PHD-Department of English & Linguistics

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Verb morphology in Gikuyu in the Light of Morpho-syntactic Theories
(Kenyatta University, 2001) Mwangi, Phyllis W.
Among the many controversies in linguistics today, there are two that have captured our interest. The first and the main one involves the status of morphology and its relationship with other components of grammar like syntax, phonology and semantics. Some linguists believe morphology can adequately be catered for in these other components and therefore does not need a separate component in language. Others however feel that there are issues that are morphology-specific worth studying. The second controversy addressed in this work involves the distinction normally drawn between inflection and derivation. There are those who believe that the dividing line between the two is rather fuzzy and not really meaningful. The opposing camp, however, thinks that the two are distinct. Our research was prompted by these two debates. In addressing the first one, we have looked at morphological and syntactic implications of four valency-changing morphemes in Gikuyu, namely: the applicative, the causative, the passive and the stative. We have sought to explain the syntactic effects of the affixation of these morphemes within the Merger Theory (Marantz, 1984) and the Incorporation Theory (Baker, 1988a,b), both of which are syntactic in orientation. As a preliminary to the above task however, this research addresses the distinction drawn between inflection and derivation in Gikuyu. We have employed four distinguishing criteria on the four morphemes in order to determine to what extent each exhibits features associated with inflection on the one hand and derivation on the other. In relation to the first research issue, we have found that the syntactic theories of Merger (Marantz, 1984) and Incorporation (Baker, 1988a,b) cannot adequately account for the morpho-syntactic behaviour of valency-altering morphemes in Gikuyu. We have explained what the shortcomings of the theories are, and where possible, suggested alternative analysis. Finally, we have concluded that although morphology interacts closely with other components of language, it retains a distinct place in the study of language. We have recommended that further research is necessary in this area, especially geared towards a lexical- functional approach given the rich and complex morphology evident in Gikuyu and in Bantu languages generally. Concerning the distinction between inflection and derivation, our analysis has shown that the four distinguishing criteria do not give conclusive results, tbus making it difficult for us to classify the morphemes as either inflectional or derivational. In view of this, we have reformulated the distinguishing criteria to suit Gikuyu after arguing that the distinction is necessary especially for lexicographical purposes.
A genre analysis of selected Master of Arts (MA) and master of science (MSc) Theses in Kenyan public universities
(2011-07-19) Maroko, Geoffrey Mokua
The present study is a genre of analysis of selected Master of Arts (MA) and Master of Science (MSc) theses of Kenyan universities. First, the study uncovers the competencies expected in the MSc and MA thesis. Second, it explores and describes how writers use generic features such as moves, tense, citation, authorial stance, and hedging to realise the typical competencies. Third, the study of specifies the similarities and differences found in the use of the generic features. Finally it describes the linguistic rationale for the MSc and MA thesis in the light of the generic features identified above. The motivation for studying the thesis stemmed from the view that it is high stakes document in higher studies which has not been given adequate scholarly attention in terms of research. Six theses produced in the 2003/2004 academic year were selected using non-probability sampling methods to represent the then six public universities in Kenya. Three theses were drawn from the MA disciplinary culture. Guided by theoretical perspective of the salient generic featured in the literature, my institution and introspection, I manually elicited the tokens representing moves, tense, citation, writer stance, and subjected them to both quantities and qualitative analysis procedures. A number of fundamental outcomes emerged from the analysis. First, all but one thesis adopted the Standard/Traditional format with the one thesis following the topic-based one. Variations were noted in the number and sequence of moves and/or elements in the two disciplinary cultures. However, MA these were found to employ more simple present tense forms than the simple past while MSc these recorded a higher incidence of simple past than present. Thirdly, the agentless passive point of view was the most preferred form of expressing writer stance in both disciplinary cultures. While the agentless passive predominated all rhetorical moves in MSc theses, MA theses employed a variety of forms of expressing writer stance such as the personified, third person, and first person singular pronoun points of view. With regard to citations, MSc these had a much lower density than MA theses. In the two disciplinary cultures, the Results and discussion move recorded the highest incidence of citations. It also emerged that the frequency of non-integral citations was higher than that of integral citations in both disciplinary cultures though MA theses recorded higher occurrences of both forms than MSc theses. In addition, the present study revealed that the general incidence of hedges in MA theses was marked higher than in MSc theses. It also emerged that epistemic lexical verbs were the most frequently employed hedging devices followed by epistemic modal verbs with epistemic nouns being the least frequently used. Lastly, the study revealed that the notion of communicative purposes is very versatile as the various levels of the thesis express diverse purposes. Such purposes can be traced to the thesis as a whole in relation to the context in which it is produced; the rhetorical moves, and the elements in each move. The findings of this study have implications for the development of classroom or reference materials, teaching academic genres, syllabus design, and academic genre-based research, hence adding to on-going work in applied linguistics
A genre analysis of selected Master of Arts (MA) and master of science (MSc) Theses in Kenyan public universities
(2011-10-27) Shieunda, Aswani
The present study is a genre of analysis of selected Master of Arts (MA) and Master of Science (MSc) theses of Kenyan universities. First, the study uncovers the competencies expected in the MSc and MA thesis. Second, it explores and describes how writers use generic features such as moves, tense, citation, authorial stance, and hedging to realise the typical competencies. Third, the study of specifies the similarities and differences found in the use of the generic features. Finally it describes the linguistic rationale for the MSc and MA thesis in the light of the generic features identified above. The motivation for studying the thesis stemmed from the view that it is high stakes document in higher studies which has not been given adequate scholarly attention in terms of research. Six theses produced in the 2003/2004 academic year were selected using non-probability sampling methods to represent the then six public universities in Kenya. Three theses were drawn from the MA disciplinary culture. Guided by theoretical perspective of the salient generic featured in the literature, my institution and introspection, I manually elicited the tokens representing moves, tense, citation, writer stance, and subjected them to both quantities and qualitative analysis procedures. A number of fundamental outcomes emerged from the analysis. First, all but one thesis adopted the Standard/Traditional format with the one thesis following the topic-based one. Variations were noted in the number and sequence of moves and/or elements in the two disciplinary cultures. However, MA these were found to employ more simple present tense forms than the simple past while MSc these recorded a higher incidence of simple past than present. Thirdly, the agentless passive point of view was the most preferred form of expressing writer stance in both disciplinary cultures. While the agentless passive predominated all rhetorical moves in MSc theses, MA theses employed a variety of forms of expressing writer stance such as the personified, third person, and first person singular pronoun points of view. With regard to citations, MSc these had a much lower density than MA theses. In the two disciplinary cultures, the Results and discussion move recorded the highest incidence of citations. It also emerged that the frequency of non-integral citations was higher than that of integral citations in both disciplinary cultures though MA theses recorded higher occurrences of both forms than MSc theses. In addition, the present study revealed that the general incidence of hedges in MA theses was marked higher than in MSc theses. It also emerged that epistemic lexical verbs were the most frequently employed hedging devices followed by epistemic modal verbs with epistemic nouns being the least frequently used. Lastly, the study revealed that the notion of communicative purposes is very versatile as the various levels of the thesis express diverse purposes. Such purposes can be traced to the thesis as a whole in relation to the context in which it is produced; the rhetorical moves, and the elements in each move. The findings of this study have implications for the development of classroom or reference materials, teaching academic genres, syllabus design, and academic genre-based research, hence adding to on-going work in applied linguistics.
Linguistic variation in spoken English as used by teachers in Kenyan primary schools
(2011-12-14) Njoroge, Martin C.
The phonological and grammatical variations in the English spoken by teachers at primary school level in Kenya present an interesting sociolinguistic area of investigation. This study set out to: identify and describe both phonological and grammatical variations in the English spoken by teachers at primary school level in Kenya; determine how these variations depart from the British standard variety; correlate the linguistic variation observed with the social variables of ethnicity, gender, educational level and rural-urban dichotomy; and discuss the implications of the emergent sociolinguistic patterns for pedagogy in Kenya. To achieve the aims of the study, we collected data from teachers in the rural areas of Bomet, Siaya and Thika districts and from Nairobi area, an urban setting. Judgemental sampling method and the social network approach guided us in choosing the required study sample. Classroom interactions were taperecorded to obtain the language data and a questionnaire was used to elicit biodata and information about educational qualifications and schools attended. In data collection, analysis, interpretation and discussion, we were guided by the Labovian Language Variation Theory. For the identification and description of the linguistic variations, description of the British Standard English as outlined in Roach (1998) and Wells (198?) for phonology and in Quirk et al. (1985) for grammar, were used as reference points. The general finding is that the English spoken by teachers at primary school level in Kenya varies from the British standard variety - the model that is supposed to be used at all the education tiers in Kenya. This variation cuts across all the social variables investigated. Of the social variables, ethnicity was found to impact heavily on both the phonological and grammatical systems in the spoken English that the sampled teachers used. Education was also found to influence the variations. In virtually all the linguistic categories observed, the spoken English of graduate teachers had fewer variations. The rural-urban dichotomy showed that urban speakers in the study sample approximated more to standard English than their rural counterparts, especially in phonological variation. In the area of gender, although women generally recorded lower mean scores in most of the variants than men, the results of the analysis of variance show that, at 5% level of significance, the difference was not statistically significant. These findings have implications for the various groups involved in language education in Kenya: policy-makers and syllabus designers; the Kenya National Examinations Council; publishing houses; language researchers; teachertrainers; teachers and learners. The study argues for the consideration of the sociolinguistic reality of English in Kenya and adoption of a local variety of English, a variety that will be close to other standard varieties, thus making it possible for Kenyan speakers to maintain mutual intelligibility with international speakers of English while maintaining their Kenyan identity. This recommendation calls for an extensive research into English as it is used in Kenya, leading in turn to the description, codification and, ultimately, the use of Kenyan English in schools.
Linguistic accommodation and code switching during Luo/Luhyia and Luo/Gusii contact
(2011-12-20) Kebeya, Hilda Udali
This study set out to investigate and then compare the linguistic behaviour of bilingual speakers in intergroup contexts in two rural speech communities in Kenya. In order to achieve this, recordings were obtained from Luo/Luyia bilinguals in Kiboswa, and Luo/Gusii bilinguals in Suneka. The languages under study differ from each other in significant ways. Luo, for example, is classified as a Nilotic language (see.Stafford 1967), while Luyia and Gush are categorized as Bantu languages (Guthrie 1967). The major questions that motivated the research were: What linguistic strategies do bilingual speakers in linguistic border points use in intergroup communication? What Sociolinguistic patterns do these speakers exhibit and what are the stylistic functions of these patterns? The study found out that speakers in Kiboswa and Suneka use three linguistic strategies in intergroup interaction: convergence, divergence and code switching. These three strategies appeared to be influenced by situational factors (e.g. the household type), extra-linguistic factors (e.g. sex and age), social-psychological factors (e.g. desire for social approval and integration or asserting of one's ethnic group) and socao-cultural factors (e.g. jamwas being used in ritualistic practises). When the linguistic behaviour of the households was compared, certain patterns emerged. Generally, the households, appeared to exhibit very high scores for the own-group code and very low scores for the out-group code. Thus when intergroup communication took place in the home domain there was a general tendency for speakers to converge towards the ethnic language of the head of the household where the recording was done. This observation appears to be in line with what Giles & Robinson (1990) propose that during intergroup contexts speakers tend to converge to their listeners rather than diverge from them. However when convergence, divergence and code switching were correlated with the social variables of ethnicity, sex and age, although it appeared that all the social groups exhibited higher degrees of divergence than convergence; there was a general tendency for male groups, in the two study areas, to diverge more than female ones, and older speakers appeared to diverge more than the younger ones. No systematic patterns of Accommodation were observed in the ethnic groups. As regards Luo/Luyia and Luo/Gusii code switching all the respondents, irrespective of their social group and household type, appeared to display very low scores. This indicates that code switching is rarely used in exchanges involving ethnic and non-standardised languages. There were socio-psychological factors that motivated speakers in Kiboswa and Suneka to converge/diverge/code switch. Convergence, for example, was found to take place when speakers desired certain rewards e.g. receiving social approval and integratio+n from their listeners; making themselves socially attractive; increasing the efficacy of communication; making sales; inducing addressees to do run errands for them; minimising the impact of offensive acts; impressing their listeners and specifying the addressee to whom a message was intended. Speakers would weigh these rewards against the costs they were likely to incur in converging (namely; expended linguistic effort and a temporary loss of one's ethnicity). If rewards for converging outweighed the costs, speakers would converge but if the costs outweighed the rewards, speakers would diverge. For instance, speakers in this study diverged in order to: assert their ethnicity, subtly show disapproval of the people they were talking to, make slanderous statements about out-group members and show disapproval of the people they were talking about. These findings indicate that the divergence in Kiboswa and Suneka is as a result of social identity processes while convergence is due to similarity-attraction and social exchange processes (cf. Giles & Robinson 1990). As regards Luo/Luyia and Luo/Gusii code switching a number of factors appeared to be responsible. To determine these factors, the study categorised all the code switched material into three classes: sequential unmarked code switching, unmarked code switching and exploratory code switching (cf. Myers-Scotton 1993a). It became apparent that each type of switching was motivated by different factors. Sequential unmarked code switching, for example, was found to occur when there had been a change in one or more of the situational factors during a conversation e.g. when a new participant joined in the conversation or when the topic changed. Unmarked switching, on the other hand, was found to serve an emblematic role in the two communities studied and could occur even when there was no change in situational factors. Whenever speakers seemed to be unsure of the code to use on their respondents (e.g. when speakers were meeting their addressee's for the first time and the norms governing the interaction were not clear) they would employ exploratory switching. Thus each of these three categories of code switching was motivated by different factors. Inter-sentential and intea-sentential switches were observed in Kiboswa and Suneka. Our study found that inter-sentential switching could take place between L codes (i.e. ethnic languages) whereas intea-sentential switching could not. Thus, all instances of intea-sentential switching in our data have an H code (i.e. English and/or Swahili) serving as either the matrix or embedded language.
Aspects of mistranslation in the 1951 Lulogooli Bible
(2012-01-04) Wangia, Joyce Imali
This study set out to investigate the language problems and the apparent inaccurate translation exhibited in the 1951 Lulogooli Bible. The investigation had three objectives: to identify, classify and analyse mistranslations in the 1951 Lulogooli Bible; to test receptor comprehension from a cross-section of respondents and to discuss the factors that constitute the mistranslations and where possible suggest ways of improving the translation. The data was collected from six sampled books of the Bible using systematic sampling. We obtained 83 texts with cases of mistranslation from a total sample of 1,556 verses. These were classified into seven categories namely, the Syntactic, Ambiguity/Obscurity, Loan/New words, Conceptual, Idiomatic, Archaic and Cultural Categories. In a second stage of data elicitation, 53 texts were purposively selected from the sampled 83 texts for testing receptor comprehesion. Six questionnaires, one for every book were formulated and each questionnaire tested on 10 respondents. Using mainly the Speed Act theory and Relevance theory, the mistranslation and the responses were analysed, interpreted and discussed. The findings indicate, various types of mistranslations, low receptor comprehension rate and and that there are several factors that could account for the mistranslations. These include, translator incompetence in the target language, receptor language whose written forms have not been systematically described, use of foreign words or archaic forms that do not meaningfully communicate to the receptors and socio-cultural difference between source language and target language. This study shows the significance of systematic writing systems for languages like Lulogooli that are still largely oral, in order to facilitate accurate translation into these languages. The nature of mistranslation analyses revealed in the seven linguistic categories adapted for this study and the implications from the receptro comprehension tests analyses to translation form a major contribution of this study. Chapter one gives the historical and linguistic background to the problems of translation, defines the problem of the study and gives the methodology. Chapter two presents theliterature review and theoretical framework. An eclectic theoretic approach is adopted with particular focus on the Speech Act theory, and the Relevance theory. A brief description of the Lulogooli language, in relation, is given in chapter three. Chapter four presents the classification and analyses of the mistranslations. Receptor test responses to the questionnaires are presented in Chapter five. Issues of mistranslation arising from the analyses are discussed in Chapter six and suggestions for possible solutions made. Chapter seven gives the summary of findings and conclusions
The use of synonyms by second language learners of English in Kenyan secondary schools: patterns, lexical strategies and pedagogic implications
(2012-01-04) Ndung’u, R. W.
The research presented in this thesis is on the lexicon of some Kenyan learners of English as a Second Language. The learners' lexicon is analyzed for the grammar patterns of English synonymous nouns and synonymous verbs. The lexicon is also analyzed for lexical strategies. Findings are then used to infer second language lexical pedagogy. The four main objectives of this research are: to determine the grammar patterns for synonymous verbs and nouns; to identify and analyze any inappropriateness in the grammar patterns for the synonymous lexical items; to identify and explain the lexical strategies the learners employ in the use of synonymous lexical items; and to infer the pedagogic implications for the teaching of English lexis to Second Language learners of English. The research respondents are Kenyan secondary school students from a purposive sample. These respondents used a sample of synonymous verbs and nouns to construct sentences. They also did as exercise in which they underlined the same verbs and nouns for appropriate usage. The data collected was studied and analyzed for grammar patterns and for the strategies the respondents employed in their use of the synonymous lexical items. Pattern grammar is used to analyze the lexicon of the second language learners of English. Two types of grammar patterns were identified for both the synonymous verbs and synonymous nouns namely: cognitive synonymy patterns and congruent synonymy patterns. In the cognitive synonymy patterns, the lexical items are used interchangeably without a change in the semantic load expressed or the syntactic slot that they occupy. In the congruent synonymy patterns, the lexical items are interchangeable but with a change in the syntactic slot though not in the semantic load expressed. The analysis also revealed appropriate and inappropriate grammar patterns for the synonymous nouns and verbs, which are marked by syntactic and semantic features. The strategies the learners employ in the use of English lexical items are analyzed using learning strategy theories. The data reveal four categories of lexical strategies. These are, strategies for discovering word meaning; strategies for consolidating the meaning of a word once it has been learned; conceptual strategies; and linguistic strategies. From the analyses of the research data, the following observations were made on the nature and extent of the respondents' knowledge of English lexical items. The learners' lexicon implies a lack of or inadequacy of lexical knowledge that is prerequisite for the use of synonymous lexical items. Related to this lack or inadequacy of lexical information, is the inference that the learners lack an understanding of the lexical information or that the learners fail to make use of the information. In relation to the norms for lexical use, this research found that some of the English lexical items have a shit in meaning. The shift is evident in the use of the English lexical item in a grammar pattern that is different from that of the native speakers' English. Another finding is that there is a correlation between the way the learners acquired the lexical information on the English lexical items and the way they use the items. The analyses of the grammar patterns and the lexical strategies identified in this research have revealed that second language vocabulary teaching in Kenyan secondary schools could be enhanced by varied methods of lexical presentation. For instance, lexical strategies could be incorporated into the language teaching methodology to enable the learners build and consolidate their second language lexicon. The teaching of synonymous items, for example, should take into account the fact that learners are likely to over generalize the synonymy. Such over generalization in some context could lead to inappropriate grammar patterns. The research findings also reveal a need for lexical expansion so that the lexical norms can account for meanings that are determined by the second language learning context
Acquisition of two syntactic structures of English by Kenyan School Pupils
(2012-01-06) Njiri, James Maina
There are two important issues that have captured the interest of researchers in the area of Second Language Acquisition. One is the desire to describe the nature of learner language using various approaches such as: the study of learner's errors, the study of developmental patterns, the study of variability, and the study of pragmatic features. The other one is the desire to explain the learner's language, i.e. to examine why the learners make errors, why their language exhibits marked regularities, and why it changes systernatically over time. In the context of these principal concerns in the area of SLA, the objective of the present study is to describe the acquisition of two is structures of English namely the noun phrase and the verb phrase by Kenyan school pupils.. The focus is to determine the sequences of the acquisition of the constituents within these phrases. Besides this, the study explains the learner language by way of investigating the contribution of the variables of time, sex and the learner's Ll in the acquisition of the two structures. A heterogeneous group of sixty - four pupils drawn from four different time levels across primary and secondary schools is used. Data is collected by two methods namely: free or spontaneous composition and picture description. This helps to ensure complete sentential productions with both the NP and the VP. Data analysis involves identification and computation of the syntactic categories. Frequency Analysis Model is used to determine the developmental sequences of the Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase rules. Two methods of analysis are used to determine group syntactic performance according to time, L1 and sex. This is done by, computing the frequency distribution of informants across the IL varieties and displaying the results in tables. Statistical significance of the three variables in relation to syntactic performance is also examined. This research is therefore quasi - longitudinal, and essentially qualitative. The analysis reveals that learners acquire the NPs and VPs in fairly defined. developmental sequences. While the influence of the learner's sex and Ll is statistically insignificant in this study, the influence of time in acquisition is significant. Pedagogic programmes involving the teaching of these structures in our schools may be based on the acquisition sequences that this study identifies. Because levels of proficiency are commensurate with the amount of time spent in SL learning as this study reveals, teachers should maximize the use of the time availed in their timetables.
The tonal patterns of Lwitakho words
(2012-02-06) Savala, Agnes Asenwa
This dissertation is a study of tonal patterns of Lwitakho words. Lwitakho is a tonal language and so this study attempts to identify and describe tone patterns of words, showing the function of tone in the language and discussing the relationship between the syllable type and tone. The theories of Autosegmental phonology and CV phonology have been used in a complementary manner in the discussion tone and syllables respectively in this study. Chapter one contains the introduction to the study together with the objectives, research questions and hypothesis. It also contains review of literature, theoretical framework adopted for this study and research methodology. Chapter two contains the phonemic inventory of Lwitakho which paves way to the discussion of syllable structure in chapter three. Lwitakho has open syllables. Examples of heavy and light syllables have also been discussed. Using AP, tone patterns have been discussed in chapter four. Lwitakho has high and low tones which are found on either light ore heavy syllables. Contour tones are mainly found on heavy syllables. A high tone has the effect of making the weight of each syllable quite disctinct than a low tone. Chapter five discusses the function of tone in Lwatakho. Besides lexical and grammatical functions, tones also plays a pragmatic function in Lwitakho. In chapter six, it is concluded that Lwitakho has a distinguishable tonal system where tones have lexical, grammatical, syntactic and pragmatic function. Recommendation for further research has also been given.
Gikuyu verbal extensions:a minimalist analysis
(2012-04-03) Waweru, Martin Mburu
The purpose of this study was to investigate the Gikuyu verbal extensions: their individual occurrence and their co-occurrences. Gikuyu just like other Bantu languages, has a rich and complex morphology. The complexity is more evident in derivational morphology than inflectional morphology. A feature that makes derivational morphology complex is the concatenations of the derivational affixes such as the verbal extensions under investigation in this study. The five affixes, namely the causative, the applicative, the passive, the reciprocal and the reversive were described and analysed individually and then they were concatenated. The individual occurrences and the co-occurrences were then analysed using the Minimalist Program, the theoretical framework used in the study. The theory has been revised extensively but it is the 1995 version that showed a higher degree of explanatory adequacy in analysingGildiyii verbal extensions. The data for the study was in form of four hundred verbs. The verbs were then classified according to their transitivity status. The concatenations of the verbal extensions revealed that they are determined by the interaction of morphology, semantics and syntax, but occasionally semantics overrides the other two. The thesis is divided into seven chapters. Chapter one gives the preliminary details of the research, that is, the research problem, the objectives and the background to the problem. Chapter two has literature on studies in Bantu, Gildiyii and on the theoretical framework. In chapter three, the study discusses the methodology used. Chapter four is the first of the analysis and description chapters. It discusses the causative, the applicative and the reversive. In chapter five, the reciprocal and the passive are discussed. Chapter six has the description and the analysis of the co-occurrences of the Gildiyii verbal extension. The last chapter gives the conclusion of the study and areas for further research.
Loanword nativization: a generation view of the phonological adaptation of Gikuyu loanwords
(2012-04-10) Mwihaki, A. N.
This is a phonological study of the Gikuyu loanwords derived from English. Using an inductive approach to data analysis and a multi linear framework of description, the study identifies three aspects of loanword adaptation: phonemic, phonotactic, and prosodic. Phonemic adaptation addresses the grammatical constraints of unitary sound substitution: namely phonemic merger and phonemic split. Phonotactic adaptation defines the harmonic motivation of phonemic combination and distribution in the loanword. Prosodic adaptation considers the principles of syllabification and the assignment of the prosodic features. Four generalizations are drawn from this research. The phoneme is a minimal distinctive unit which responds to the phonetic, semantic, and morphological, constraints of the lexical structure. The syllable functions at the core of the phonological organization whereby it regulates the combination of the phonemes, the prosodic features, and the appropriate phonetic shape of the phonological word. The phonological word is a most fundametal grammatical licenser which ultimately prtogrammes the function of the phoneme, the syllable, and each of the prosodic features. The phoneme, the syllable, and the phonological word, are essential constructs of the phonological organization and, therefore, speech production and speech perception.
Verbal discourse events in a bilingual formal setting: instructional procedures in ESL classrooms in Kenyan secondary schools
(2012-06-08) Gathumbi, Agnes W.
This study addresses the issue of pedagogy in verbal discourse events in ESL secondary classrooms in Kenya at a time following educational reforms and policy change, and when concern is being expressed about falling standards in English language. It investigates the mode of instructional procedures with the view of establishing the relative learner-centeredness of the instruction. The effects of in-service training carried out as a precedent to the implementation of the current 8-4-4 curriculum were also studied by comparing the instructional approaches of teachers who had undergone the in-service training and those who had not. Seven research questions were posed in order to determine the variables that affect instruction. The study was cross-sectional and the sample was randomly selected. Data was collected from 17 secondary school teachers and their 480 third year students (16-17 year olds) in both Nairobi (urban) and Kiambu (rural) districts of Kenya. Triangulation method was used in data collection which was done through teachers' questionnaires, pupils' semi structured interviews, audio and video recordings of live verbal transactions and observation notes. The raw data were transcribed and analyzed through Second Language Interaction Analysis Schedule (SLIAS) and a multidimensional model to classify questions, which were specially developed for this purpose. The analysis revealed individual variation across the teachers in the use of various instructional behaviours. Teacher talk dominated the classrooms as opposed to pupil talk, which was only a quarter of the total verbal transactions and mainly in form of responding to teachers' questions. The classrooms were mainly teacher-centred and controlled and the questions asked were largely closed thereby constraining pupils' thinking processes. There was a tendency for in-service trained teachers to use slightly more learner-oriented teaching techniques than the other teachers. Syntactic, lexical and phonological features of the transactions were not intended to be investigated in this study. However, teachers' errors emanating from the above features were so frequent, as well as two discourse features: teacher's self-repetition and rephrasing of questions, that they warranted some investigation.
Construction and standardisation of an English language preficiency test for upper primary school grades in Kenya
(2012-06-08) Ryanga, Charlott
This study is concerned with the standardization of a locally constructed English language proficiency test battery, and the establishment of norms for Upper primary school grades five, six and seven. The standardization process includes determining the test battery's reliability and validity, through statistical computations for empirical evidence. While accomplishing this task, thesis examined the cumulative effect of language proficiency, through the mastery of functional language skills, as outlined in the objectives of the English course, in the 8-4-4 curriculum. The thesis is based on the claim that language proficiency is gained progressively, as one advances from one grade into another. Related topics concerning the teaching and learning of English, and its role as a medium of educational instruction have been discussed. Some major approaches in the field of language testing were highlighted as a justification of the model adopted for the battery format. The subjects for the study were drawn from 34 schools which were selected through random sampling. These schools were situated in 12 districts that were located in seven provinces. Finally, the test battery was administered to 3,054 pupils all over the country. A pilot study was first conducted in both rural and urban schools. The findings from this study were used for compiling the final test battery, which is the central focus of the standardization process. Apart from the research assistants which were used during the administration of the test, English language class teachers were also used for various tasks. The data for the study was obtained through the use of the pupil's proficiency test battery booklet, an examiner's test manual, an opinion sheet for the language teachers of grades five, six and seven and general observation by the researcher. After obtaining the raw data, it was organized in tables of frequencies and averages for statistical analysis. This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one, discusses the problem statement, the rationale, the objectives, the scope and the assumption for the study. Chapter Two, reviews literature under two sub-headings: (i) Literature related to the problem statement, and (ii) Methodological propositions related to English language testing. Chapter Three, discusses the methodology and the design of the study. Chapter Four, discusses the presentation and analysis of the data, with highlights on the research findings. Chapter Five, gives the conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for further research. It is hoped that the findings of this study, will be invaluable in the field of English language testing at the primary school level, in the Kenyan situation. Since the test battery is locally constructed with a bias towards the 8-4-4 English language course objectives, its role as a reliable and valid tool for measuring language proficiency may be instrumental in motivating new interest among teachers and other educators, to seriously consider studying testing methods, and to seek ways of improving them. And, the norms which have been established may be of some assistance in giving teachers and their pupils a yardstick towards which their efforts can be directed. The findings also may motivate language teachers to discover the loopholes in the language teaching and learning processes, which contribute to poor performance at the K.C.P.E. examination level, as is publicly claimed and attempt to rectify them.
Tense, aspect and modality systems in Kihavu: a minimalist perspective
(2012-11-08) Gahutu, Pascal; Phyllis W. Mwangi; Joyce Wangia
This study focused on the nature of tense, aspect and modality systems in Kihavu within a Minimalist Program framework. Specifically, it sought to find out what affixes, lexical categories and prosodic features are used to mark tense, aspect and modality systems in the language. Using morphemic breakdowns and tree diagrams, the study ahalyzed the meanings and functions of verbal- affixes, lexical categories, tonal distinctions and the relations among them. The data used in the study comprised sentences which came from the following three sources: introspection, translation and interview. In order to capture the different tones used in Kihavu, part of the data was collected orally and tape-recorded. The analysis of the data showed that there are three possible ways in which tense, aspect and modality in Kihavu are realized: through morphological inflections, through supra-segmental features and through lexical categories such as auxiliaries and temporal adverbs. A Minimalist Program framework was thus adequate for this study for it provided an overview of the building blocks underlying the Kihavu verbal expression. In terms of organization, chapter one gives a historical background to the language of study, states the problem, and presents the objectives, the assumptions, the rationale of the study, and its scope and limitations. The second chapter reviews the relevant literature and describes the theoretical framework. Chapter three describes the methodology of the study. Chapter four and five respectively offer an analysis of the Kihavu temporal and aspectual systems. Chapter six is a morphological analysis of Kihavu modal expressions. The seventh (and final) chapter is a conclusion to the whole study.
Metaphors of Gikuyu marriage negotiations: a cognitive linguistics perspective
(2013-03-26) Gachara, Mwangi
This study identifies, describes, and analyses the metaphors used in the Gikuyu marriage negotiations from a cognitive linguistics perspective. We audio-recorded discourse from two marriage negotiation gatherings followed by transcription of data and then identification of metaphorically used items. This meant that we subjected all the lexical items collected to the MIPVU to find out which were metaphorical in nature. These metaphors were then analysed in terms of their linguistic form and conceptual structure. The linguistic form looked at which ones were incomplete, rhetorical, shortened or even lengthened, classic, distended or extended. The conceptual structure looked at whether the metaphorical item is novel (new),conventional (old) or even borderline. In other words, where the metaphor was in its career at the time it was corrected. The respondents are varied in the social variables of Age, Sex, and Educational Level. Lastly, we wanted to find out the extent to which these metaphors are be accounted for within the Career of Metaphor Theory. For each of the eight groupings of three social variables under investigation, we had three respondents, meaning that our population sample had a total 24 respondents. From the metaphors we collected from the context of marriage negotiations we sampled 20 metaphorical items from each negotiation. It is these 40 metaphorical items that we presented to the twenty four (24) respondents to collect further data through a questionnaire that sought their interpretation and their level of familiarity with the given metaphors. The Career of Metaphor Theory helped us in identifying the base and target domains for conventional metaphors add the topic, superordinate and subordinate vehicle concepts for novel metaphors. We found that Gikuyu metaphors of marriage are accommodated by the theory with only 4.65% not accounted for their linguistic form and5% failing to be accounted in conceptual structure. Using the chi square test, the variance in linguistic form, conceptual structure and metaphor interpretation using the variables of age, sex, and level of education were analysed. We found that metaphors used in Gikuyu marriage negotiations largely treat women as objects and organisms which commodify women. Men on the other hand are treated like weapons of war in turn informing the concept SEX IS WAR. We also found that love is rarely talked about. We recommend the replacement of negative metaphors with positive one that draw from the PATH and FAMILY domains to give both women and men an equal footing. This thesis is divided into six chapters. Chapter one covers the introduction; chapter two, literature review and theoretical framework; chapter three, research methodology; chapter four, data analysis and data presentation; chapter five data discussion and interpretation while chapter six has findings, recommendations and conclusions.
A critical discourse analysis of language used in selected courts of law in Kenya
(2014) Gatitu Kiguru
This study undertook a critical analysis of power asymmetry among discourse participants in sampled Kenyan courts. Specifically, the study investigated the questioning and pragmatic strategies used by lawyers, police prosecutors and unrepresented accused persons during direct examination and cross examination phases of trial, as well as the use of various speech act functions and background contributions by the examiners. In addition, the study also looked at how witness responses exemplify how power and control are achieved and challenged in the courtroom through linguistic means. To study these objectives, the study adopted a descriptive design and, therefore, qualitative methods were used in sampling and data analysis. Purposeful sampling was used to select the three courtrooms where the study took place. The data consisted of 30 hours of audio-recorded court proceedings. The audio recordings featured 10 hours from each of the three courtrooms and these reflected five hours of trials with unrepresented defendants and five hour of trials with a defence counsel. To allow for analysis, the audio recordings were transcribed and the various language features coded. These coded data were analysed using the SPSS version 17 computer software to generate statistics on the frequencies of occurrence of the various language features. These statistical results formed the foundation of the discussion of emerging trends in the analysis chapters. The main theoretical framework informing the analysis of data was Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). CDA views discourse as a social practice that constitutes the social world and is constituted by other social practices. The theory holds that a study of the micro-discourse structures such as lexical choices and syntactic form in a given context leads to an understanding of the macro-discourse social structures such as power. The other theories that informed the study were Conversational Analysis and the Speech Act Theory. The thesis has four analysis chapters: chapter four focuses on question use by police prosecutors, counsel and pro se litigants; chapter five presents the findings on the use of pragmatic strategies by these discourse participants; chapter six deals with witness answer types, answer length and forms of witness resistance to control by examiners; chapter seven presents findings on the speech act functions and background contributions by examiners. From the analyses in these chapters it is established that evidentiary rules empower those who assume the examiner role by placing them in control of topic choice and change, and giving them the means to constrain the contributions of others. However, lay litigants are not always able to exploit the language and pragmatic resources available to the examiner. It also emerges that witnesses are powerless participants in courtroom discourse and are subjected to various forms of control by examiners. However, it is noted that witness use various strategies to resist this control. Chapter eight presents the summary of findings, conclusions and suggestions for further research and recommends various ways of mitigating the power imbalance in the courtroom.
Metaphors of love in Gikũyũ: conceptual mappings, vital relations and image schemas
(Kenyatta University, 2014) Gathigia, Moses Gatambũki; Orwenjo, D. O.; Ndung’u, R. W.
Constraint Interaction in the Syllabic Phonology of Lubukusu: an Optimality Theory Account
(2014-03-06) Nandelenga, Henry Simiyu; Njoroge, Martin C.; Ndung’u, R. W.
This study investigated constraint interaction in the syllabic phonology of Lubukusu, a dialect of the Luhya language spoken in Western part of Kenya. To understand any phonological processes and alterations in a language, there is the need to determine the syllable structure of the language. The objective of this study was to determine the Lubukusu syllable structure and how it constrains the attested phonological processes. The basic research question was; how do Optimality Theory's constraints explain the syllable structure of the language and the various phonological processes that are clearly motivated by the syllable structure. The rationale of the study rests on the premise that there is no consensus as to why nasal consonant sequences are often avoided and why dissimilar hetero-syllabic vowels are repaired cross-linguistically. In OT, it is assumed that there is some markedness associated with such structures. In addition, there is need to account for the role of the syllable position in initiating and blocking various phonological processes and the emergence ofCV syllables in reduplication. In this study, the surface-oriented OT analysis is adopted via interaction of markedness and faithfulness constraints. This is because the banned structures are due to their markedness on surface manifestation because they violate syllable structure phonotactics of the language. Primary data from native speakers were used in analysis through constraint ranking in tableaus to account for the syllable-based phonological processes. In the analysis, it emerged that constraints are able to fully account for the syllable structure of Lubukusu and the phonological processes constrained by the syllable structure. The entire analysis confirms our thesis that there is no need to posit ad hoc rules of derivation. Instead, mere recourse to the interaction of markedness and faithfulness constraints is sufficient. It is expected that this study will be an important contribution to the phonological theory of markedness and the role of constraints in phonological description and analysis as opposed to the standard rule-based derivational approach. An important implication of this study is that there is need for linguists to adopt a constraint-based analysis in accounting for phonological processes in particular. Similarly, the syllable is central in determining the possible and impossible phonological processes. It is recommended that future research should carry out a full-fledged study of Lubukusu phonology for a fuller critique of OT as a model of grammar. In addition, there is need to investigate the absence of pure voiced plosives, the use of the palatal /j1 as an epenthetic segment and the low open /a! as stern final vowel in terms of markedness theory ofOT.
An Investigation of Phonological Awareness Skills of Learners with Reading Disorders in Class Six in Selected Schools in Nairobi County
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Orago, A. S.
This study set out to investigate the phonological awareness skills of learners with reading disability. When one is considered a normal reader, he or she does not encounter much difficulty in reading and understanding texts. There are, however, children who have problems with phoneme identification and thus do not read well and they also have difficulties in comprehending texts. These learners should be identified and be assisted so that they can proceed with their learning lives. This study was guided by the following objectives: to investigate phonological awareness of learners with reading disability; to establish the correlation among the various measures of phonological awareness and to determine the significance of rapid automatic naming in reading. A sample of pupils in class six from the selected schools in Nairobi County was used in the study. Phonological awareness skills of these learners were tested to find out the nature of their awareness and skills in the tasks that were given. This study adopted an eclectic theoretical approach. The following theories guided the study: the Phonological Awareness Theory which states that reading based on the alphabetic system requires that readers be aware that words are made up of individual sounds and the Rapid Naming Theory which states that a good reader is one who has the ability to recall quickly and verbalize the names of presented objects which could also be individual alphabetical letters. The data were obtained from tape - recorded texts from the respondents and analysed to establish their nature of phonological awareness. Descriptive statistics which includes measures of central tendency and measures of correlation were used to summarize and describe the data. Tape recorded data were transcribed, analysed and then discussed. The results indicate that the respondents displayed phonological awareness skills in some PA tasks and experienced difficulties in some of the PA tasks. The study also found that there was no significant difference between the genders in their performances in the phonological awareness tasks. Various deficits in phonological awareness were also observed. These were categorized as mis-articulations of substitution, phoneme deletion, phoneme insertion, reading of the entire word instead of identifying the sounds; spelling the words; atypical and segmentation. It was also noted that there were correlations among the various measures of phonological awareness and absence of correlation among others. This showed that pupils have to be taught in all the measures for them to have phonological awareness skills. The study also looked at the significance of naming speed (RAN) in reading. It was observed that there were no significant differences in the time taken across the age groups and across the genders in the carrying out of the phonological awareness tasks.
Listening Competencies in English: A Descriptive Study of Primary School Teacher Trainees in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Wambui, W. L.
This descriptive study sought to establish the listening competence in English of primary teacher trainees in Kenya. The study correlated the social variables of sex, age, performance in Mid- course examination, entry behaviour and the college type and the listening competences of the teacher trainees. It also established the teacher trainees‟ attitudes towards listening skills. The Affective Filter of „The Monitor Model‟ by Krashen was used in the study to investigate the attitude of teacher trainees towards listening skills. Interactive Processing as propounded by Richards also informed the study on the processes used in the listening process and on importance of context in the listening event. A sample of two Teacher Training Colleges was used for the study. The colleges were purposively sampled so that one of them was drawn from the public sector and the other from the private sector. Simple random sampling was used to pick one class in each of the colleges for the study. The respondents were put into three strata using their performance in Mid-course examination namely: The above average trainees, the average trainees and the below average trainees. A test comprising three tasks: dictation, cloze test and listening comprehension were used to elicit data on the listening competences of the teacher trainees. Measures of central tendency were used to analyse the data. One way ANOVA was used to establish the differences in means between and within groups. Correlations between performances by the different groups were established using correlation coefficients and results presented in tables. A questionnaire was also administered to the teacher trainees to seek their views on the listening lessons and the importance of listening skills. The findings indicated that the trainees lacked the desired competence levels in listening skills. However, the teacher trainees had the minimum competence levels in the listening comprehension and in the dictation but not in the cloze test. The trainees in the public college performed better than teacher trainees in the private college in all the listening tasks. The female trainees performed better than their male counterparts. Teacher trainees with strong entry behavior performed better than the teacher trainees with weak entry behavior. The younger teacher trainees performed better than the older teacher trainees. Performance in the Mid-course Examination also influenced the listening competences of the teacher trainees. The study recommended that there should be a set minimum entry behaviour of the trainees joining training colleges. Majority of the teacher trainees were found to have a positive attitude towards the listening skill. Though majority of the trainees thought that listening skill has been given enough emphasis in the Primary Teacher Education syllabus, a large percentage thought otherwise. Most of the teacher trainees rated their listening quality as moderate. There is therefore a need to lower the affective filter of the teacher trainees by helping them cultivate a more positive attitude towards listening skills, eliminating noise in the listening contexts and giving in-service trainings to primary school teachers in order to improve their speaking skills.

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