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Item Fabrication of Rapid Diagnostic kit Casing using Degradable Cellulosic Material as an Alternative to Plastic(2013-12-14) Njogu, M.J.; Ng'ang'a, M. M.; Naumih, N.; Thuo, M. M.Diseases continue to be a major challenge in developing countries with massive impact on the already overburdened economies. The demand for health service is ever increasing due rapid population growth. Since most medical instruments are bulky and expensive, rapid diagnostic kits for early disease recognition have been used to a great extent. The worldwide clinical diagnostics industry is valued at approximately $19 billion. Currently rapid diagnostic kit casings are made of plastic because of its advantages during the fabrication, however little attention has been given to the life of the kits after use. Plastic casing used in diagnostic kits ta.ke a long time to degrade and this led to adverse.effect in soil and water pollution. Some kits have been developed for highly infectious diseases like HIV and TB. Their disposal creates biohazard waste accumulation especially in developing countries where regulation and management of bioharzardous waste is not developed yet. There is high risk of environmental contamination, exposure to human beings and animals. This study aims at adopting casings derived from degradable cellulosic materials to replace the non-degradable plastic casing. This will be achieved through chemical grafting to form a monolayer of hydrophobic molecules on the surface of cellulosic materials. The exposed hydroxyl groups (OH) in cellulosic materials will be functionalised without compromising mechanical properties. The surface modification of cellulosic materials will be tested for wetting properties by goniometor. Surface morphology and composition of modified will be screened by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The suitable cellulosic materials identified will be used in fabrication of degradable, affordable and completely incinerable of diagnostic kit casing. Fabrication of the casing will ease accumulation bioharzardous waste in developing countries.Item Application of Genetic Engineering Approach in the Control of Cassava Brown Streak and Bacterial Blight Diseases(2013-12-14) Njiru, J. M.; Mgutu, Allan Jalemba; Tripathi, L.Cassava is the fifth most important food crop in the world. Cassava's importance in Africa and South America can't be overstated. As a drought-tolerant crop that does well in poor soils, it enhances household food security and is a source of income that provides livelihood to 800million people globally. Annual global production of cassava is estimated at 232 million tonnes; an average yield of 12.5 tonnes per hectare. Diseases and pests are the greatest biotic problems to cassava production across the East" and Central Africa (ECA) sub-region causing yield losses. Cassava bacterial blight (CBB) caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam) is the most destructive bacterial disease in all cassava growing areas of the world causing yield losses of about 50% to 75%. Cassava is vulnerable to at least 20 different viral diseases, cassava brown streak disease (CBSD), being one of the most important viral diseases in Africa. CBSD is more lethal than other cassava viral disease because it causes severe necrosis within the edible storage roots. Crop improvement efforts through conventional breeding have aimed at attaining CBSD and CBB resistance, however these efforts have been largely unsuccessful due to the nature of the cassava plant for example poor flowering and low pollen fertility. This study aims at generating CBB and CBSD resistant plants through genetic engineering. Hypersensitivity response assisting protein (Hrap) gene will be used for transforming cultivar 60444. The constitutive expression of the Hrap in plants generates durable resistance against plant bacterial pathogens. This study seeks to use the Hrap gene to generate CBB resistance in cassava. There is no robust genotype-independent transformation protocol that has been developed for African farmer preferred cultivars. Through this study :;t protocol for transformation of three farmer preferred cultivars (TME 14, Mkombozi, Albert) using friable embryogenic callus (FEC) as the explant will be optimized, then transform one of the cultivars for resistance against CBSD using the optimized protocol. Post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) offer significant potential for controlling RNA plant viruses like CBSD. Therefore this study aims at using the RNA interference (RNAi) approach in developing CBSD resistant lines. The presence, integration and expression of the transgenes will be confirmed by PCR, Southern blot and RT-PCR analysis followed by screen house evaluation to gauge resistance. Data on different stages of optimization during transformation and regeneration will be collected and analysed by ANOV A (p<0.05) and means will be separated using LSD (p<0.05). For FEC and cotyledon induction a completely, randomized design (CRD) will be used for all experiments with the FEC as the observation unit and the plate as the replicate. At list three replicates will be set per experiments. The regeneration Frequency (RF) and transformation frequency (TF) of all the cultivars will be determinedItem Optimization of Genetic Transformation Protocol for Selected Banana and Plantain (Musa spp.) Cultivars Preferred in Africa(2013-12-14) Wanja, K. E.; Runo, Steven; Oduor, R.; Tripathi, L.Bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) are important staple food for rural and urban consumers and provide a source of income for resource poor farmers in the humid tropics of sub-Saharan Africa. However, banana production is severely limited by several pests and diseases, such as banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW), Banana bunchy top virus, Banana streak virus, black leaf streak, Fusarium wilt, weevils and nematodes. The application of conventional breeding for both disease and pest resistance has resulted only in limited success due to the long generation times and the high sterility and triploidy of most cultivated bananas and plantains. Genetic transformation offers an alternative and viable means for introduction of agronomically important traits into these cultivars. However, to be successful, these applications require a rapid and efficient plant regeneration and transformation protocols for both banana and plantain. Currently, most transformation protocols for banana use cell suspensions. However, establishing cell suspensions is a lengthy process, highly cultivar-dependent and most farmer-preferred banana and plantain cultivars are recalcitrant to generation of embryogenic cell suspensions. Thus optimization of cultivar-independent transformation protocol using meristematic tissues becomes a prerequisite for agronomic improvement of bananas and plantains. The objective of this study will be to optimize a genetic transformation protocol of banana and plantain cultivars using mcristematic tissues and also develop transgenic plants resistant against BXW. Multiple bud clumps (MBCs) and intercalary meristematic tissues of 10 cultivars (Grande naine, Gross Michel, Gonja Manjaya, Nusu Ngombe, Ngombe, Mpologoma, Uganda green, Kayinja, Zebrina and Calcutta 4) will be co-cultivated with Agrobacterium strain EHA 105 harboring a binary vector pCAMBIA23 0 1 or modified pCAMBIA2300-GFP, followed by selection and regeneration of kanamycin-resistant plantlets. The effect of different parameters including acetosyringone concentration, length of infection time, sonication and vacuum infiltration on transformation efficiency will be determined. Transgenic plants will be subcultured for several cycles under selection to di Ill!e chimeras and progenies will be tested for presence of transgene. Histochemical GUS and GFP assays at different stages of transformation will be used to test the uniformity of transformed plants. The presence and integration of the nplIl and gusA genes in the progenies will be confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analysis, respectively. The optimized protocol will be used to transform' cultivars Mpologoma and Kayinja with hypersensitive response assisting protein (Hrap) gene. Hrap gene has been shown to intensify the harpin-., mediated hypersensitive response and consequently conferring resistance to a wide range of pathogens in plants. The trans genes have been reported to enhance the hypersensitive response induced by virulent pathogens that act through the release of proteinceous elicitor harpinj; in tobacco, Arabidopsis and banana .~'1BCs and meristematic tissues will be used for the transformation followed by selection, regeneration and evaluation of the resultant transgenic lines Lor resistance against nxw. This study will augment the ongoing genetic improvement of bananas and plantains and contribute to the food security of communities living in Africa.Item Determination of Prohylactic Activity of HIV-Protease Inhibitors and their Interractions with Antimalarials.(2013-12-16) Mburu, D. T.; Makumi, J. N.Malaria is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa with children under 5 years and pregnant women at the highest risk. Over years, there has been an enhanced effort all over the world to find an effective drug or a vaccine against the protozoa. However most antimalarial drugs have been countered by increased resistance by parasite to the drugs rendering them ineffective. Among potential targets for new modes of chemotherapy are malarial proteases, which appear to mediate processes within the erythrocytic malarial life cycle, including the rupture and invasion of infected erythrocytes and the degradation of hemoglobin by trophozoites. Aspartic proteases playa key role in the biology of malaria parasites and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV -1). Most antivirals used in HIV therapy target these proteases that cleave a viral polyprotein precursor into individual mature proteins. Plasmodium falciparum, the most virulent human malaria parasite, expresses a number of aspartic proteases, known as plasmepsins. The convergence in dependence of the two parasites on the aspartic proteases makes them similar targets for chemotherapy. Malaria and AIDS share a wide geographical overlap in occurrence both being more prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa and the interaction of the two diseases results in co-infection which clearly has major public health implication. Given their known dependence on proteases, it appears the protease inhibitors (PI) in the treatment certainly exert a certain degree of antimalarial effect. This has also been demonstrated in in vitro and in vivo with the most potent compound, lopinavir, active against parasites at concentrations well below those achieved by ritonavir-boosted lopinavir therapy. The objective of this study will therefore be to assess the antimalarial activity of protease inhibitors in mice models, and assess if they have protective role when taken before malaria infections and whether their co-use with the malarial drugs has any interactions that would affect their utilization. Three HIV protease inhibitors Ritonavir, Saquinavir mesylate and Nelfinavir mesylate hydrate (Sigma Aldrich) currently available in Kenyan markets will be used. Mice (5 for each group) infected with Plasmodium berghei will be treated with each of the protease inhibitors (PIs). Parasitaemia will be determined every 3 days by microscopy and cure/survival rate over a period of 30 days recorded. Another group will be treated with a combination of ritonavir and conventional antimalarial drug artemether-lumefantrine (coartem) to assess their interaction and another prophylactic assay. The effects of inhibitors on P. bergei morphologytshape and cell integrity) will be assessed by light microscopy of Giemsa-stained smears. Data will be entered in excel spreadsheet and analyzed with student's T-test and ANOVA to determine whether the observed differences between the mean parasitaemia of the treatment groups is significant and testing significance within and between groups respectively. Statistical significance will be considered at P<0.05. Results of this study will generate useful information that can be used by malaria control programs especially in areas where both HIV/AIDS and malaria are endemic hence co-infection is high .Item Identification and determination of antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Salmonella serotypes isolated from patients at Kisii level-S hospital in Kisii County, Kenya(2013-12-16) Bundi, M. J.; Nyamache, A. K.There are close to 2,700 serotypes of Salmonella that have been described so far. Some of these serotypes are epidemiologically and clinically important since they cause various infections in human beings. In recent years, Salmonella related infections have been on the increase due to contamination of food and water sources. These infections are managed and treated using first line antibiotics such as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulfixozasole, tetracycline and nalixidic acid. However, improper use of these drugs has led to emergence of antibiotic resistant strains. Therefore, the main aim of this study will be to isolate and identify the main serotypes of Salmonella that cause infections among patients visiting Kisii level-5 hospital. The study will also determine whether the isolated serotypes have developed antimicrobial resistance. In this study, 169 blood and stool samples will be obtained from patients seeking treatment in the hospital and- cultured in selective Salmonella meaia-to-is01ate--Sa-fme-nelltl-friIDl 0therenteropathogens. The isolates will be identified into serotypes using colonial morphology, biochemical tests and serological serotyping. The isolation frequency of the various serotypes and their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns will be determined by use of Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method according to the National Committee of Clinical and Laboratory Standards. The data obtained will be analyzed using chi square, multiple logistic regressions and ANOV A test. The findings will be used in future management of Salmonella infections .Item Validity of Venous Blood in the Diagnosis and Management of Patients with Metabolic Acid-base Disorders(2013-12-16) Gatua, W. K.; Makumi, J. N.; Ngeranwa, J.J.N.Acid-base metabolic disorders are conditions that alter the normal body homeostasis that regulate the pH of blood in order to maintain normal biochemical functions. Maintenance of a constant pH is important for enzyme function, cellular uptake and use of metabolites and minerals, conformation of biological structures and uptake and release of oxygen. Patients with diabetes mellitus are prone to development of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) which is excessive production of ketone bodies such as acetone and ~-hydroxy butyric acid with resultant reduction in pH of blood. Acute and chronic kidney diseases also usually lead to excessive loss of bicarbonate ion in urine which eventually causes acid-base metabolic imbalance in the body. These two medical conditions necessitate frequent blood sampling in order to monitor and manage the resultantacidosis. However, arterial puncturing is invasive and apart from being more painful, could also be hazardous. Therefore, there is need to determine whether venous blood gas (VBG) analysis could replace arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis. Traditionally, arterial blood samples collected via the invasive arterial-puncture are used to assess the acid-base status of the blood. The proposed study aims at evaluating the validity of venous blood acid-base analysis and its clinical agreement with arterial blood in the diagnosis of acid-base disorders. In addition, reference values of acid-base parameters such as pH, Partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pC02), Partial pressure of oxygen (P02), bicarbonate ion (HC03 "), base excess (BIE), and Oxygen Saturation (02) in addition to electrolytes such as potassium, sodium, chloride and ionic gap will be established in venous blood samples. Thus, a cross-sectional study composed of two groups; cases (patients with acid-base disorders such as DKA and kidney disease) and controls (healthy individuals), will be carried out. A total of 250 subjects (cases) with acid- base metabolic disorders in the medical wards, Critical Care Unit and Renal Unit at KNH will be recruited. An additional 120 healthy subjects will be recruited for the establishment of reference values for acid-base parameters. About 2.0 m1 of both venous and arterial blood samples will be removed simultaneously from each patient and an equal volume of venous blood will be taken from each subject in the control group. Specific organ (liver, kidney, heart and the pancreas) function tests will be carried out by determining the levels of the following enzymes and endogenous compounds; aspartate Transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Alanine Transaminase (ALT), gamma glutamyl transferase (y-GT), bilirubin, urea, creatinine, uric acid, inorganic phosphorus, total protein, albumin, creatine phospho kinase (CPK) , lactate dehydrogenase, (LDH) and 0,- amylase. This study will be expected to introduce the use of venous blood gas (VBG) in the diagnosis of acid-base disorders instead of arterial samples. Immediate benefit to the patients will be decreased pain during sampling and also samples can be drawn using the same intravenous (IV) line that is used to draw blood for other laboratory tests, thus necessitating only one puncture. In addition, the sensitivity and predictive values of VBG and the level of agreement between VBG and ABG, will be established.Item Optical and Electrical Characterization of CdxSel_xS and CU2STHIN Films for Solar Cell Application(2013-12-17) Moraro, M. C.; Njoroge, W. K.; Munji, M. K.Solar energy from the sun is abundant, most affordable, clean to use and inexhaustible. Solar energy, has therefore, been harnessed to generate electricity using solar cells. Solar cells convert solar energy directly into electricity. Properties of thin film solar cells strongly depend on vawus deposition techniques among them is the Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD). This technique yields stable, adherent, uniform and hard films with good reproducibility by relatively simple process. In this research, CBD will be used to deposit thin films of Cadmium Seleno-Sulphide (CdxSel_xS) and Copper (I) Sulphide (CU2S) on glass substrates. Optoelectronic properties of both films will be investigated. Electrical properties like sheet resistivity (p) will be investigated using four point probe method. Optical properties like reflectance and transmittance will be determined using UV-VIS NIR 3700 spectrophotometer in the range between 300-2500nm. Transmittance and reflectance will be simulated by scout software from which other optical parameters like band gap (Eg), refractive index (n), extinction coefficient (k) and absorbance (u) will be calculated. Conditions that will give CdxSel_xS and CU2S optimum opto-electric properties will then be selected and used to fabricate a p-n junction thin film solar cell. The fabricated thin film will be characterized for solar cell applications by simulation method. Thus the solar cell's diode characteristics like dark current (L), open voltage (Voc), fill factor (FF) and conversion efficiency (11) will be obtained.Item Genetic Characterization of Selected Sweetpotato Varieties for Dual Food and Feed Utilization(2013-12-17) Mbithe, M. J.The sweetpotatolpomoea batatasL. (Lam.) is a symbol in the fight for a global nutrition plan that can save millions of children and help build a healthier and more productive future. In world crop statistics, sweetpotato is currently the sixth most importantfood crop after rice, wheat, potatoes, maize, and cassava. In the developing countries it is ranked fifth after maize, rice, wheat and cassava, whereby it is a smallholder crop tolerant of a wide range of edaphic and climatic conditions and grown with limited inputs. Consequently, it has been relied on as a source of calories since its vines and/or storage roots can be used for direct human consumption, as well as providing inexpensive, protein-rich fodder for animals. It is thus a cheap, nutritious solution for developing countries needing to grow more food on less area for rapidly growing populations. However identification of those sweetpotato varieties which have optimal morphological features suitable for both food and feed has not been done. This study therefore seeks to genetically characterize selected 14 Ugandan farmer's sweetpotatofamilies to identify those with superior morphological characteristics suitable for dual purposes. In the early screening stages plants will be raised from true seeds after scarification. Germination of the seedlings will be done in special trays. A selection of single true seed plants will be done, after which vines will be generated. Those selected among true seed plants are will then enter observation yield trials (OTs). OTs will be carried out in order to discard those which clearly do not meet the lowest acceptable gross morphological, descriptors. In addition to the morphological identification, nutritional analysis of the various nutrients and molecular characterization of the selected varieties will also be done. Analysis of variance will be used as a statistical method to find out if significant differences exist between the varieties. It is expected that the current study will: (i) Allow selection and publishing of sweetpotato varieties with optimal characteristics for both food and feed (dual purpose). (ii) Contribute to the advancement of ongoing research on sweetpotatoes.(iii) Contribute towards sustainable food production, one key area of concern in the realization of vision 2030 in Kenya and other developing countries.Item HIV/HBV, HIV/HCV, HIV/HBV/HCV Co-Infections, Liver Function Levels Assessment and T Lymphocyte Counts among HIV Positive Patients at Ampath, Eldoret(2013-12-17) Rapando, J. W.; Burugu, M.; Lihana, R.Hepatitis B and C are blood borne viruses that cause chronic liver diseases leading to liver cirrhos~ and hepatocellular carcinoma CHCC). HBV infections in childhood result in development of severe liver complications in over 90% of cases. More than 2 billion people have been infected with HBV with over 350 million being chronic carriers. About 3% of the world's population has HCV with about 170 million being chronic carriers. Co-infections of both hepatitis B and C with HIV occur regularly due to shared transmission routes. Co-infections with HlV impact on the natural history, progression and diagnosis of the disease as well as morbidity and mortality of those infected. It is postulated that co-infections results in the persistence of the diseases in the body resulting to higher viral loads as well as progression to severe liver diseases. These patients become chronic carriers hence persistence of the virus in the human population. This research aims at establishing HIVIHCV, HIVIHBV and HIV/HBVIHCV co-infections, the effects of the co-infections T lymphocyte counts in co-infected patients. This will be a descriptive, cross- sectional study at Ampath, Eldoret. An informed consent will be obtained from 123 study participants. 5ml of blood will be drawn from the patients in vacutainer tubes and used toodetermine the T lymphocyte counts by flow cytometry and liver function levels by spectrophotometry. Hepatitis Band C infections will be determined serologically using antibody capture ELISA. Data will be entered into the computer and analyzed using SPSS version 16.0. The HIV/HBV, HIVIHCV and HIVIHBVIHCV co-infections will be expressed in percentages. A chi-square test will be used to determine the associations between the presences of HIVIHBV, illVIHCV and HIVIHCVIHBV co-infections. A p-value of :S0.05 will be considered to be statistically significant. This study will provide more insights on the effects of the co-infections on Liver functions as well as on T lymphocyte counts. This information will be useful in the management of the patients.Item Evaluation of Molecular Characterization of Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) From Selected Wildlife Herbivores in Kenya(2013-12-17) Wanjira, M. C.Ticks are haematophagous parasites on animals, birds, reptiles and humans and they are considered to be second to mosquitoes as vectors for infectious diseases. They are known to transmit pathogenic micro-organism of protozoa, bacterial, rickesttsial and bacterial origin. The infections and diseases that they transmit lead to economic losses in livestock and cause public health risks to human. Tick identification relies on the basis of morphological traits, an approach that has several drawbacks. It is difficult to identify damaged ticks, nymphs and larvae of closely related species, and requires experience in morphological work. Newer approaches that utilize molecular methods have been regarded as a useful tool in identification and several related studies have been described from various parts of the world However, there are insufficient genetic profiles of ticks especially in wild animals in Kenya Sand this may be considered as one of the factors that have led to little understanding of ticks and the diseases they transmit. Such information would provide accurate information that would assist development of control strategies of tick borne diseases in both humans and animals. The objective of this study is therefore, to determine morphological and molecular characteristics of ticks sampled from wild herbivore hosts in Kenya. The ticks will be collected from different regions in Kenya and DNA will be extracted using Qiagen Tissue Kit. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) will be carried out to amplify the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region which will then be followed by sequencing which will provide molecular phylogeny for the collected ticks. Information obtained from this study will aid in the identification of novel ticks species and add value to the existing knowledge in identification of ticks. Therefore, providing accurate information that will assist in various investigations related to ticks.Item Isolation and Characterization of Antibiotic Producing Bacillus Species in lake Bogoria(2013-12-23) Torome, T. K.; Orinda, G. O.; Gakuya, F.Environmental microorganisms and their natural products are potentially important for the control of diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms. With the emergence of antimicrobial resistance to most antibiotics, there is utmost need to carry out more research on organisms that may have potential to be the next generation antibiotic producers. This study aims to isolate, identify and characterize Bacilli species with the potential of antibiotic production that inhabit extreme environmental conditions specifically hot water springs (Loburu, Chemurkeu, and Ng'wasis, Koibobei and Losaramat) of Lake Bogoria through several. studiies hav~ been conducted on microorganisms. i~habiting some of the very extreme ~nvlronments including high salt concentration, extreme salinity, extreme Ph, extreme temperatures among others and the biotechnological potential of these organisms, there is extremely scanty information of such or related studies conducted on Lake Bogoria with respect to antibiotic production by Bacilli species. Surface and sediment samples will be taken from these hot springs and transported to the lab in as identical conditions to the natural environment as possible. They will be cultured in nutrient broth and then in nutrient agar using the streak plate method to isolate pure colonies. Antimicrobial testing on bacterial fermentation extract products of pure isolates using agar well diffusion assays on standard ATCC organisms will be conducted. Genomic DNA of those that will show antimicrobial potential will be extracted and amplified. The 16s RNA gene sequences of isolated species will be aligned to sequences in the public database using BLAST analysis. A phylogenetic tree will be constructed to show relationship. Permission to carry out the study will be sought from KWS.Item Mango Tree Water Requirement in Makueni County in Kenya(2013-12-23) Rotich, H.Mango production in Kenya has expanded considerably over recent years, not only in size but also in the geographical location of commercial and homestead plantings. Virtually every smallholding in Makueni County is dedicated to the production of mangoes under rainfall or irrigation. The main problems are that the fruit quality and quantity being produced is low. This is partly attributed to the fact that rainfall pattern of Makueni does not coincide with major water requirement during phenological stages of mango such as flowering and fruit set; fruit growth and development; flower initiation; and paride swelling, in order to realize the full potential yield of mangoes. This study, therefore, aims at looking at mango eco-physiology and water relations in Makueni County, Kenya. In particular, the study will aim at achieving the following objectives: to determine infiltration rates and levels of moisture retention of soil types present in Makueni County; to determine optimum crop water requirement of mango varieties at various phenological stages with respect to frequency and quantity; and to determine the impact of water use efficiency of mangoes on production. Four groups of Apple variety mango farmers in Makueni County will be selected for the study, in which only one farmer's orchard will be selected. All the treatments in this study will be laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) comprising nine irrigation treatments rates categorise into two, partial and full irrigation; WI (partial 100% irrigation (F 1) as calculated based on the climatic water balance according to altitude, place and dates of planting, W2 (partial deficit irrigation with 7S% ofFl [pDI7S]), W3 (partial deficit irrigation (pDl) with SO% of FI [pDISO]), W4 (partial deficit irrigation with 2S% of FI [pD12S]), Ws (no irrigation), W6 (full irrigation with 100% [fFT]), W7 (full deficit irrigation with 7S% [fDI7S]), Ws (full deficit irrigation with SO% [fDlSO]) and W9 (full deficit irrigation with' 2S% [fDI2S]). Also growth stage irrigation timing; PI (before flowering), P2 (onset flowering), P3 (fruiting). Flower induction treatment as well; II (using KN03), b (control), h (using ethylene). The estimation of the mango water requirement will be derived from crop potential evapotranspiration based on altitude, place and dates of planting. The data for this study will be analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOV A) to detect differences between trees in the four selected farm groups and LSD test for determining significance of differences, using SPSS for Windows I1.S software (SPSS Inc.). Also, the data for this study will be subjected to SPSS T-test procedures and Tukey's test (p < O.OS) will be employed to separate and determine means whose values will be got from individual fruits.Item Dietary Intake, Nutritional Status and Morbidity Patterns of Male Prisoners living WITH HIV at Selected Prisons in Kenya(2013-12-23) Kavithe, R.K.; Mbithe, D.; Maoga, W. N.People living with HIV and AIDS face increased challenges in maintammg proper nutrition. HIV negatively affects almost all body systems, which results in recurrent opportunistic infections, weight loss, distribution of weight changes, and death. Dietary intake and consequently nutrition status impacts on HIV either negatively or positively. Within prison settings, barriers exist that limit the ability of prisoners to improve and maintain their health. Male inmates living with HIV are well recognized as vulnerable and socially excluded population, whose acquiring of adequate treatment is greatly affected by poor nutritional status among other factors. The purpose of the study will be to assess the food consumption patterns, nutritional and health status of male prisoners living with HIV at selected GK prisons in Kenya as well as determine the factors that affect the same. The study will use a cross sectional analytical survey with a sample size of 135 male inmates. The study will be carried out on HIV positive male inmates at the 4 selected GK prisons, both on remand and convicted. The subjects will include both those on care (Cotrimoxazole and multivitamins) and on treatment (ARVs) and should have been within the prison walls for the last 3 months. Purposive sampling will be used to select the study population (HIV positive prisoners) and simple random sampling to select the subjects among the HIV positive male inmates in the 4 prisons. The study is aimed at influencing the prison menu to be in line with the nutrition and HIV guidelines in order to improve nutrition care for HIV positive prisoners. An observation checklist will be used to check the food eaten, method of cooking used, amounts served and conditions in which the food is served. A structured questionnaire and FGDs will also be used to collect data. Anthropometric measurements will also be taken on all the subjects. Anthropometric data will be analyzed by use of Epi Info while nutrition data will be analyzed by use of Nutrisurvey. This data will further be analyzed by use of Statistical . Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Version 17) software. Association between health and nutrition status will be analyzed by use of regression analysis. Pearson's Product Moment correlation (r) will be used to analyze continuous data where P -Value <0.05 will be considered significant. Descriptive statistics will be used to describe and summarize data on HIV positive male inmates' socio economic, demographic characteristics and health factors. Data presentation will be in a form of descriptive statistics, that is frequency tables, cross tabulations, pie charts and bar graphs and appropriate inferential statistics will also be presented.Item Repellancy Studies on Structural-Electronic Features of Octalactone Analogues and Blends against Tsetse Flies (G. pallidipes and G.morsitans(2013-12-23) Otondi, R. N.; Ng'ang'a, M. M.; Hassanali, AhmedTsetse flies (Glossina spp.) are insects of veterinary and medical importance since they are the sole vectors of different species of trypanosomes, which cause nagana in livestock and sleeping sickness in humans. In sub-Saharan Africa, the savanna tsetse flies such as G. morsitans and G. pallidepes are vectors of Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolese and T. brucei that cause nagana, while riverine tsetse flies such as G. palpalis and G. fuscipes fuscipes are vectors of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and T. b. gambiense which cause sleeping sickness. Nagana threatens over 45 million cattle while sleeping sickness threatens over 60 million people. Two approaches have been used to combat the effects of the diseases: parasitic and vector control. Parasitic control with trypanocidal drugs has not been successful due to problems related to their availability, toxicity and resistance development. Attempts to develop vaccines have been futile due to the trypanosomes' antigenic variations. Vector control based on bush clearing, game destruction and use of insecticides are ecologically and environmentally harmful. Sterile insect technique (SIT) only works in ecological islands and, therefore, not effective in most of the African mainland. Community-based bait technologies developed using synthetic combinations based on attractive host odours (ketones, phenols, acetone and carbon dioxide) and visual cues have been relatively successful, except among pastoralists, who move from one area to another in different seasons. Repellant technologies may provide an effective tactic, with potential for use at individual farmer and pastoralist level. A previous study on waterbuck, a tsetse refractory non-host, led to the identification of a blend of 15 electrophysiologically active constituents (six Cg-Cl3 methylketones, two phenols, six C5-ClO straight chain fatty acids and o-octalactone) that is repellant to savanna tsetse flies. Of these constituents, o-octalactone has been shown to be a critical component. In an effort to develop more potent tsetse repellants, studies on structuralelectronic features related to o-octalactone will be undertaken. This will involve evaluation of the effect of various structural-electronic features of o-octalactone on level of repellency against G. pallidepes and G. morsitans. Targeted o-octalactone analogues include 2-hydroxy-6- propyloxane, 2-methoxy-6-propyloxane 2-propyloxane and 3-propylhexanone. The structure of the synthesized analogues will be confirmed using GC-MS, IR spectroscopy, IH and l3C NMR. EAG-active synthesized compounds and blends will be evaluated in wind tunnel assays against savanna tsetse flies. The data obtained will be analyzed using ANOV AItem Identification and Determination of Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex Isolates from HIV Positive Patients in Kisumu County, Kenya(2013-12-23) Usagi, B. M.; Maingi, J.; Nyamache, A. K.Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex are important pathogens to man and causative agents of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is one of the diseases that continue to be a public health concern in the world. Earlier, tuberculosis was considered controlled, but with emergence of HIV the disease has been fuelled in varied proportions worldwide with high incidence in sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya ranks 15th among 22 highest burdened TB countries in the world and 5th in ~ica. The Ministry of Health indicates that numbers of tuberculosis cases have increased from 10,000 in 1994 to 106,000 in 2004 with 132,000 new cases in 2009. World Health Organization indicates that there were 300 TB cases per 100,000 people in 2011. Tuberculosis remains a serious health threat' especially for people living with HIV who are more likely than others to contract the disease. The disease is the leading cause of death among people living with HIV, accounting for one in four HIV -related deaths. People living with HIV face emerging threats to drug resistant tuberculosis such as multi-drug resistant TB (MDR TB) and extensively drug resistant TB (XDR TB). Treatment for tuberculosis requires the use of antituberculosis drugs which include Rifampicin, Isoniazid, and Streptomycin. However, there have been cases of recurrence of disease, drug resistance and emergence of multi drug- resistant Tuberculosis (MDR TB). The aim of this study is to isolate and identify the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex prevalent in HIV patients seeking treatment for tuberculosis in Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Teaching and Referral Hospital in Kisumu County. In this study, 379 sputum samples will be obtained from consenting HIV patients between October and December 2013. GeneXpert testing will be used to detect the TB bacilli. The samples will be cultured in Lowenstein-Jensen media and blood agar media and identified by observation of rate of growth, colony morphology, pigmentation and biochemical profiles. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex will also be identified by molecular probes using PCR. The isolated microorganisms will then be tested for susceptibility to Isoniazid and Rifampicin. Descriptive statistics will be used to summarize data and proportions compared using Chi-square (X2). Multiple logistic regression will be used to evaluate relationship between age and most prevalent mycobacteria and ANOVA used todetermine the most resistant tubercle bacilli to the commonly used antimicrobials. The findings of this study will indicate the incidence and prevalence of drug resistance within the community and provide data as to what drug should be used for treatment of tuberculosis. The information will be handy in the future management ofTB in Kisumu County. tItem Levels of Heavy Metals in Tilapia and Catfish Species along River Ruiru, Kenya(2013-12-24) Odongo, K. O.; Otieno, S. A.; Sharma, R. R.River Ruiru flows in areas where it is subject to pollution due to municipal wastes, urban and agricultural wastes. The river is reported to harbor various species of fish such as tilapia, catfish, eel, and common carps, which may be contaminated by heavy metals present in such wastes. The heavy metals may damage organs such as gills, liver and kidneys of fish. Consuming such fish by other organisms in the aquatic food chains such as birds, besides human can be harmful. Fish concentrate large amounts of heavy metals from polluted waters and when they use other animals as part of the food. It is important to ascertain that such fish issafe for organisms that consume them, including humans. Studies of concentrations of metals in rivers and in fish can also serve as an indicator of the extent of pollution along the rivers. The objective of the proposed study is to carry out a comparative study on the levels of heavy metals in tilapia and catfish species along River Ruiru. Systematic random sampling will be applied to collect water, sediments and fish samples from six sites, along the middle course of Ruiru River. Three sites will be located downstream along the river, 100 meters past Ruiru town. Three control sites will be at the upstream sections of the river, 100 meters away from Ruiru town. The sampling points will be 100 meters apart. Fish samples will be transported to the laboratory for identification. Ichthyologists from the National Museums of Kenya will assist in identifying fish. Levels of heavy metals in the river water, sediments and in gills, liver, and muscles of tilapia and catfish will be analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Histopathological and morphometrical changes of gills and liver in fish will also be studied. The data on levels of heavy metals in water, sediments and fish gills, liver and muscles will be analyzed by means of one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Correlation coefficients will also be calculated to assess the association between biotic factors such as sex, weight, and length of fIsh, and the concentration of metals in fish gills, liver, and muscles. It will also be used to determine the association between levels of heavy metals in water and sediments and levels in fish gills, liver and muscles. Knowledge of effects of heavy metal pollutants on fish can be a tool for an early warning system in the evaluation and analysis of the health of fish populations and their natural environment. Such information could also guide environmental regulators and decision makers in taking actions in time to minimize damage to the environment and human health.Item Plasma interleukin- 10 levels in HIV and HBV co-infected adults From Mombasa county, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2014) Otieno Hellen Achieng'I-Iuman Immunodeficiency Virus-I (HIV -1) and Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) co-infection is 4 common public and clinical health burden in Kenya. This is because these blood borne pathogens share modes of transmission. Drug users, especially injecting drug users (IDUs), are at a higher risk of acquiring and transmitting these viruses because they often share unsterilized I syringes and engage in risky sexual behaviors. Mombasa County serves as the entry and transit point for drugs and consequently have the highest number of IDUs. Co-infection with HlV-1 and I-IBV results in severe disease outcomes and rapid progress to AIDS. Following HBV infection, HlV-1 infected patients are six times more at risk of developing chronic hepatitis B than HfV-1 negative individuals. HIV -1 also enhances the development of HBV related liver diseases. Interleukin 10 is an immunoregulator cytokine that function to control the balance between immunopathology and protective responses in infection. Interleukin 10 is usually associated with antiviral immune response suppression. Both HIV -1 and HBV infections up regulate It 10 expression which in turn controls various aspects of the infection processes. Despite the importance of lL-l 0 in disease progr~ss, little is known about the role it plays in IIIV-1 and IIBV co-infection pathology mechanisms. Therefore, a cross sectional study will be conducted at Bomu Medical Centre, Mombasa County to determine the levels of circulating IL- 10 and their effect on immunological correlates in HIV -1 and HBV co- and mono-infected adults in Mombasa County. lL-10 levels will be measured using lL-l 0 enzyme linked immunosorbent _, assay. The samples will be tested for HIV -1 using Abbott DetermineĀ® HlV -1/2 rapid test and confirmed using Uni-GoldĀ® test. HBsAg presence will be determined using one-step HBV-5 panel rapid diagnostic kit. The viral loads will be determined using polymerase chain reaction. CD4 T cells will be enumerated using FACSCalibur machine. Basal metabolic index will be calculated using the height and weight measurements of the study subjects. The data collected will be analyzed using SPSS (version 22) and GraphPad Prism (version 6.0) statistical programs. Across groups comparison will be done using Kruskal Wallis whereas paired groups comparison will be done using Manu-Whitney U test. Spearman's rank correlation test will be used to determine the relationship between IL-I0 and CD4 T cells, viral load and basal metabolic index. A probability of :S0.05 will be considered statistically significant. The results obtained will help in improving the understanding of HIV and HBV co-infection pathology and development of new therapies that can be effective against the coinfection and vaccinesItem Determination of some trace elements with known immunological response and curative properties in some selected medicinal plants(2014) Njenga, Isaac KariukiThe emergence of drug resistant diseases coupled with the ever-nsmg cost of drugs and difficulties in assessing health care in Kenya has resulted in an upsurge of interest in herbal plants. Many sythentic drugs among them artemesinin used for malaria treatment have been derived from herbal plants.There has been a great emphasis on analysis of organic compounds in the herbal plants over the years.These bioactive compounds are part of the plant matrix which include the trace elements. Some trace elements have known immunological response and curative properties which might explain the efficacy of the herbal plants and thus the significance of this study. This study will be carried out to determine the concentrations of trace elements with known immunological response and healing properties in selected medicinal plants available in Kenya and used for treating various diseases. These plants are Prunus Africana (Hook f.) Kalkman,Urtica doica L., May ten us obscura (A. Rich.) Cuf., May tenus putterlickiodes, Azadiracta indica A. Juss , Mondia whytei (Hook. F.) , Zanthoxylum usambarense, Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg-Ben) , Trigonella foenum-graecum L. and Glycyrrhiza glabra . L. The last two are common exotic species.The concentrations of Zinc, Chromium, Vanadium and Selenium will be determined by the use of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (EDXRF). The data will be analysed using SPSS and Ms Excel computer software. Spectral data analysis for EDXRF elemental concentration will be done using QAES, AXIL and S-100 computer software. The information obtained will be used to enhance the indigenous knowledge of the medicinal plants through dissemination to the public and health care providers.Item Vitro antimicrobial activity and safety of medicinal plants used to manage samonella typhi, campylobacter jejuni and shigella dysenteriae in Meru county, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2014) Maithulia, Stephen MugambiPlants have been used in the management of human enteric bacterial pathogens (that causes bacterial gastroenteritis) without scientific evaluation on their antimicrobial activity, safety and efficacy. The main goal of this study is therefore to evaluate in vitro antimicrobial activity of aqueous extracts of Osyris lanceolata, Mimosa pudica and Zanthoxylum usambarense and assess their safety using the rat's model. The aqueous extracts will be evaluated in vitro on their activity against gram-negative enteric bacteria (Salmonella typhi, Camphylobacter jejuni and Shigella dysenteriae) using the Agar Disk Diffusion Method, MIC, MBC and Time Kill Kinetics. The safety of the extracts will be assessed by administering orally and intraperitoneally aqueous extracts of the three plants at 450, 670 and 1000g/kg body weight daily to rats for 28days and recording the changes in body and organ weight, hematological and biochemical parameters and histopathology. The phytochemical composition of the aqueous plant extracts will. be studied using standard qualitative and quantitative procedures and the mineral composition of the. aqueous plant extracts will be assessed using Energy Dispersive X-ray fluorescence system (EDXRF). The obtained results will be expressed as MeanĀ±SEM and analyzed statistically using ANOVA and POST-ANOVA to compare the means to aid in comparing Antimicrobial activity of the different plant extracts. The results obtained will be used to prepare scientific report on antimicrobial activity of Osyris lanceolata, Mimosa pudica and Zanthoxylum usambarense and the recommendations for continued use or otherwise will be made based on the outcome for the study. In addition, the outcome of the study may necessitate recommendations for further study on the management of bacterial gastroenteritisItem A nano-based electrochemical immunosensor for rapid and sensitive diagnosis of schistosoma in Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2014) Odundo, Joseph O.Schistosomiasis also known as Bilharzia is caused by the parasites of the species Schistosoma and is one of the 17 Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). It affects over 950million people in the world with Africa being the most affected due to escalating levels of poverty. In Kenya, it affects about 20 million people whose economic activities involve direct contact with otherwise infected waters. The effect of the disease becomes complicated with time and therefore early detection using a very sensitive and accurate method is important in its treatment and management. Its diagnosis currently is performed by microscopic detection of eggs (in urine or stool) or by immunological methods (antibody or antigen detection). However, these methods suffer low sensitivity and occasionally give unreliable results especially in low prevalence areas. This study sets to develop a versatile and sensitive electrochemical technique based on Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au) nano-particles (NPs) for detection of Schistosomiasis soluble egg antigens (SEA) in excreta from infected individuals. The nano-imrnunosensor will consist of a biolayer of Ag/Au-NPs conjugated to anti-schistosoma antibodies or SEA. The conjugate will be characterized by UVNis and Cyclic Voltarnmetry(CV) before immobilizing on a sensor platform. The molecular recognition of NPs-Antibody or NPs-SEA conjugate with an enzyme will be studied using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and the analytical signal arising from this characterized electrochemically using CV. The signal will be relayed to a micro-processor and eventually to a display. This response signal is rapid, specific and fast enough to give real-time diagnostic results for Schistosomiasis. The data obtained on reliability, precision, selectivity and sensitivity tests shall be subjected to standard statistical analysis procedures.