of Kiswahili in Kenya. Will this dream come true? The presenters will share their findings and experience.
Chemistry teachers’ role in changing practical work from “hands on” activities to “minds on” activities
(2015-07) Ituma, Monica Gakii; Twoli, N. W.
Practical work is important in the effective learning of Chemistry. In most Kenyan secondary schools practical work mainly involves ‘hands on’ activities where learners follow laid down procedures to arrive at a predetermined outcome. This may lead to working without much thought of the actions and thus low conceptualization resulting in poor performance in chemistry at the end of the course. This study aims at providing alternative approach on how to engage the learners’ mind more in practical activities. Data was collected through observations of practical lessons, followed by analysis of instructional materials used by chemistry teachers and questionnaires for the chemistry teachers. The findings showed that the strategies used to teach practical work did not adequately focus on the learners’ ‘minds on’ the activity. The teachers, therefore, require design and resource support for the implementation of learner-centred investigative practical work in secondary school chemistry. Keywords: Instructional Materials, “Minds On” Practical Activities, Practical Investigations
Context-based primary teacher training model: the way forward for Kenya
(2011) Mwangi, Suleiman Kairu; Twoli, N. W.; Maundu, J. N.
Teacher quality is a continuing interest to most teacher education reform discourses in many countries. Armour and Booth (1999), Feiman-Nemser (2001) and Hoban (2005) argue that most teacher education graduates in many countries often feel inadequate in their preparation for classroom teaching. In Kenya, the Sessional paper No. 1 of 2005, the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme document of 2005-2010 and Wanzare (2002) cite low quality primary teacher education as a major impediment to education reforms. This is attributed to the traditional content-based pedagogical primary teacher education model that lacks adequate learner involvement, presents a fragmented view of learning and has little connection between theory and practice. This study sought to establish whether context-based learning through focus group discussions on teaching and classroom practice improves teachers’ teaching effectiveness and aimed at developing a suitable pre-service primary teacher education model for Kenya. A Quasi-Experimental research design in form of a pre-test/post-test longitudinal panel control group was used. It involved a stratified random sample of 80 first year pre-service teachers from Meru and Egoji colleges (40 for experimental and 40 for control groups). The experimental group was sub-divided into groups of ten of equal gender proportions that held discussions under the facilitation of the researcher once per week during teaching practice sessions. A classroom observation schedule, a focus group discussion schedule and a reflective diary were used to collect data. The findings obtained through the use of a t-test for independent means revealed that there were significant differences between the two groups on instructional systems planning, teacher-student interactions, students’ motivation and use of instructional resources except on teachers’ classroom management.
Contribution of Ineffective Teaching and Learning of Mathematics to Regional Disparities in Socio Economic Development in Africa
(Kenyatta University, 2003) Rukangu, S. M.
Causes of diversified curriculum changes in US.A, Europe and Russia have basically been technological compared to other regions. Yet, mathematics has consistently remained a central and important subject in all school curriculum levels. Its immense relationship with other subject areas has created not only pressure on students 'performance in various examinations but also acts as "frustrating belts" for their future careers. Various policy changes, threatening demands for specific entries into the different career training institutions emphasize on mathematical grades . . Direct employment requirements and teaching styles for teachers have often used mathematics for selection purposes. Yet, real mathematical knowledge for socioeconomic development is least solicited from individuals. Priorities for alleviating poor results in mathematics have been identified in various African countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe and Namibia. Nevertheless, the improvement, if any, is minimal while socio-economic development continues to drop. Poor socioeconomic development can be linked to poor learning in mathematics. Currently the subject s learning procedures produce few individuals with good grades in mathematics and majority with poor grades. It is important to note that good grades per se are not sufficient to enhance socioeconomic development in Africa. There are other mathematical issues that are closely related to such development, which the teaching and learning of mathematics must address. This paper addresses such issues including problem solving and equity for mathematical education. Others are issues relating to poverty, politics and forming a wider learning environment for mathematics education in schools. Unless such issues, and the equity in mathematics in particular are fully addressed, the students' endless poor performance will continue to form a strong base for poor socioeconomic performance in Africa. This is the essence of this paper at this forum
Do pictures have an effect on learner performance in Composition writing?
(2015-07) Jumba, P. Kalemesi; Etyang, F.; Bwire, Adelheid M.; Ondigi, S. R.
Instruction using a variety of learning resources has been heralded as a most promising activity that can engage students into academic language and literacy skills. There are few studies investigating approaches in teaching English composition in primary school. Furthermore emphasis on learner foundations in writing is lacking in most African countries. The purpose behind this review is to establish whether using pictures could reinforce composition writing in upper primary schools. There is scanty research on picture-based instruction in general and on its effect on composition writing and language achievement in particular. The objective of this review is to examine the effectiveness of using pictures on learner performance in composition writing. Preliminary studies have established that pictures have an increasing effect on both composition writing and general attitude of learners towards English. On the basis of the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made: Most teachers do not use pictures to teach composition since it is time wasting because it requires a lot of time in preparation and acquisition of pictures. However, from various studies, when learners were exposed to pictures during composition writing lessons and eventually in examinations, their performance was significantly better than before. It is imperative that, a study be carried out on role played by the school administration and the community in the effective teaching of English and also, the relevance of the English language curriculum used at teacher training colleges in relation to the new trends in English Composition. Furthermore it would be necessary to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of Ministry of Education in English language assessment by Quality Assurance and Standards Officers. Key words: Pictures, Motivation, Composition Writing
Effect of practical work in physics on the students’ performance in physics
(2015-07) Muchai, Augustine N.; Twoli, N. W.
Science knowledge and skills are being regarded as very important in national development. Physics as one of the science subjects is useful in developing the upcoming engineers and medical doctors for any nation. An important component of the knowledge in these professions are skills which are acquired mainly through practical situations. This study explored the effect of practical work in physics among secondary school students in central part of Kenya. A quasi-experimental design was applied in the study. The experimental group was taught using a practical approach for one term while the control group followed the conventional or traditional approach. A pre-test was given to both groups at the start to determine their equivalence in ability. After the 12 weeks, a post – test, which was a physics achievements test, was administered to both groups. The results revealed that there was a significant difference in performance between the control and the experimental group, with the experimental group performing a lot better (𝑥 =30.70) than the control group (𝑥 =27.25). The results were significant at (𝑥 =0.05) level. This outcome showed that practical approach does reinforce the understanding of concepts in physics and thus boosts achievement. Keywords: Practical, Physics, Performance, Student
The effect of using multimedia cases on prospective teachers self-efficacy belief
(2015-07) Rugano, Peter; Twoli, N. W.; Waititu, Michael
The study explores how the use of multimedia cases affects the science teaching self-efficacy of prospective teachers in one university in Kenya. Chemistry and physics prospective teachers (N = 42) explored questioning and lesson introduction strategies using multimedia cases filmed in Kenyan classrooms. The changes in their self-efficacy was analyzed by looking at the difference in their scores in a pre-test and a post-test on a popular science teaching efficacy beliefs instrument developed by Enochs and Riggs, (1990). The results show that the use of multimedia cases created a cognitive dissonance that led to a decrease in the personal science teaching efficacy (PSTE) and no significant change on the science teaching outcome expectancy (STOE). These findings point to the effectiveness of multimedia cases in challenging the beliefs of prospective teachers during the methods courses. Keywords: Self-efficacy, Multimedia Cases, Prospective Teachers, Sub-Saharan Teacher Education Programs
Effective educational technology integration through capacity building: inexorable modernization of the Kenyan education system
(2015-07) Manyara, Joseph N.; Amunga, Hellen A.; Ondigi, S. R.
Education is vital for laying a solid foundation for national development of every nation in the world. Information communication and technologies (ICTs) are rapidly spreading to every corner of the world. In the 21st century, the field of education is progressively taking advantage of ICTs to enhance teaching and learning by efficiently and effectively distributing knowledge. Kenya, like many other developing nations, is in need of teachers who are equipped with educational technology knowledge for effective technology integration into teaching and learning so as to modernize her education sector. This paper is a review of literature on teacher capacity building as a way of effectively integrating in teaching and learning process. This will be linked to teacher capacity building, in Kenyan context, in order to identify responsive areas of strategic interventions that will modernize the education system. Keywords: Capacity Building, Integration, Educational Technology
Effective teaching practice as the professional familiarity with varying abilities and classroom control
(2011) Oyot, H. O.
This paper looks at the theories of education as inculcation of knowledge from the known into the unknown. To help the student teacher to develop the abilities and interests in teaching and learning. It helps the student teacher to seek to satisfy the needs of student by providing the necessary and relevant information to the student. It is intended to equip student teacher with competence in giving relevant information, giving the guidance, motivation and environment with positive interaction with students in a controlled classroom situation. Practical advice is provided on classroom procedures and on the ways of creating maximum utilization of facilities at any given classroom situation. The feedback in forms of regular tests and examinations become part and partial of teaching practice and essential component in evaluation of the learning process. Teaching practice helps in providing important feedback to the teacher in reviewing the teaching tasks. The paper is intended to describe and analyse the whole process of teaching practice and the rationale for its institution for teacher trainers. Concrete description will be made of all arrangements that must be made with the practising school or colleges; the role of subject supervisors; area supervisor and co-operating teachers in the whole programme. The duties of the student teacher in the teaching practice both in the classroom and extracurricular activities will be examined. The student teacher to identify himself with the new environment and meet the challenges of teaching practice. The rationale of teaching practice is to provide a neutral environment for the enforcement of theories of education learned in the university. It is a forum for assessment in professional ethics and skills and lesson material preparation. Thus the paper will look at all areas of teaching practice to provide information and assessment for both the student and the subject; supervision and the need for proper communication among all concerned.
Effects of Concept Mapping Based Instruction on Students’ Achievement in Physics in Public Secondary Schools, Nairobi County, Kenya
(2015-07) Otieno, Wasonga V.; Twoli, N. W.; Waweru, Gichuhi
Candidates’ responses to a large extent show partial concept development (KNEC, 2006). The purpose of this quasi-experimental study using pre-test and post-test with control and experimental groups was to determine if combining instructional concept mapping (ICM) and conventional instructional techniques (CIT) would improve students’ achievement in physics. Validated instruments were used to gather data on students learning achievements in physics, role of physics teacher and student, and challenges encountered in ICM and CIT lessons. Analysis of data was done using both descriptive and inferential statistics. It was found that students in the concept mapping group were more participative in class and obtained a statistically significant higher mean gain on the physics test compared to the non-concept mapping class, with p < 0.05. It was concluded that generating instructional concept maps is an effective teaching and learning tool for developing physics concepts. Keywords: Instructional concept mapping, Conventional, Improve, Achievement
Effects of mathematical vocabulary instruction on students’ achievement in mathematics in secondary schools of Murang’a County, Kenya
(2015-07) Wanjiru, Benson N.; Miheso-O’Connor, Marguerite; Ndethiu, Sophia
This article is based on a study whose main objective was to determine the effects of mathematical vocabulary instruction on students’ achievement in Mathematics in Secondary schools in Murang’a County, Kenya. The study was a non-equivalent control group pretestposttest quasi-experimental design and was conducted in the two purposively selected secondary schools in Kahuro District in Murang’a County, Kenya. Both the experimental and the control groups consisted of fifty-four (54) students from each school. The experimental groups were exposed to mathematical vocabulary instruction using the Graphical Organizer based on the Frayer Model with ICT integration instructional approach for ten (10) weeks. The control group was taught mathematical vocabulary by the definition-only method for the same period. Data were analysed using one-way ANOVA, independent t-test and paired t-test. The findings indicated that there is a statistically significant mean difference in the students’ performance in Mathematics for the group taught Mathematics vocabulary using the Frayer Model and those taught Mathematics using the definition-only method. Key words: Mathematics Vocabulary Instruction, Frayer Model, Mathematics Vocabulary
Gender differences in learning outcomes on the mole concept in a developing country: Kenya
(2015-07) Twoli, N. W.; Akala, Janet B.; Khatete, D. W.
The gender gap that results from the differential treatment of boys and girls is still noticeable today in their achievement and participation in chemistry education in Kenya and perhaps in every other developing country. Due to its large concept map and sometimes theoretical nature, the Mole Concept has been recognized as one of the most difficult topics to teach and learn within the secondary school chemistry curriculum. The study compared male and female form four secondary school students’ learning outcomes in Mole Concept area of chemistry in Kakamega County, Kenya. The sample consisted of 384 students randomly selected from the three school types: mixed, boys and girls. Two instruments were used viz: Mole Concept Students Attitude Scale (MCSAS) and the Mole Concept Achievement Test (MCAT). Data collected were analysed using t-test. The findings of the research showed that there were significant differences between male and female students in overall chemistry achievement (t = 4.409, p < 0.05) and attitude to science (t = 0.387, p < 0.05). The absolute t-values for spatial and mathematical items 4.780 (p < 0.05) and 4.094 (p < 0.05) respectively were highly significant with boys performing better than girls. It is therefore recommended among others that teachers should use instructional strategies that will enhance gender equality in students’ learning outcomes in chemistry especially in major concepts like the Mole. Keywords: Gender, Mole Concept, Learning Outcomes, Secondary School
Graffiti Writing and its Likely Influence on English Language Learning in Selected Secondary Schools in the Larger Laikipia East District, Laikipia County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Mwangi, Francis G.; Gathumbi, Agnes W.; Bwire, Adelheid M.
Graffiti takes the form of written language whose authorship always remains anonymous. It precisely refers to any wall writing, pictures and symbols or markings of any kind on any surface anywhere no matter what motivates the writer. Most graffiti are viewed as illegal or vandalism of property by those in authority. Secondary school students use graffiti as a form of communication when they feel other channels to express themselves, have been blocked by those in authority. The study at aimed at identifying the communicative strategies employed in graffiti writing and the influence of graffiti on learning of English language and classroom learning environment in our schools. Graffiti texts were collected in ten secondary schools purposively sampled in the Larger Laikipia East District in Laikipia County. Out of one thousand graffiti texts collected, two hundred were randomly sampled for analysis. Twenty English teachers were purposively sampled to take part in an interview. One hundred students were randomly sampled to fill in questionnaires. A Focused Group Discussion (FGD) was carried out with another group of five students randomly sampled across the classes in each school. The data collected from this exercise were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively to arrive at inferences and conclusions. The study used a sociolinguistic approach to the study of graffiti. The study was guided by General System Theory. The findings of the study were that students used varied communicative strategies like humour, symbolism, irony, short forms, acronyms and abbreviations in their graffiti writings. It was also established that teachers expressed varied opinions that graffiti influenced learning of English language and classroom learning environment in secondary schools. The findings of this research may contribute to the study of sociolinguistics in general and communication in schools in particular. It has been established that students use graffiti to communicate a lot of information that would be beneficial to the head teachers, quality assurance officers, students’ counsellors, policy makers and other stakeholders. Classroom teachers may also use graffiti to establish the unspoken students problems and behaviour and thus prevent entropy of the school system.
How does notational competence affect student understanding and performance in mathematics?
(2015-07) Geteregechi, Joash Mochogi; Miheso-O’Connor, Marguerite; Ondigi, S. R.
Mathematics is a discipline that communicates using a highly specialized language. This language makes use of notations and symbols in unique ways that require thorough understanding by those studying it. This study was designed to measure how student mastery of the notations relates to their performance in mathematics. The study used a correlational study design where competence in notations was correlated with performance. Competence in notations and performance in mathematics were measured using tests designed to measure the two. The findings indicate that student mastery of notations highly correlates with their performance in the subject thus recommending that they should be taken more seriously by teachers and authors of mathematics textbooks. Key words: Mathematical Notation, Mathematical Language, Symbolism, Notational Competence and Mathematics Performance.
Impact of video assisted instruction on students learning motivation-a position paper
(2015-07) Makira, Judy Njoki; Kimemia, John; Ondigi, S. R.
The use of e-resources in curriculum delivery promises better methods of content delivery. Among the various technologies currently available, video technology can be used for teaching and learning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of video assisted instruction on learning motivation. The study examined whether video assisted instruction developed using David Jonassen’s constructivist principles and within the framework of Keller’s (1983) ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction) model of motivation can affect students’ learning motivation. The study concludes that videos are ideal for enhancing learning. However, this depends largely on how they are designed and used. It is also evident from this study that Jonassen’s theoretical arguments, more so, the characteristics of meaningful learning and the “mind tool concept” are highly effective in using videos to enhance learning motivation. Key words: Impact, Video Assisted Instruction, Learning Motivation
Information communication technology integration in biology instructional process in secondary schools in Migori County, Kenya
(2015-07) Khatete, D. W.; Owiti, Eunice; Maundu, J. N.
This paper studied constraints to integration of Information Communication and Technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of biology in secondary schools in Migori County, Kenya. It employed descriptive survey design that utilized stratified, simple random and purposive sampling techniques. The study targeted education officers, all the secondary schools, all head teachers, all Form Three Biology teachers and all Form Three Biology students. The study was guided by the research question; what challenges do teachers and students identify in relation to ICT integration in biology? The study used a sample size of twenty-four (24) secondary schools. Research instruments included; questionnaires for use by biology students, structured interviews for biology teachers, head teachers, SCEOs and CDE, Observation schedules for biology lessons and ICT resource checklists. Data was analyzed through Descriptive and Inferential statistical procedures. The findings were presented in tables, frequencies and percentages. Keywords: Integration, Constraints, Instructional Process, Secondary Biology

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