PHD-Department of Recreation Management & Exercise Science

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The African running phenomenon: the role of genetics, nutrition and demographic factors in explaining the success of East African runners in international distance running
(Kenyatta University, 2006) Onywera, V.O.
Kenyan athletes have dominated international distance running in recent years. Explanations for their success include favourable physiological characteristics, which may include favourable genetic endowment and advantageous environmental conditions. The purpose of this study was to analyse the genetic, nutritional and demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. Questionnaires were administered to elite Kenyan runners specializing in distances ranging from the 800 m to the marathon and Kenyan control subjects (C)(n=87). The questionnaires sought information on place of birth, language, motivation for becoming athletes, distance and method of travel to school. Diet logbooks were used to assess the athletes' dietary habits during training. The training regime of the runners was monitored using a training diary. Athletes were separated into two groups according to athletic success: International level athletes (I)(n=97) and national level athletes (N)(n=307). DNA samples were collected from the subjects using buccal swabs. Both qualitative and quantitative research designs were used in this study. Data were presented in bar charts, pie charts, line graphs and tables. Chisquares were used to establish any significant differences within and between the groups. The level of significance was set at 0.05. Athletes differed from controls in regional distribution, language, and distance and method of travel to school; athletes also differed from each other with the exception of method of travel to school. Most national and international athletes came from the Rift Valley province (C: 20 %, N: 65 %, I: 82 %) (C: n=17: N: n=200: I: n=80), of those who belonged to the Kalenjin ethnic group (C: 8 %, N: 49 %, I: 76 %) (C: n=7: N: n=150:l: n=74) and Nandi sub-tribe (C: 5 %, N: 25 %, I: 45 %) (C: n=4: N: n=77: I: n=44) and who spoke languages of Nil otic origin (C: 20 %, N: 59 %, I: 80 %) (C: n=17: N: n=181: I: n=78). A higher proportion of all athletes ran to school each day (C: 22 %, N: 73 %, I: 83 %) and covered greater distances. Kenyan runners are from a distinctive environmental background in terms of geographical distribution, ethnicity, and also having travelled further to school, mostly by running. Estimated energy intake (El: 2987 ±293 kcal; mean ±standard deviation) was lower than energy expenditure (EE: 3605 ±119 kcal; p <0.001) and body mass (BM: 58.9 ±2.7 kg vs.58.3 ±2.6 kg; P <0.001) was reduced over the 7-d intense training period. Diet was high in carbohydrate (76.5%, 10.4 g/kg BM per day) and low in fat (13.4%). Protein intake (10.1%; 1.3 g/kg BM per day) matched recommendations for protein intake. Fluid intake was modest and mainly in the form of water (1113 ±269 mL;O. 34 ±0.16 ml/kcal) and tea (1243 ±348 ml). Although the diet met most recommendations for endurance athletes for macronutrient intake, it remains to be determined if modifying energy balance and fluid intake will enhance the performance of elite Kenyan runners. IID genotype was not associated with elite endurance athlete status (df= 4, i=3.5, P = 0.47) with no over-representation of the I allele among N (0.42) or I (0.39) athletes relative to controls (0.38). The absence of an association between the IID polymorphism with elite Kenyan athlete status suggests that the ACE gene does not contribute significantly to the phenomenal success of Kenyan endurance runners in international distance running. These results do not support the hypothesis that ACE gene variation is associated with elite endurance performance.
Analysis of demographic factors affecting achievement goal orientation and satisfaction among Kenya volleyball league players
(Kenyatta University, 2008-11) Mugalla, Hannington Bulinda
This study sought to investigate relationship between demographic factors, goal orientation and satisfaction of Kenya's volleyball league players. It was guided by the hypothesis that demographic factors of Kenya volleyball league players have no significant difference on goal orientation and satisfaction. Demographic factors under study-included age, gender, participation status, level, and experience. Demographic questionnaire, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and the Athletic Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ) were the instruments for data collection. A total of 134 volleyball players from twelve National Volleyball League division one and two teams participated in the study. The players were selected by stratified random sampling. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-ratios and Chi square test of independence (X2) (p,.05). Findings of the study showed that 72(53.7%) of Kenya volleyball league players were below 25 years of age. It was also found that task oriented players were more satisfied than ego oriented players. Additionally, the study found that younger players were more satisfied than older players despite both categories being task oriented (X2=1.925>.165), while female players were found to be more task oriented (X2=1.925>.165) and satisfied than their male counterparts. Division 1 and 2 players were found to be task oriented (X2=1.424>.233) with division 2 players being more satisfied. Starters and non-starters were both found to be task oriented (X2= 0.508>.476) with non-starters being more satisfied on all satisfaction components on the ASQ. Lastly, experienced and non-experienced players were both found to be task oriented (X2=0.560>.454), with inexperienced players being more satisfied. The study showed that task oriented players were more satisfied than ego oriented players with majority of the players being task oriented. Also, it was found that apart from gender, other demographic factors under study do not influence players' goal orientation. However, it was found that goal orientation and demographic factors influence players' satisfaction. The study recommended goal orientation assessment on players to help determine satisfaction components to be enhanced, separate training tactics and techniques for men and women, emphasis on non-starters' role on the team, increase of provisions to division one teams and recruitment of players to the teams to include both younger and older players. Talent spotting of players was also recommended to commence at a youthful age. Also, more attention needs to be laid on experienced players to help them raise their low satisfaction levels. It was further recommended that studies on goal orientation and satisfaction using different levels of players participation from those used in this study be carried out. Also, a study on goal orientation and cultural differences was recommended.
Prevalence, intervention and management of overweight and obesity among primary school children in Nairobi province, Kenya
(2011-07-21) Kamau, J.W.
The prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity is increasing at an alarming rate worldwide and has implications for a variety of diseases. This has been due to various causes such as poor nutrition, inactivity or both. The purpose of this study was therefore to establish the prevalence of overweight and obesity among primary school children aged 10-15 years in Nairobi province, Kenya. The study also pursued establishing the efficacy of aerobic dance exercises as an intervention measure for managing overweight and obesity amongst children. It was also the purpose of the study to establish the congruence amongst BMI, BIA and skin fold methods in estimating overweight and obesity amongst children in Nairobi province. The study was carried out in two phases. A cross-sectional design was used in the first phase to assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity using BMI. The subjects in this phase included 2620 males and 2705 females aged 10 to 15 years in both private and public schools. A classic experimental design which involved an experimental group (48 pupils) and a control group (21 pupils) was then used for the second phase of the study which involved further assessment of overweight and obesity using BIA and skin fold measures. Data were analysed using percentiles, Correlations, paired samples Mests, independent samples t-tests and one way analysis of variance at .05 level of significance. Post hoc tests using Tukey HSD were applied to locate inter-group differences upon significant F ratios. The results indicated that out of the 1479 pupils in private schools (103) 6.9% were obese while (245) 16.7% were overweight. On the other hand out of the 3846 pupils in public schools (62) 1.6% were obese while (220) 5.7% were overweight. Out of the total pool of 2620 male subjects, 170 (6.5%) of the male pupils were overweight while 67 (2.6%) of them were obese. The results also showed that out of the total 2760 female pupils, 295 (10.9%) of them were overweight while 98(3.6%) were obese. These results showed that overweight and obesity are prevalent among primary school children aged 10-15 years in Nairobi, Kenya. The results also indicated strong Pearson product moment correlations among BMI, BIA and skin fold which ranged from x=0.57 to i=0.75. The results further showed significant differences in body composition between boys and girls (p>.05) with female pupils being more susceptible to overweight and obesity as indicated by higher mean BMI scores compared to their male counterparts. It was also evident from the results that there were significant decreases (p>0.5) in mean BMI and mean percent body fat determined using BIA and skin fold calipers following involvement in the 10 weeks aerobic dance exercise programme. The study therefore recommended enhancement of regular physical activities amongst children using school-based programmes. It was also recommended inclusion of aerobic dance exercises in the existing primary school physical education curriculum. The study further suggested that similar assessments need to be carried out amongst children below 10 years in Kenya.
Sports participation and examination-related stress among selected Kenyan secondary school students
(2011-07-21) Muniu, Robert Kangethe; Mwangi, Peter Wanderi; Otieno S. A.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between sports participation and examination related stress in selected National Secondary Schools in Kenya. The study was guided by the null hypothesis that there are no significant differences in stress levels between subjects participating in sports and those who did not in their Form Three second term and just before they sat for the mock examinations in Form Four. The study was longitudinal involving a quasi experimental design. Through random sampling two stratified samples of sports and non-sports participants were obtained. Independent variables were participation, non participation and gender. The dependant variable was stress which was measured through questionnaires and physiological measures. In total, there were 469 subjects, of which 254 were sports active while 215 were non-sport active. Of this 224 were girls and 245 were boys. A pretest was conducted in Form Three and a post-test in Form Four. Data was analyzed using a one-way ANOVA, an independent T-Test and Chi Square. Findings indicate that all the students had the same level of stress in Form Three and Form Four (p<0.05), male students had less examination related stress than female students (p<0.05). The sports active students suffered fewer ailments than the non sports active ones (p<0.05). All physiological measures did not yield any significant differences between the groups. Academically the non-sports active students performed better (p <0.05). In conclusion, the sport active students perceived less examination related stress than the non-sports active students. Sports active male students perceived less examination stress than the sports active females. Non sports active males perceived less stress than non sports active female students. The activities undertaken by the sports active students were not vigorous enough to produce any significant physiological change. From this study, sports participation can be used to moderate examination related stress. This however should be more vigorous to produce desired physiological changes. More emphasis should be placed on regular participation from Form One to Form Four. The Ministry of Education insists on mass participation with particular emphasis on girls schools. It should also provide qualified teachers and facilities to the school. There is need to sensitize administrators, teachers and students on the therapeutic nature of exercise and sports participation
Analysis of democratic factors affecting achievement goal orientation and satisfaction among Kenya Volleyball league players
(2011-07-21) Bulinda, Mugalla H.; Wamukoya, Edwin K.
This study sought to investigate relationship between demographic factors, goal orientation and satisfaction of Kenya's volleyball league players. It was guided by the hypothesis that demographic factors of Kenya volleyball league players have no significant difference on goal orientation and satisfaction. Demographic factors under study-included age, gender, participation status, level, and experience. Demographic questionnaire, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ and the Athletic Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ) were the instruments for data collection. A total of 134 volleyball players from twelve National Volleyball League division one and two teams participated in the study. The players were selected by stratified random sampling. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-ratios and Chi square test of independence (x2) (p,.05). Findings of the study showed that 72(53.7%) of Kenya volleyball league players were below 25 years of age. It was also found that task oriented players were more satisfied than ego oriented players. Additionally, the study found that younger players were more satisfied than older players despite both categories being task oriented (x2=1.925>.165), while female players were found to be more task oriented (x2=1.925>.165) and satisfied than their male counterparts. Division 1 and 2 players were found to be task oriented (x2=1.424>.233) with division 2 players being more satisfied. Starters and non-starters were both found to be task oriented (x2= 0.508>.476) with non-starters being more satisfied on all satisfaction components on the ASQ. Lastly, experienced and non-experienced players were both found to be task oriented (x2=0.560>.454), with inexperienced players being more satisfied. The study showed that task oriented players were more satisfied than ego oriented players with majority of the players being task oriented. Also, it was found that apart from gender, other demographic factors under study do not influence players' goal orientation. However, it was found that goal orientation and demographic factors influence players' satisfaction. The study recommended goal orientation assessment on players to help determine satisfaction components to be enhanced, separate training tactics and techniques for men and women, emphasis on non-starters' role on the team, increase of provisions to division one teams and recruitment of players to the teams to include both younger and older players. Talent spotting of players was also recommended to commence at a youthful age. Also, more attention needs to be laid on experienced players to help them raise their low satisfaction levels. It was further recommended that studies on goal orientation and satisfaction using different levels of players participation from those used in this study be carried out. Also, a study on goal orientation and cultural differences was recommended.
Physical activity and functional independence of elderly persons in seleceted homes for the aged in Nairobi, Kenya
(2011-11-02) Githang'a, Juliah Wambui; Onywera, Vincent Ochieng; Wamukoya, Edwin K.
The purpose of the study was to investigate physical activities for the level of functional independence amongst the elderly Kenyans in selected homes for the aged in Nairobi Province. The unit of measurement used is called a Metabolic Equivalent (MET), used to assess the intensities of physical activity patterns of the elderly. The results were expressed as a mean value of the METs in each of the physical activity categories. ADLs were measured by the Modified Barthel Index, scored on the basis of self-reporting by the subject to establish the Functional Independence Measure (FIM). This measure was used to establish the independence level of the elderly in performing ADLs and Mobility. Both, male and female elderly > 60 years residing in three homes for the aged, registered and affiliated to HelpAge Kenya in Nairobi Province were used in the study. A total of 144 out of 150 elderly residents were investigated in the study. The descriptive survey design employed a semi-structured interview and a number of standardized instruments. Instruments included the Modified Barthel Index and Physical Activity Log Book used to record FIM of ADLs and MET intensities of physical activities respectively. The accrued data on METs and FIM were subjected to statistical analysis using Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS). One way Analysis of Variance and Pearson's Product Moment Correlation coefficient index at significance level of <_ 0.01 were used to test the research hypotheses. Post Hoc analysis was conducted using the Scheffe Confidence Interval to locate inter-group differences. The data were presented in tables and pie-charts. Major findings of the study were: There was a significant relationship between the MET intensities of physical activities and functional independence in ADLs and Mobility of the elderly; there was a significant difference between the three homes of the aged and physical activities; and there was a significant difference between the three homes and FIM. The study recommended that there is an imperative need for: development of more trained gerontological professionals in exercise and recreational programs of the elderly by educational institutions; diversification of physical activity and recreational programs of the elderly in homes for the aged by the administrators, and regular fitness testing and evaluation for the elderly residents by the administrators to know their progression in attainment of fitness goals.
Management of elite middle and long distance runners in Kenya
(2011-11-02) Nyaga, Ramsey Lewis K
The purpose of the current study was to establish how effective elite middle and long distance athletes are managed in Kenva. The study took place at Nyayo National Stadium where provincial athletics teams together with their coaches had converged for the 2007 Provincial Championships. Athletics Kenya officials and government sports officers were accessed at their respective offices in provincial branches. The target population comprised of 355 middle and long distance athletes, 107 athletics coaches, 42 Athletics Kenya officials and 24 government sports officers. Random sampling method was used to sample 185 (52%) athletes. 49 (46%) athletic coaches, 34 (80%) Athletics Kenya officials and 12 (50%) government sports officers for the study. A questionnaire was used as an instrument for data collection. The questionnaire sought information on managerial practices of motivation. Kenyan coaches' adequacy and qualification, adequacy of equipment and facilities,,atliletes' selection procedures, uniform program-drawing, and effectiveness of guidance and counseling services offered to the Kenyan athletes. Descriptive statistics was used to summarize the data. One- way ANOVA was used to establish relationships between athletes', coaches' government sports officers' and AK officials' responses. The alpha level ,vas set at 0.05. The results were then presented in tables, charts and graphs. rile responses on ways used to motivate Kenyan athletes, extent of motivation given to athletes, provision of adequate funds for training and competition, drawing of uniform training programs and provision of guidance and counseling services showed a significant difference (.040, .003, .000, .012 and .000 respectively). On the other hand. the responses on adequacy and qualification of Kenyan coaches. provision of adequate facilities and equipment and methods used to select Kenyan athletes for international competition did not show any significant difference (.204, .317 and .737 respectively).
Effects of different arm actions on performance in long distance running among Kenyan athletes
(2011-11-02) Mwangi, Francis Mundia
This study investigated the effects of different arm actions on cardio-respiratory parameters and stride patterns during the steady phase of long distance running. Mean values of working heart rate (WHR), recovery heart rate (RHR), percentage of maximum oxygen consumption (% VOZ max), ventilation rate (VR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were used to estimate physiological demands and the energy cost of running with different arm actions. This helped to evaluate and compare their effects on running economy (RE). Ten elite Kenyan endurance athletes of both sexes were selected through purposive sampling procedures and tested in ten sub-maximal treadmill trial runs, each trial performed with different arm action for 15 minutes at a speed corresponding to individual's 80% running effort. Their working and recovery heart rates were monitored (using Polar heart rate monitor), as well as the rating of perceived exertion (using Borg Scale of perceived exertion), ventilation rate (VR) and stride rate (SR) during each trial and the values recorded after every five minutes. The Cooper test was used to estimate participants' VOz max. Regression equations were used to estimate percentage of maximum oxygen consumption and kilocalories expended (Kcl) from working heart rate values. ANOVA with Repeated Measures was used to analyze the data, using the SPSS software. Significant difference was observed in WHR, % VOz max, Kcl, RPE, and SR at p < .05. Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (R) analysis of individuals' trial-to-trial test values showed high reliability for all the variables measurements and procedures (WHR; 98, RHR; .83, RPE; .83, VR, .99, SR; .90, % VOZ max; .98, Kcl; .97). Medium effect size was observed; Omega Squared (cot) = .20. The study concluded that arm action consisting of about ±20 degrees oscillation of the hands around 90 degrees angle at the elbow is more economical than running with arms held at 90 degrees angle at the elbows (one recommended by most biomechanics authors), and that different arm actions have different effects on the various components of running mechanics. The study recommended that arm action consisting of'about 30 degrees elbow angle range of oscillation -arm action involving oscillation of elbow angles from 70 degrees (on foreswing) 100 degrees (on backswing), be adopted by distant runners for optimum performance.
Assessement of employees' awareness of exercise ergonomics in banking institutions in Nairobi, Kenya
(2011-11-02) Waiganjo, Luka Boro
Most companies and institutions world over have embraced the use of computers at their places of work as a means of improving efficiency and productivity. The banking institutions have not been left out in this regard. As such, most of banking office work involves computer operations that are characterized by fast and frequently repetitive movement of the eyes, arms, fingers and the head. These movements involve repetitive muscular activity which could lead to the development of physiological stress manifested as fatigue due to lack of avenues to burst it out as it forms. Accumulation of fatigue may lead to the development of musculoskeletal injuries among the employees which can cause reduction in comfort, efficiency and hence production. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate into Kenyan bank employees' awareness of the work-related risk factors that might expose them to musculoskeletal injury in the course of their duties, if they had suffered any musculoskeletal injuries and illnesses, and whether they usually perform stretching exercises in the course of their work. It was hypothesized that there would be no significant differences according to gender and position of work in relation to the above mentioned factors. The subjects for the study included tellers, secretaries, clerks, and officers in banking institutions in Nairobi. For this purpose, 5 banks (National bank, Cooperative bank, Equity bank, Kenya Commercial bank and Family Finance) consisting of 1,500 employees were purposively selected. Stratified random sampling was used to sample 17 bank branches. 450 employees were then selected randomly for the study. Questionnaires were administered to the bank employees to collect information related to the employees' awareness of the work-related risk factors, work-related injuries and illnesses and the use of exercise to alleviate such injuries. Both qualitative and Quantitative methods of data analysis were utilized to analyze the data. Chi-square at p <_ 0.05 was computed to test the research hypothesis. The findings of the study showed that a majority of the bank employees (51.40%) were not aware of the work-related risk factors, (47.98%) of the employees were not aware of the applicability of ergonomic exercises in the banking institutions, 128 (39.88%) were not aware of the role of ergonomic exercises in alleviating MSI, while more than (63.86%) suffered from various musculoskeletal injuries and illnesses. The male (43.61%) were significantly (X2 =74.83, p=0.01) more aware of the risk factors than the female (39.50%) bank employees. The female (41.32%) were significantly (X2= 54.02, p=0.01) more aware of the applicability of ergonomic exercises at the work places as well as their role in preventing MSI (67; 40.11%, X2=15.76, p=0.01) than the male. The various cadres of employees differed significantly in awareness of work-related risk-factors (X2=36.98, p=0.05), the applicability of exercises in work places (X2=16.90, p=0.194), and the efficacy of exercise in alleviating MS, (X2=16.43, p=0.01). In addition they differed in prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries (X2=124, p=0.01).
Impact of a three-day outdoor education programme on the perception of life effectiveness qualities of staff trainees in Kenyan corporate settings
(2011-11-02) Muthomi, Nkatha Helen
Outdoor education offers a great opportunity for the development of individuals at social, personal and workplace levels. Corporate settings are now making use of outdoor education to enhance life effectiveness qualities. This study set to find out the impact of a three-day outdoor education programme on the life effectiveness qualities of staff trainees in Kenyan corporate settings. The study population was the staff trainees in Kenyan corporate settings who were going through staff training courses that did not include outdoor education at the time of the study. Sequential sampling technique was used in identifying the representative corporate settings which took their new staff through training. A quasi-experimental research design was used in the study. A pre-test was carried out before taking part in a three-day outdoor education programme and a post-test immediately after the three-day programme and one month later. During the outdoor education programme, the trainees were put into small groups of between eight and twelve members each. Each team participated in a similar set of activities that were carefully sequenced to provide the aims that are typical of outdoor education programmes. The Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ) by Neill (2000) which is a self-report instrument for evaluating the outcomes of outdoor education programmes was used for pre-test and post-tests on the staff trainees. The dependent variables were the life effectiveness qualities which included active initiative, self-confidence, time management, intellectual flexibility, achievement motivation, social competence, task leadership and emotional control. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques were used at p<_0.05 level of significance. Turkey HSD Post hoc method was utilized to test the strength of the resulting significant differences in ANOVA. Data was also analyzed qualitatively. Findings indicated that the outdoor education programme had a significant impact on the staff trainees' life effectiveness qualities which was significantly sustained by the participants one month after training. The study also found similar influences from the outdoor education programme regardless of participants' level of education and gender. However, the older the participants were, the more they benefited in the life effectiveness qualities. Findings also showed that the experience with the outdoor education programme ignited passion for more of such activities amongst the staff trainees. On the overall, the outdoor education programme promoted and enhanced educational and behavioral developments as well as psychological, social and emotional changes as noted by the participants. From the findings of the study, it is therefore recommended that outdoor education programmes can be used for corporate team building in order to assist in maintenance of good workplace relationships as well as increase productivity. Thus, corporate settings in Kenya can have a workplace policy of using outdoor education as a tool of teambuilding for their employees. Future research in the country should consider using longitudinal designs, which will expose participants to many programmes as follow up interventions in order to investigate the long term gains in life effectiveness qualities.
Evaluation of the professional preparation and certificate of athletics coaches in Kenya
(2011-12-07) Mwisukha, A.; Simiyu, N.W.W.; Wamukoya, Edwin K.; Boit, Michael K.
The present study evaluated the professional preparation and certification of athletics coaches in Kenya. The variables of the study included scrutiny of the coaches' gender, age, marital status, level of education, other employment; areas of coaching, nature and level of training, course content, duration of courses, competency of coaches' instructors, assessment of trainee coaches, frequency of refresher courses and availability of coaching literature. Other variables included the adequacy of athletics coaches' education, their level of effectiveness, professional training needs and problems. Data were gathered from 229 respondents who included provincial and national executive officials of Athletics Kenya, government sports officers and coaches. Questionnaires were used to gather data. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, while hypotheses were tested using Chi-square test and Spearman rank order correlation coefficient. The results indicated that majority of the coaches were males, and were married. The largest proportion of the coaches possessed ordinary level of education, and had other regular permanent occupations besides their coaching roles. The coaches for middle and distance runners outnumbered those for sprints and field events. The International Association of Athletics Federations trained most of the athletics coaches. The main content area of the coaches' courses was Theory and Practice of Athletic Techniques and Tactics, but sport psychology received least attention. A larger fraction of the coaches indicated that the duration of the courses was adequate. Most coaches acknowledged that theory and practical examinations were administered during their coaching courses. Although many coaches viewed their course instructors as competent, the analysis of their views on the basis of their academic qualifications yielded a X2 of 76.94 (p< 0.05). The coaches indicated that their access to coaching literature was infrequent as their ratings on this variable on the basis of their academic qualifications produced a X2 of 8.10 (p> 0.05). In spite of the finding that many of the coaches, government sports officers and Athletics Kenya (AK) officials indicated that coaching and in-service courses were infrequent, their views yielded a x2 of 18.34 (p<0.05). Majority of the three groups of respondents indicated the need to train more coaches in sprints, middle and long distance races, and field events, with their views producing X2 values of 3.21 (p>0.05), 5.45 (p>0.05) and 2.32 (p>0.05) respectively. There were significantly positive correlations, rs = 0.72 (p<0.05) and rs = 0.57 (p=<0.05) between the coaches' and managers' views with regard to the training needs and problems of athletics coaches, respectively. Their main need and problem is regular in-service courses and inadequate finances, respectively. On the overall, the three groups of respondents indicated that the training of the coaches was inadequate, as their views yielded a X2 of 9.37 (p>0.05. The inadequacy of training was attributed to insufficient course content, limited access to in-service courses and coaching literature. It was therefore, recommended that AK and the Ministry of Gender, Sports, Culture and Social Services should establish a centralized institution to standardize and conduct frequent athletics coaching and in-service courses to meet coaching personnel needs in the country. AK and the government should set up learning resource centres across the country where coaches can access recent coaching literature. An athletics coaches' licensing board should be formed to ensure high standards in coaching and offer licenses to qualified coaches only. AK and the government should find alternate ways of raising funds to cater for the training of coaches.
The African running phenomenon: the role of genetism, nutrition and demographic factors in explaining the success of East African runners in international distance running
(2011-12-15) Onywera, V.O.
Kenyan athletes have dominated international distance running in recent years. Explanations for their success include favourable physiological characteristics, which may include favourable genetic endowment and advantageous environmental conditions. The purpose of this study was to analyse the genetic, nutritional and demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. Questionnaires were administered to elite Kenyan runners specializing in distances ranging from the 800 m to the marathon and Kenyan control subjects (C)(n=87). The questionnaires sought information on place of birth, language, motivation for becoming athletes, distance and method of travel to school. Diet logbooks were used to assess the athletes' dietary habits during training. The training regime of the runners was monitored using a training diary. Athletes were separated into two groups according to athletic success: International level athletes (l)(n=97) and national level athletes (N)(n=307). DNA samples were collected from the subjects using buccal swabs. Both qualitative and quantitative research designs were used in this study. Data were presented in bar charts, pie charts, line graphs and tables. Chisquares were used to establish any significant differences within and between the groups. The level of significance was set at 0.05. Athletes differed from controls in regional distribution, language, and distance and method of travel to school; athletes also differed from each other with the exception of method of travel to school. Most national and international athletes came from the Rift Valley province (C: 20 %, N: 65 %, I: 82 %) (C: n=17: N: n=200: I: n=80), of those who belonged to the Kalenjin ethnic group (C: 8 %, N: 49 %, I: 76 %) (C: n=7: N: n=150:1: n=74) and Nandi sub-tribe (C: 5 %, N: 25 %, I: 45 %) (C: n=4: N: n=77:1: n=44) and who spoke languages of Nilotic origin (C: 20 %, N: 59 %, I: 80 %) (C: n=17: N: n=181: I: n=78). A higher proportion of all athletes ran to school each day (C: 22 %, N: 73 %, 1: 83 %) and covered greater distances. Kenyan runners are from a distinctive environmental background in terms of geographical distribution, ethnicity, and also having travelled further to school, mostly by running. Estimated energy intake (EI: 2987 ±293 kcal; mean ±standard deviation) was lower than energy expenditure (EE: 3605 ±119 kcal; p <0.001) and body mass (BM: 58.9 ±2.7 kg vs.58.3 ±2.6 kg; p <0.001) was reduced over the 7-d intense training period. Diet was high in carbohydrate (76.5%, 10.4 g/kg BM per day) and low in fat (13.4%). Protein intake (10.1%; 1.3 g/kg BM per day) matched recommendations for protein intake. Fluid intake was modest and mainly in the form of water (1113 ±269 mL;O. 34 ±0.16 ml/kcal) and tea (1243 ±348 ml). Although the diet met most recommendations for endurance athletes for macronutrient intake, it remains to be determined if modifying energy balance and fluid intake will enhance the performance of elite Kenyan runners. I/D genotype was not associated with elite endurance athlete status (df = 4, )?= 3.5, p = 0.47) with no over-representation of the I allele among N (0.42) or I (0.39) athletes relative to controls (0.38). The absence of an association between the I/D polymorphism with elite Kenyan athlete status suggests that the ACE gene does not contribute significantly to the phenomenal success of Kenyan endurance runners in international distance running. These results do not support the hypothesis that ACE gene variation is associated with elite endurance performance.
Socialization of secondary school athletes into sport in Kenya
(2012-01-11) Rintaugu, E.G.; Wamukoya, Edwin K.; Simiyu, N.W.W.; Mwangi, Peter Wanderi
The purpose of this was to investigate the extent of influence of significant others (parents, siblings, peers, P.E. teachers and coaches) and socializing situations (school and mass media) in socialization into sport of secondary school athletes in Kenya. The study was guided by the hypothesis that "significant others and socializing situations to not influence socialization into sport of secondary school athletes in Kenya". Alongside, factors such as the boarding status of school, school category, gender and parental education and occupation and occupation were examined to determine how they interact with significant others and socializing situations in the socialization into sport of secondary school athletes. Random sampling was used to select four provinces using the criteria of participation in the inter-provincial ball games championships. From each province 12 schools were proposively selected using the criteria of representation of the province during the inter-province ball games championships. A total of 636 purposively selected athletes took part in the study. Questionaires were used to collect data. The resulting data was analyzed using chi-square, student t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 05 level of significance. Post hoc Tukey HSD was utilized to test the strength of the resulting significant differences. Findings indicated that significant others and socializing situations influence the socialization into sport of secondary school athletes in Kenya. Indeed, the socialization into sport of secondary school athletes is contributed mostly by the coash, peers, P.E. teachers, brothers, fathers, sisters and mothers without gender differences (p >.05). On the other hand, the influence of socializing situations wanes from the school, television, sport magazines, newspapers to internet without gender differences. Findings also showed that the effects of boarding status of school were significant (p >.05) for all significant others except for the P.E. teachers, while the effect of school category was also significant (p >.05) with the exception of peers. Findings also showed that the parental social economic status were significant (p >.05) for fathers' education, mothers' education, fathers' occupation while P.E. teachers influence on the socialization into sport of secondary school athletes is not affected by the level of their mothers occupation. From the findings of the study, it is recommended that parents and especially the mother need to play a crucial role in the socialization into sport of the secondary school athletes. Secondly, schools need to contribute much more in socialization into sport of secondary school athletes. Further studies should be done encompassing athletes in other sports in secondary schools, primary schools and elite athletes to establish the divergences in their socialization into sport.
Traditional games of the people of mount Kenya region: a cultural education appraisal
(2012-02-06) Wanderi, P. M.; Wamukoya, Edwin K.; Patel, M. M.
The researcher was prompted into this study by two factors. These are, first, the continued disappearance of the traditional games in Kenya, and secondly, the apparent lack of their documented references for use in education. These were activities that existed and were highly educative in traditional Kenyan communities prior to colonial incursion. However, following the arrival of the Europeans, as well as the subsequent imposition of the Western lifestyles and their hegemony, these activities have ever since suffered a slow demise. The aim of this research therefore, was to avail these activities in written form as a cultural and an educational appraisal. Due to the detailed analyses and presentation of the activities required, it was however not possible to cover the entire country. Consequently, the study was confined to the Mount Kenya communities, namely, the Kikuyu, the Embu and the Meru. The data collection instruments in their order of usefulness to this study were, (a) interviews, (b) documentary analyses, and (c) questionnaires. The information obtained was subjected to thorough internal and external criticisms through which facts were systematically analysed, compared, and classified. Accordingly, most of the data presented in chapter four of this study originated from primary sources of information while the bulk of the data from secondary sources was presented in chapter two. The findings of this study include the establishment of a detailed written record of thirty nine (39) traditional games of Mount Kenya region. An analysis of each game is made in terms of its participants, facility and equipment, rules and procedure, as well as its cultural-educational value to the indigenous community. The games presented are categorized in a progressive continuum under three sub-headings ranging from the simplest to the most complex. The presentation is eventually summed up by discussions on, classifications of traditional games of Mount Kenya region, differences and similarities between traditional and modern games as well as on a scientific analysis of traditional games. In its recommendations, the study calls for the formalization of the games so availed. Possible approaches to be followed in the formalization of traditional games and the benefits of such an effort are also highlighted. This shall enhance promotion of Kenya's cultural heritage through the educational programme as stated in the pedagogical objectives of Physical Education. Finally, it was conclusively hoped that this research would herald a new commitment in games development in Kenya. Besides, the results of this study should inspire future researchers to focus their attention on other Kenyan communities and accomplish a similar task before their traditional games are forgotten and lost forever.
An analysis of technical and tactical performance of national soccer teams of Kenya, Germany and Argentina
(2012-02-14) Njororai, W.W.S.
This study set out to identify the differences in technical and tactical performance of the national soccer in matches involving Germany, Argentina and Kenya at International level. Additionally, the study sought to identify the variables that characterize the respective winning and losing teams and to establish the level of accuracy of each of the technical and tactical variables in matches. A total of 27 unedited and pre-recorded matches were observed on a play back video machine. The matches involved were nine for Kenya, nine for Argentina and nine for Germany. The matches were selected on a stratified random sampling basis. The data obtained were analysed both descriptively and inferentially. The statistical analysis techniques used included the one-way analysis of variance and the independent t-test, where the rejection of the null the hypothesis was set at p<. 05. A post hoc comparison Newmankeuls test was used to confirm significant findings on the F ratio. The ANOVA findings revealed that whereas there was a significant difference in the performance of the off sides, corner kicks, throw-ins, headings, free kicks, and goal kicks, in the matches involving the national soccer teams of Germany, Argentina and Kenya, that on passes, goals, shots at goal, crosses, tackles, attacking movements, fouls and injuries was not significant. It was also established that the winners tended to have more passes, free kicks, offside, fewer corners, more throw-ins, more shots at goal, more headings, goal kicks and fewer fouls. However, differences existed between the matches involving Kenya, Germany and Argentina pertaining to the throw ins, crosses, fouls and attacking play. Regarding the effectiveness in the execution of the technical variables, Kenya had a higher ratio of unsuccessful throw ins, shots at goal, free kicks, crosses, corners and passes. However, Kenya had a higher ratio of successful headings and goal kicks compared to Germany and Argentina. Argentina players were the most effective in tackling. It was recommended that efforts be initiated to start a research studies focusing on management of Kenyan national soccer teams; conduct similar studies using the Kenya premier league teams, and in comparing the different regions of Africa.
Diffrerences in cardiovascular disease,biochemical risk markers,physical activity and nutrition between an urban and pastoral sample in Kenya
(2012-04-19) Theuri, G.
The purpose of this study was to determine the differences in blood pressure, cardiovascular disease bio-chemical risk markers, physical activity and nutrition, between an Urban (US) and Pastoral (PS) sample, in the context of the global epidemiological transition taking place globally causing a shift in mortality and morbidity from communicable diseases to non-communicable diseases. A total of 133 adults from both samples meeting the inclusion criteria, were randomly recruited from clusters in sub-locations, villages and homesteads from available demographic data available from Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) on Kirisia and Kibera divisions in Samburu and Nairobi, in Kenya. Data was collected using questionnaires, venipuncture, blood pressure measurement and anthropometric measurements. Resulting data was stratified and analyzed by locality, gender and age-category using SPSS V 11.5 and computed in terms of percentages and frequencies. Chi-square test was used to test for differences in proportions. Student t-test and ANOV A were used to compare means where applicable and in cases where there were more than two means being compared. The level of significance at 0.05 was used for the statistical tests. In case of significant F-ratio, post-hoc analysis was done using DMRT. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to identify predictors of cardiovascular disease, p-values <0.05 were considered significant. There was no difference in proportions between the two groups. Means for SBP, apoB, apoA, apoB/A ratio, Co-QlO, were significantly different at p<.019, p<.OOl, p<.OOl, p<.OOl and p<.OOl respectively, between these two samples. Means for lifestyle factors: MET mins/week (physical activity), Lymphocytes, BMI and MUAC (nutrition status markers) were significantly different at p<.OOl, p<.027, p<.OOl and p<.OOl respectively. Mean nutrient intake was significantly different at p<.030, p<.039, p<.OOl, p<.009, p<.025, p<.049 and p<.OOl, for protein, carbohydrates, dietary cholesterol, SAF A, MUF A, ORA and Folic acid between the two samples. Mean %B. Fat and WC were significantly different at p<.OOl and p<.OOl in the two samples respectively. MUAC in both samples could be used to predict Systolic BP. Lymphocytes count could be used to predict Co-QlO in the US while derived % B. Fat could be used to predict ApoB/ A ratio in the PS. The Urban sample had a higher CVD risk than the Pastoral sample therefore perhaps at a more advanced stage of the epidemiological transition.
Prevalence of type II diabetes and it's risk factors among the Luo and the Kipsigis of the Lake Victoria basin
(2012-04-19) Kiplamai, Festus Kaino; Judith Waudo; Mike Boit
The prevalence of Type II Diabetes (T2D) in developing countries is increasing at a high rate. The purpose of this study was to assess the modifiable predictors of T2D and variations in predisposing factors among the people living around Lake Victoria region, and in particular to describe variations in dietary factors, physical activity, socio-economic status and prevalence of T2D among two rural communities in the lake Victoria basin. A cross-sectional survey design was used for randomized selection of the subjects from the two rural populations. The total number of subjects recruited was 304 (134 males and 170 females) to fulfill the 95% confidence level required for comparisons. Data were analyzed using ANOVA and T-test, where applicable, for comparison of means between groups and chi square to show associations between variables. There was no significant difference in the mean age of the two populations thus age was not a confounding factor. The overall prevalence of T2D in the rural areas represented by the sample was found to be 2.3% of the population (3.0% and 1.8% among males and females respectively). The overall prevalence ofIGT in the rural areas was at 8.1% (CI: 5.0-11.2) of the total population {3.1% (CI: 0.2-6.0) and 11.3% (CI: 6.3-15.7) among the males and females respectively}. There was significant differences in the BMI between the males and females (p
Evaluation of knowledge, attitudes and practices of doping among elite middle and long distance runners in Kenya
(2014) Chebet, Selina
The purpose of this study was to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of doping among elite middle and long distance runners in Kenya. The main objectives were to establish the athletes’ level of awareness with regard to doping information disseminated by World Anti- Doping Agency (WADA), to determine their attitude towards doping and to establish the occurrence of anti-doping rule violations among the athletes. The study also investigated the most common sources of doping information used by the athletes and the association between gender, age, experience and doping knowledge. The target population was Kenyan elite middle and long distance runners. A stratified sample of 432 male and female athletes in middle and long distance running was selected from the population of Kenyan elite athletes. A total of 327 athletes successfully completed the questionnaires. The study was a cross sectional survey based on self-reported questionnaires. Data generated was analyzed using SPSS computer software version 17.0. Overall mean score on knowledge of doping by Kenyan athletes was established to be 46.4%, with male scoring slightly higher than females (47.7% and 44.7%) respectively. Assessment of attitude revealed that majority (82.3%) of Kenyan athletes had a negative attitude towards doping with varying degrees. Only 17.7% indicated a positive attitude. On assessment of prevalence of doping among Kenyan athletes, majority of the athletes (96%) denied having ever used Performance Enhancing Drugs (PEDs), only 4% admitted having used it. But asked whether they knew anyone using it, 38% admitted it while 62% did not. Twenty one point four (21.4%) of the athletes also admitted using herbal and nutritional supplements of which 54% indicated medium to low knowledge of the supplements. The most common source of doping information used by Kenya athletes was established to be Athletics Kenya (30.6%), followed by IAAF (19.4%). The most preferred website was AK, at 41.3%, followed by WADA at 12.3%. In conclusion, Kenyan runners have slightly below average knowledge on doping issues and a strong negative attitude towards the practice. Actual practice of doping is low. Pearson chi square indicated a significant association between age and knowledge of doping (χ2 value 31.6, p = .002). Pearson correlation indicated a weak correlation between gender and knowledge (Pearson correlation = .008 and p = .147) while experience did not have a significant association with knowledge (χ2 = 8.03, p = .531). There is need to enhance doping education to improve on knowledge of doping issues and to establish proper structures and policies of doping control in order to comprehensively curb the problem of doping.
Influence of sports diciplines and demographics of Kenya’s colleges athletes on their awareness, perception and attitude to performance-enhancing substances use
(2014) Wanjiru, Janet Kamenju
Sports competition has increasingly attracted a huge number of participants both at amateur and professional level. In attempt to win huge prize money, trophies and fame, some athletes do not hesitate to use whatever means at their disposal to meet their goal to improve performance. While anti-doping regulations have been established by WADA, cases of illegal substances and methods continued to be reported. Kenyan athletes implicated with doping have claimed lack of knowledge or awareness on the illegal substances. This study therefore purposed to establish the influence of demographics on Kenya teachers colleges athletes‟ awareness, perception and attitude to performance-enhancing substance use in sports. A cross-sectional survey design was used, where dependent variables were awareness, perception and attitude to doping and independent variables included experience in competition, gender, and type of sport. The study was carried out in three randomly selected competition zones of Kenya Teachers Colleges Sports Association (KTCSA).These were coast, Central and Rift Valley. The study sample comprised 696 athletes participating at the 2012 national ball games and track and field athletics of which 480 were ballgames players(male240male and240 female) and 216 track and field athletes (108 males and 108 females) A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data. Data was organized and described using frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations. Chi-square was used test for the association between athletes‟ awareness and perception of Performance-enhancing substance use and gender, competition experience and type of sport while independent t-test was computed to establish the differences in athletes‟ attitude to doping by gender. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was computed to test for the difference in attitude to doping among athletes with varying competition experience and in types of sport. There was no significant relationship between athletes awareness and perception to doping based on gender χ2=1.55,P=0.21, competition experience χ2=4.59,p=0.20 and type of sport χ2=7.15, p=0.03.There was no significant association between perception of doping and genderχ2=0.20, p=0.66, competition experienceχ2=2.08,p=0.56 but there was association by type of sportχ2=12.66, p=0.01.There were no significant differences in attitudes based on gender t=0.10 p=0.32. No differences in attitude amongst athletes based on competition experience F=0.20, p=0.89 Significant differences were established amongst athletes in different sports F =12.60, p=0.01.Scheffe test showed difference in attitudes between track and field athletes and ballgames players. College athletes‟ awareness of doping was not adequate, perception was wrong by track and field and attitude to performance–enhancing substance use positive. College athletes should be educated on doping in order to create awareness, change perceptions and their attitudes to PES use in sports at all levels of competitions.
Assessment of Pulmonary Function of Kenyan Elite Distance Runners during Rest, Sub-Maximal and Maximal Endurance Exercise
(2014-02-22) Mwangi, Francis Mundia; Onywera, V.O.; Boit, Michael K.; Sheel, W.
Kenyan middle and long distance runners have performed extraordinarily well, dominating the world over the past four decades. The factors that contribute to their prowess in endurance races are not yet determined. Pulmonary limitations to endurance performance have been reported among non-Kenyan runners but the extent Kenyan runners experience or overcome these limitations had not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to assess pulmonary function parameters of Kenyan elite runners in relation to endurance exercise performance and compare with predicted values. Fifteen (10 male, 5 female) purposively selected elite Kenyan runners were instrumented in baseline spirometry and an incremental treadmill test to exhaustion at a moderate altitude (1,600 m.a.s.l.). Spirometric variables measured included forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), forced expiratory volume in one second as a proportion of forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) and maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP). Respiratory measures obtained during treadmill test included tidal volume (Vt), breathing frequency (Fb), minute ventilation (VE), oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide production (VCO2) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER). Arterial blood gases (ABG) data; arterial oxygen partial pressure (PaO2), arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2), arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2), alveolar to arterial oxygen partial pressure difference (A-aDO2) and acidosis (pH) were obtained from blood samples taken from radial artery at the end of every exercise stage via indwelling cannula. Repeated measures ANOVA and t tests were run to examine the various measurements at different exercise intensities using statistical package for social sciences. One sample t test on participants’ spirometric variables’ percentage of predicted values showed that they were not significantly different from commonly used predicted values (p >.05). Absolute VO2 peak values for males (3.50±.26) and females (2.26±.26) [L/min] were significantly higher than the predicted values (p = .001). Relative VO2 max formales (64.4±4.9) and females (48.1±4.9) [ml/kg/min] rated superior and excellent respectively on cardio-respiratory fitness classification norms. ABG data showed that the runners experienced only moderate levels of exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia (EIAH) (SaO2 = 89.4±4.6%[male], 91.5±2.2%[female], 89.9±4.1[total]% and A-aDO2 = 24.5±4.7[male], 20.1±10.7[female], 23.39±6.39[total] mmHg) at maximal endurance exercise. Respiratory compensation (partial) for metabolic acidosis was evident (PaCO2 = 34.15±3.44 mmHg, pH = 7.30±.08[total]). Bicarbonate ions (HCO3) recorded the most consistent decline and highest effect size (Eta sqd = .724) while change in oxygen content in the blood (CaO2) recoded the least (Eta sqd = .072). Stepwise regression showed that VE was the most significant predictor of VO2 and speed at sub-maximal exercise level. The study concluded that most Kenyan distance runners’ baseline pulmonary function values are comparable to commonly used reference values. However, the runners’ respiratory system is able to cope with demands of superior oxygen consumption during endurance running. The runners experience moderate level hypoxemia during sub-maximal and maximal endurance exercise. Strategies to alleviate excessive acidosis are recommended for improving performance during endurance training and competitions. Further investigations are needed to determine the source of the differences in pulmonary function among distance runners, and the effects on endurance race performances.

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