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Item Assessing Challenges of Urban Water Supply: The Case of Low- Income Households in Migori Town, Migori County Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Kasuku, Margaret AwinoLack of access to safe water remains a significant challenge in developing countries. There has been a challenge when it comes to provision of clean and adequate water to the low income households living in urban areas such as Migori Town. Numerous reasons beyond individual’s households capability have been identified, despite having numerous water projects and government actions. The aims of the study were to establish sources of water, examine water inadequacy, coping strategies and effectiveness of water-use strategies among the low income households in Migori Town. The research was guided by the research questions for each objective. The research can be used to justify the need for policy implementation pertaining to challenges of water provision in Migori Town. Descriptive Survey Design was used to explore the challenges of water supply in the six informal estates of Migori town that is Soweto, Sauri Yako, Panda, Pieri, Dip and Nyangubo. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and through observations. Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to identify significant correlations between water supply and demand. It was also used to test the null hypothesis. The research was guided by Graph Theory of water supply by Euler Leonhard which advocates for a design of water portioning for both multiple and single source networks. The research findings showed that MIWASCO is the official water supplier in Migori though not a major distributor of water to the low income households in Migori Town. Some individuals used alternative water sources which were not fit for their consumption. Long distances in search of water was established to be dangerous. It prevented women and children from carrying out other activities for the day thus jeopardizing income generation within households. Due to long distances, 82.7% of the respondents rely on water vendors who were very costly (charging up to Kshs. 20/= per 20 litre).The study was limited to a sample and thereby recommends that future research should cover all town residents. From the findings the efforts should be directed towards eliminating the challenges of water shortages and reduce the risk factors associated with water shortages. Areas for further study are to examine influence of governance and infrastructure on the effective water supply within the informal settlementsItem An Investigation on Savings and Internal Lending Communities’ Relationship to Household Welfare in Shangai Informal Settlement-Mpika-Zambia.(Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Chewe, MargaretThe study aimed at assessing effects of Savings and Internal Lending Communities (SILC) on informal operators’ household welfare in Shangai informal settlement. SILC is a kind of informal social security mechanism which is widely used by low-income households among informal operators. About 4 billion people around the world are not provided with social protection by the government, they remain entirely unprotected ILO (2020). In the informal economy, traditional and informal mechanisms provide social protection due to inadequate provision of formal social protection programmes. Informal operators have had involved themselves in informal social security mechanisms such as savings groups that raise income through internal accruals. Shangai informal settlement has had experienced increasing levels of SILC participation, however, many are still having poor standards of living. This study was conducted to determine if SILC programmes as a social security mechanism made any positive impact on livelihood outcomes of Shangai informal operators. The specific objectives of the study were; to find out the reasons for joining SILC, assess the effects of SILC on poverty reduction, establish the challenges faced by SILC members and to assess whether participation in SILC leads to socio economic empowerment among informal operators. The study employed descriptive research design. Questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data and Key Informant Interviews (KII) were used for qualitative data. Fourteen registered SILC groups were purposively sampled because had the target population. Study sample size was 112 which was randomly selected. Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics by use of SPSS version 22 and results were presented as means, frequency and percentages. While qualitative data collected from 8 key informant interviews was analyzed by content, classified according to major themes that were covered in this study. Examination on effects of SILC participation and poverty reduction was by use of independent t test while examination of influence of SILC participation on socioeconomic empowerment was through use of paired t test and chi square test with a p<0.05 as criterion of Statistical significance. Saving money, access to loans, and access to social funds were major reasons study participants joined SILC in Shangai informal settlement. This study established that SILC participation had positive effect in poverty reduction through assets accumulation of phones (p=0.044), bed (p=0.016), sponge mattress (p=0.014) and breakable plates (p=0.054). Main challenges faced by SILC study participants were non-repayment, late repayment, late reporting and poor attendance of SILC meetings. Study results further revealed that participation in SILC empowered informal operators with increased household monthly income (p=0.001) and funds for any emergency (p=0.054). Therefore, this study recommends to the government to capacity build SILC groups as viable social protection cover for informal sector. Furthermore, comparative studies should be conducted between SILC participants and non-SILC participants in Shangai informal settlement as to determine if SILC could be an alternative financial intervention.Item Devolution of Agriculture and Its Effects on Mango Marketing by Small Scale Farmers in Makueni County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Vamba, Mary KalukiMany mango farmers face significant post-harvest losses due to poor logistics, insufficient government support and limited market access, leading to unproductivity, unsustainability and increased poverty due to reliance on middlemen. This study sought to establish the indicators of agricultural devolution, assess the benefits of devolution to mango farmers, examine the challenges faced by mango farmers in selling their produce despite devolution and investigate the coping strategies on challenges faced by mango farmers in Makueni County. Mango farming has been a source of misery for many farmers owing to its huge post-harvest losses that have resulted from limited market access, low prices and lack of proper farmers’ management organizations. The study pre tested the research tools for validity and reliability, data gathered during the pilot guided in further improving the research tools. Quantitative data underwent cleaning process before sorting and entry into SPSS (V27) package which helped in analysis. Descriptives were used to descriptively analyze the data based on the specific objectives, while correlation analysis was used to test the hypothesis formulated. Graphs and tables presented the data. Qualitative data from interview guides was analyzed through thematic analysis. This involved identifying patterns or themes in the data by systematically coding and categorizing responses. The findings were significant to policy makers, the farmers and researchers in the same field of study. The study found that the indicators of devolution included better marketing guidelines (40.2%), promotion of farm cooperatives (36.7%), processing of farm produce (15.3%), better infrastructure (16.6%), better bargaining power (14.1%) among others. The findings also demonstrated a strong positive correlation between agricultural devolution and mango marketing (r = 0.572, p = 0.000). The study concluded that though mango marketing cooperatives helped the farmers to market their products, the Makueni County government did not have enough marketing options for its farmers in their mango produce. Consequently, the County Government has not made significant investments in more effective marketing frameworks, which has resulted in poor prices for their produce, restricted access to finance and a lack of markets. The report suggests that in order to boost mango demand and marketing strategies, the Makueni County administration and mango growers should collaborate. This can be done by promoting mangoes and the benefits of consuming them, finding new markets for mangoes, improving the quality and quantity of mango production and supporting value addition and processing.Item Adaptation Strategies to Rainfall Variability by Small Scale Dairy Farmers in Uasin-Gishu County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Nyongesa, Geoffrey MukhebiDairy farming in Kenya remains among the key wheelers to the Nations GDP contributor at about 6- 8%. Majority of the farmers in this sector, are small scale who mostly have no knowledge and capacity to handle challenges posed by rainfall variability that causes frequent droughts, impacting on water and pasture supply to their animals. The research investigated the adaptation strategies to rainfall variability by small scale dairy farmers in Uasin-Gishu County in Kenya. Objectives of study were: To assess the extent to which rainfall variability had affected small scale dairy farming, to evaluate the adaptive mechanisms used by small scale dairy farmers in response to rainfall variability between years 2010-2020 and to investigate the challenges faced by these farmers in adapting to this condition. Rainfall data was collected from the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD), Eldoret. While milk produce data was obtained from Ministry of Agriculture Uasin-Gishu County. Structured Questionnaires were used to collect data on adaptive mechanisms and its challenges. The questionnaire was administered to small scale dairy farmers who were sampled in a stratified manner based on their sub counties, then randomly within the Sub County. In total about 368 small scale dairy farmers were sampled out of which 300 (82%) of administered questionnaire were fully responded to. Analysis of objective one was done by Pearson correlation to establish the relationship between various rainfall characteristics and milk produce. Total annual rainfall with total annual milk had correlation of r= 0.53, number of rainy days in a year to the amount of milk with Pearson correlation of r =0.23, P>0.05. Onset and cessation periods had Pearson correlation of r=0.31 and r=0.02 respectively. Average monthly rainfall to milk had Pearson correlation indicating a negative relationship of r= -0.42, P= 0.17, meaning months with high rainfall amounts had lower milk produced while dry ones had higher milk produced. In the second and third objectives, SWOT analysis was used to analyze them. Adaption strategies were taken as strengths and included: Keeping resistant breeds, they also access loans from banks and co-operative societies and also farmers rely on stored hay and silage during dry conditions. Challenges to adaptation were weaknesses and included: constraint by lack of adequate funds, lack of enough knowledge and skills to implement adaptive strategies besides in adequate support from County government. Research recommended that farmers should keep more of cross breed animals which cope with climate variability unlike exotic ones. There was also need for farmers to join and strengthen cooperative societies to assist them adapt, this is besides use of digital methods of sharing challenges and solutions to rainfall variability. The research findings are expected to benefit policy makers and other stake holders in improving dairy sub sector besides offering a body of knowledge to further researches.Item Socio-Economic Implications of Immigration into Kitengela Town, Kajiado County, Kenya between 2011 And 2021(Kenyatta University, 2024-02) Musyimi, Margaret MueniGlobally, there had been an overwhelming concern on increasing population, whereas resources to sustain the increased number of people in most parts of the world were getting rare every day particularly in developing countries including Kenya. Kajiado County‟s population as per the 2019 census report was at 1,117,840 an increase from the 687,312 as per 2009 census. Kitengela Town has had unprecedented growth in immigrant population to 154,436 for the past ten years, a phenomenon unlikely to be as a result of natural increase. This population comprises a mosaic of different communities. This study main objective was to determine the socio-economic implications of immigration in Kitengela Town, Kenya. The following specific objectives were used to guide the study; to establish the socio-demographic characteristic of the immigrants, to determine the economic effect of immigration in Kitengela Town and to identify factors influencing immigration to Kitengela Town. The study was grounded on the Neoclassical Theory. A stratified sampling technique was used to select 153 immigrants residing in Kitengela Town and three key informants. The study employed a descriptive survey design to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. The data was collected using questionnaires and interview guides. Quantitative data was organized, cleaned, coded and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS v 25.0) software. Percentages and frequencies were computed and presented in charts and tables. Qualitative data was cleaned and transcribed to bring out important information in the best way. The study results showed that there are both positive and negative implications of immigration in Kitengela Town. The study also established that immigration to Kitengela Town is facilitated by better healthcare facilities, better housing infrastructure, industrialization of urban areas, better employment opportunities as well as good learning institutions. However, some of the problems encountered by immigrants included traffic congestion, weather change, and difference in living standards (either high or unmanageable), struggle to settle in, fluctuating financial status, and insecurity especially at night among others. From the findings, the study proposes targeted initiatives in Kitengela Town to address immigration challenges and harness opportunities. Customized educational programs, encompassing language training and skill development, are recommended for immigrants with diverse educational backgrounds. Empowering female immigrants through equal access to education, employment, and community programs is emphasized. Comprehensive family support services, including healthcare and counseling, are suggested, along with community events to strengthen family bonds. Awareness campaigns promoting cultural understanding and collaboration with local businesses for inclusive job opportunities are crucial. Addressing housing issues, improving safety measures, expanding healthcare facilities, and facilitating civic engagement programs are essentialItem Influence of Water Quality on Macroinvertebrate Diversity in Nairobi River, Nairobi City County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Ndichu, Naomi NyamburaGlobally anthropogenic activities have resulted in water pollution threatening aquatic life. This study aimed to analyze the influence of water quality on macroinvertebrate diversity. The study's specific objectives were: i) to analyze selected physical-chemical quality of water ii) to assess the abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates iii) to establish the relationship between macroinvertebrate diversity and water quality and iv) to determine the effect of rehabilitation on macroinvertebrates' diversity along Nairobi River. Data on the physico-chemical parameters of water and the type and number of macroinvertebrates were determined in the field and in the phytotherapeutic laboratory using laboratory standard procedures. Data collection methods also included direct observation and interview guides. Data analysis was done using: ANOVA, T-test, Shapiro-Wilk test, multiple regression tests, and Pearson's correlation in SPSS version 29 and descriptive data analysis was done in Excel. Study results indicate a significant variation in water quality parameters between rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated zones (P< 0.05) during the dry days. However, the wet days' results indicate no significant differences in water quality among sample plots (P > 0.05). The number of macroinvertebrates was not significantly different (P > 0.05). Using Pearson's correlation, a significant negative relationship between macro- invertebrates’ diversity with nitrates and phosphate levels was established (r = -0.863 and -0.603, P < 0.05). Although not statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05, a negative relationship was found between macro invertebrates' diversity with water temperature, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and water turbidity. Dissolved oxygen and pH positively correlated with macroinvertebrates' diversity. Species evenness was significantly positively affected by the levels of nitrates in the waters (r = 0.360, P = 0.043). Other positive relationships with the species' evenness were recorded in water, turbidity, and phosphates in water (P > 0.05). Electrical conductivity (r = 0.360, P = 0.043) had a significant positive correlation. Total dissolved solids also increased the number of macroinvertebrates. The diversity of macro-invertebrates in the mean rehabilitated area (310) was not significantly different from the non-rehabilitated area (mean 222.18), t = 0.478, P = 0.636. Species evenness in the rehabilitated (middle course) compared to the non-rehabilitated area (upper and lower courses) showed a significant difference, t = 2.35, P = 0.0255). Water pH and Dissolved Oxygen were slightly high in the rehabilitated area. Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity were high in non-rehabilitated areas. Nitrates and phosphates were significantly higher in the non-rehabilitated area than in the rehabilitated area (P < 0.05). The study found that 25% of the respondents said that the water quality had deteriorated while 75% reported problems to human as well as macroinvertebrates. The predominant parameters in the study area were dissolved oxygen, nitrates, and phosphates. Macroinvertebrates were more abundant and diverse in the middle course. The predominant parameters had a significant effect on the diversity and abundance of macroinvertebrates where oxygen had positive correlation and phosphates and nitrates had negative correlation with macroinvertebrates’ diversity and abundance. Rehabilitation was noted to have a positive impact to aquatic life since diversity was higher in the rehabilitated areas. Measures to prevent pollution such as proper disposal of wastes, imprisonment, and penalizing those who will be found polluting the river should be enhanced. More research should be done to establish distribution of other species in the river, their adaptability as well as identifying the extinct species. Citizens should be educated on the impact of pollution on aquatic life. Rehabilitation activities should be extended to cover larger or the whole section of the river. The study findings will make people living along the river to be aware of the harm caused to biodiversity in the water.Item Credit Accessibility and Motorcycle Transport Service in Kakamega County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2024-04) BED, ANNE SOREThe transport services shape the livelihoods of the population living in rural sub-Saharan Africa and have significant implications for poverty alleviation and ease of mobility. However, the unmet demands by public transport services have leveraged several informal transportation modes such as the adoption of the motorcycle either for personal mobility or the creation of an informal public transport system. Nonetheless, there are significant challenges to ensuring that the motorcycle transport activity operates smoothly. The acquisition of a motorcycle in Kenya entails both formal and informal financing mechanisms. Due to the contextual gaps in the studies relating to financial arrangements surrounding the acquisition of motorcycles, the study sought to evaluate credit accessibility and the growth of motorcycle transport services in Kakamega County. The study had four objectives; to assess the sources of credit for motorcycle transport; to establish the determinants of the choice of credit facility; to evaluate the constraints in accessing credit facilities by motorcycle owners; and to determine the influence of credit facilities on the growth of motorcycle transport services in Kakamega County. The study was supported by the financial intermediation theory. The study was situated in Kakamega County with a specific emphasis on the Kakamega East sub-county and adopted a descriptive design with a target population of 14,500 motorcycle owners from which 144 motorcycle owners were drawn through multi-stage random sampling. The study used two primary research instruments; the questionnaire and interviews to collect primary data. The instruments were validated through a panel review and pilot testing. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse data and the output was presented in tabular and pictorial formats. The findings showed that motorcycle owners mainly acquire these assets through loans from credit unions (SACCOs) and financing institutions (commercial banks and microfinance). These owners selected the credit facilities based on perceived friendlier terms and conditions, friends' opinions and nearness to a financing institution. Based on the ANOVA analysis, F = 3.309, p < 0.05, the null hypothesis that credit access does not significantly influence the growth of motorcycle transport service in Kakamega County was rejected and concluded that accessibility to credit facilities influenced the number of motorcycles owned and thus by extension influenced the growth in motorcycle transport service. The most important determinant of the use of credit facilities was the rate of interest, securing guarantees and collaterals. Most of the owners belonged to a SACCO because of the ease of accessing credit and savings. Challenges in accessing credit included unwilling guarantors, lengthy application procedures and impediments to accessing credit due to credit history information. The study made the following conclusions; access to a credit facility significantly impacted motorcycle transport. Lastly, the study recommends that the financing institutions introduce specific credit facilities for motorcycle ownership, increase entrepreneurial and business skills by training the owners and encourage the motorcycle owners to form or join a SACCO.Item Effects of Riparian Cover Types on Water Quality and Macroinvertebrate Population in River Isiukhu Watershed, Kakamega County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2023-06) Tela, Samuel AbuyekaQuality riparian cover improves the ecologically health of rivers. Conservation of riparian buffer zones improves sustainability of rivers in supporting biotic diversity. However, anthropogenic activities are endangering current and future existence of riparian cover .The study sought to establish the effects of riparian cover types on water quality and macro invertebrate population in the Isiukhu River watershed. Specific objectives that were explored included; to identify the riparian cover types along the river; to establish the relationship between riparian cover types and water quality; and finally to establish relationship between riparian cover types and macro invertebrates diversity, evenness, richness and abundance .Four stations under different riparian covers were assessed four times for water samples and macro invertebrates’ specimens in order to achieve these objectives. Riparian cover types that existed along the river were identified using sentinel (2) image and they include, forest vegetation, riparian grassland, farmland zone and town zone. Ground photographs documentation, transect walk orientation and ground truth observations helped in rating and classifying riparian covers as being very high, high, moderate and low in relation to riparian cover characteristics. Macro invertebrates were collected using D frame net, identified and classified using relevant classification keys. Shannon-Wiener index, Shannon evenness index, Species richness and abundance indices are descriptive statistics that analysed for species population structure. Sorenson’s Coefficient was applied to quantify similarities or dissimilarities among species in different stations. Pearson correlation coefficient hypothetically tested significance correlation between sampling stations and species indices. Water quality parameters were expressed using mean. Two way ANOVA test revealed that significant variation existed between water parameters (pH, EC, TDS, DO, Temperature and Turbidity) and sampling stations (ρ <0.05) and sampling dates (ρ <0.05).1,552 macro invertebrate species were collected .11 species were positively correlated with riparian covers ,while 3 were negatively correlated with riparian cover. Forest vegetation had highest species richness (24), Grassland (22), Farmland (19) and Town zone (17) respectively. Forest vegetation had highest species abundance (377), Grassland (376), Farmland (387) and Town zone (412). Forest vegetation was more diverse (3.090), followed by Grassland (2.962), Farmland (2.675) and Town zone (2.493). A close relationship existed between riparian covers and: macro invertebrates’ diversity (r =0.9904; ρ =0.08333); richness (r =0.9965; ρ =0.08333); evenness (r =0.9809; ρ =0.08333); and abundance (r = -0.8939; ρ =0.3333). Chiromonous sp. and Tubifex sp. dominated downstream stations while Belostoma sp., Heptagenia sp. and Caenis sp. dominated upstream stations. The study established that river Isiukhu ecosystem is adversely affected by dynamics which are simplifying the riparian cover along the river. Therefore, application of holistic approach in river health assessment is recommended through assessing physical, biological and chemical aspects of the ecosystem .This will lead to better understanding of ecosystem processes, thus leading to effective management and conservation of riparian resources.Item Assessment of Soil Erosion Risk in Kambiti Sub catchment Muranga County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2023) Wachira, Daniel; Joy Obando; Shadrack K. MurimiAbstractItem Socio-economic and Cultural Determinants of the Slow Decline in Fertility in Migori County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Odongo, Linet Akinyi; Leonard. M. KisoviItem Effects of Slum Electrification on Socio-Economic Growth of Households' in Kibera Slum Nairobi City County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Juvenalis, Mwanza; Thomas Kibutu; Joseph MahiriItem Effects of Slum Electrification on Socio-Economic Growth of Households’ in Kibera Slum Nairobi City County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023) Mwanza, Juvenalis; Thomas Kibutu; Joseph MahiriSlums are a global phenomenon, existing in almost every country. They are characterized by poor housing quality, insecure residential status, overcrowding, and inadequate access to sanitation, electricity, safe water, and other infrastructural services. NGOs and governments invest in slums to enhance human well-being through projects like Slum Electrification. However, empirical evidence is needed to support the idea that slum projects have an effect on human well-being. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of slum electrification on households' socioeconomic growth in Kibera slum. The specific objectives were: to establish trends and patterns of distribution of electricity and socio-economic growth in Kibera slum, to assess the household and community uses of electricity and socio-economic growth in Kibera slum, to establish the effect of slum electrification on economic growth in Kibera slum and to determine the effect of slum electrification on social growth in Kibera slum. The study was guided by empowerment theory and employed a descriptive survey research design. The targeted population was 200,000 residents of Kibera slum who had lived there for over five years. The study used purposive sampling techniques to sample the required sample size of 384 household heads from the 13 villages of Kibera slum. A semi-structured questionnaire with both closed-ended and open-ended questions was used to collect quantitative and qualitative data, while GPS devices collected spatial data. Quantitative data was analyzed descriptively and inferentially, where Chi-square tested the hypothesis. Spatial explicit data on electricity mapping was analyzed using an overlay function in ARCGIS. Qualitative data was analyzed using themes and categories reported by the respondents. From the findings, the majority of households connected to grid power use it mainly for lighting and low-power-consuming appliances like radios and televisions, rather than higher consumers like refrigerators and cookers. Most residents reported direct economic impacts on their businesses, including increased operating hours, reduced operation and labor costs, introduction of new services due to value addition, business expansion, increased production, and hence more profits. The study further shows that residents reported improvements in many aspects, including education, health, and security. They cited more time for their children to study and do assignments, increased awareness and knowledge sources due to the rise in the use of computers, televisions, and radios. They also cited increased operating hours for health facilities, use of modern medical equipment, proper storage of medicine, and increased safety for slum locals due to street lighting. The study recommends that Kenya Power and Lighting Company as well as the Nairobi City County should ensure equitable distribution of electricity across all areas of the slum, including interior regions that are currently underserved. Second, residents of Kibera slum should promote energy-efficient appliances. Non-Governmental Organizations should educate residents about the benefits of using energy-efficient devices and provide information about available options. Third, Nairobi City County should put in place such factors not limited to accessibility to tools and machines for productive applications, availability low interest financial services and credits, skilled workforce required for both business management, market for their products and services.Item Social Economic Determinants of Adoption of Fish Farming in Siaya County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023) Ouma, Amos Onyango; Thomas N.Kibutu; Francis O. OnsongoThe demand for fish in Kenya has been steadily increasing, prompting the exploration of alternative methods such as fish farming to address this rising demand. However, the adoption of fish farming in Gem Sub-county, Siaya County, Kenya, has faced several challenges, resulting in a low success rate of only 13.9% in fish farming projects, leading to insufficient fish supply. This study aimed to analyze the factors influencing the adoption of fish farming in Gem Sub-county. The research was guided by four objectives to determine whether training influence farmers‟ adoption of fish farming to determine the availability of fish farming resources on the adoption of fish farming, investigating the availability of fish markets on the adoption of fish farming and to assess fish farmers' attitude on the adoption of fish farming in Gem Sub-county, Siaya County, Kenya. The study employed the theory of innovation diffusion and a descriptive survey research design to investigate the adoption of fish farming in a specific area. The target population included 140 fish farmers, 9 area Chiefs, and 9 Officials from the Fishery Department. To form a representative sample, 3 out of 9 locations (30%) were purposely selected, resulting to 42 respondents (30% of 140 fish farmers). Purposive sampling was used to select these locations, with the Area Chiefs and Fishery Department Officials coming from these sampled areas due to their expertise on fish farming projects. Data collection methods varied: questionnaires were used for fish farmers, while interviews were conducted with officials from the Fishery Department and Area Chiefs. To validate research instruments, a pilot study involving 4 fish farmers from a specific location was conducted to ensure reliability and validity. The data analysis process began with identifying common themes, assigning codes and labels to relevant data, and then calculating frequencies to provide descriptive information about the respondents. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics like frequencies and percentages, as well as inferential analysis employing Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Analysis, with the aid of Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS 23). The findings were presented using tables and charts. Qualitative data was analyzed qualitatively, aligned with the specific research objectives, and presented in narrative forms. The study established that there was a positive association between the frequency of farmers' training and the number of farmers who adopted fish farming (r = 0.991 and a significant level (p-value) of 0.000. In addition, correlation between the frequency with which the government markets fish and fish products and the number of farmers who have undertaken fish farming was positive (r = 0.976 and a significant level (p-value) of 0.000). Lastly, the association between fish farmers' interest in fish farming and the number of farmers who adopted fish farming was positive (r = 0.948 and a significant level (p-value) of 0.014. The study concluded that fish farmers in the studied area did not undergo adequate training on fishpond establishment, negatively impacting their ability to adopt fish farming. Additionally, the unavailability of the fish seeds and feeds hindered effective fish farming implementation, while the limited access to fish markets, marked by intense competition, both locally and internationally, further discouraged fish farming adoption. In response to these findings, the study recommended that the Fishery Furthermore, it advised that the government, particularly through the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, allocate more funds to support fish farming and explore new markets for local fish farmers, as incentives for the wider adoption of fish farming practices.Item Socio-Economic and Cultural Determinants of the Slow Decline in Fertility in Migori County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023) Odongo, Linet Akinyi; Leonard.M.Kisovi; Francis O. OnsongoHigh fertility is a major concern among the developing countries and countries in Africa south of the Sahara (SSA) as its negative characteristics poses a threat to their economies. Existing studies indicate that as at 2018, developing countries had a relatively low fertility rate of 4.0 while those in Africa south of the Sahara had the highest total fertility rate of 4.7. This is much higher than the world’s Fertility Rate, which stood at 2.4 during the same year. In Kenya, the Total fertility rate (TFR) declined from 7.5 births per woman in 1980 to around 5 births in 2010 to the current 3.5. In Migori County, TFR decreased from 7.1 births in the 1980s to around 5.6 in 2011 and to the current 5.3 in 2017. All other counties in Nyanza have registered a high decrease in Fertility Rate with a current of 4.8 in Kisumu, 4.7 in Siaya, 3.7 in Kisii, 5.2 in Homabay and 3.5 in Nyamira and most are moving towards national mean of 3.5. Migori County still stands at 5.3 and is reducing at a slower rate compared to the national rate and other counties in Nyanza. This formed the rationale for this study. The objectives of the study were; to investigate the social determinants of slow fertility decline in Migori: to determine the economic determinant of slow fertility decline in Migori County; to establish how culture affect slow fertility decline in Migori County and to make Policy implication on fertility decline. The study was guided by inter-generational wealth flow theory by John Cadwell. It adopted descriptive research design.A total sample size of 271 respondents was obtained from women of fecund age (15-49) determined by Fisher’s formula from 3 sub-counties Nyatike, Kuria East and Rongo obtained through random and purposive selection. Questionnaires, interview schedule and focus group discussions were used to collect data. Primary data was analyzed with respect to measures of central tendency. Chi-square was employed to test the relationship between the social, economic and cultural variables and fertility. ANOVA was used to test the significance of the means which was set at 95% level of significance. Social factors studied were level of education, economic status and occupation which had a direct effect on the rate at which fertility declined. Furthermore, Cultural factors such as religion, marital status and economic factors; poor healthcare standards, lack of empowered women and citizens had a direct cause on the slow fertility decline in Migori county.Item Socio-economic determinants of integrated floods management for vulnerability reduction in Kano Plains, Kisumu County, Kenya(Kenyatta university, 2022-08) Odero, Naomi Auma; Ishmail Mahiri; Kennedy Obiero; Mary MakokhaFor several decades floods have continuously threatened communities’ livelihoods and caused destruction to properties and the ecosystem as a whole. In an attempt to minimize the destructive nature of these events, different flood mitigation strategies have been employed. Nevertheless, the challenge with these strategies employed is that they seldom give audience to the affected people, instead focusing on technical solutions. Of importance is the integrated floods management approach which puts local knowledge into consideration. Although some studies have emphasized the need to have this incorporated with technical expertise in order to get more lasting solutions to the negative flood effects, much work still needs to be done. This study was conducted in the Nyando sub-catchment, Kano Plains in Kisumu County, Kenya. The study addressed the following specific objectives: (i) To establish the flood risk areas of Kano plains in Nyando sub-catchment (ii) To assess the socio-economic determinants of community vulnerability to floods in flood risk areas (iii) To determine the effects and vulnerability of flood events in flood risk areas and (iv) To evaluate the effectiveness of existing mitigation measures for flood management. The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Stratified sampling technique was used to select the three flood prone areas in Kano Plains, namely, Nyando, Miwani and Lower Nyakach as study sites. Simple random sampling technique was then used to select 100 households for the survey. Purposive sampling was used to select the key informants. Methods of data collection included questionnaires, key informant interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), GIS-integrated participatory community mapping and desk reviews. Weighted analysis was done for the land cover, DEM, soil and river datasets as corroborative data for the community identified flood risk areas. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the questionnaires, and the qualitative data from key informant interviews was analyzed using content analysis method. FGDs recordings were transcribed and analyzed thematically using NVIVO software. The main research findings were that 65.93% of respondents in this study live at the downstream of river Nyando, of which 60.00% resided in Nyando Sub County, thus exacerbating the risk to floods. Secondly household income was found to be the most significant factor with a likelihood ratio of p=0.026, in determining flood vulnerability the other factor was type of housing with a likelihood ratio of p=0.002. Thirdly, loss of farmland (17.98%), houses and property (69.66%) were considered the most serious effects of floods. Fourthly, 100% of the respondents agreed that construction of dykes/dams was a very effective flood mitigation measure. The study therefore concludes that socio economic determinants such as household income, household size and type of housing have a significant role in determining household vulnerability to floods. The study recommends an integrated approach to floods management through government led initiatives that incorporate local knowledge. Finally, the watershed managers must prioritize activities and interventions such as policy changes that will help effectively use and manage flood plains.Item Socio-Economic Determinants of Food Insecurity and Interventions for Enhancing Food Security at Household Level in Makueni County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kathuri, James Ndwiga; Leonard Kisovi; Joy ObandoThis study sought to examine effectiveness of interventions to curb household food insecurity within Makueni County, Kenya. This study was prompted by the fact that the region is one of the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands with persistent food insecurity in the Country. The study aimed at exploring best practices of addressing food insufficiency in the region. The study objectives were to: ascertain the socioeconomic determinants of household food insecurity within Makueni County; examine effectiveness of coping and adaptive strategies undertaken by households to enhance food security; assess the effectiveness of institutional frameworks used in addressing household food insecurity; and identify alternative strategies that can be used efficiently to enhance household food security within Makueni County. Makueni County was selected because it is among the regions that is food insecure. The study was guided by descriptive research design as it captures reality as it is. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to gather data from households. This was complimented with observation method. A total of 400 household heads were randomly sampled from a total of 144,320 households in Makueni County based on the population census of 1999. The independent variables whose relationship was considered with food security as a dependent variable include socio-economic factors of food insecurity; coping and adaptive mechanisms to food insecurity and institutional interventions through which food insecurity is being addressed. The concept of food security was considered with regard to the population’s ability to produce sufficient food or being able to afford the required quantity and quality of food stuff. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences was used to analyse the data. The statistics used were mainly descriptive statistics such as mean, mode, median, percentages and correlations. Chi-Square was on the other hand was used to test the hypotheses while the regressions/logit model was applied in determining the relationships between the dependent and a set of predictor variables. Key findings of the study were that food security among the sampled population was greatly influenced by socio-economic elements such as the number of regular dependants, inadequate financial capital, lack of training, lack of adequate extension services, lack of adequate diversity of economic activities, age of dependents and land size. Therefore, the same elements play a key role in reinforcing or inhibiting the efficacy of food insecurity interventions for every household. Over 80 per cent of the farmers were found to be resilient and use a number of coping and adaptive strategies to deal with food insecurity. These strategies include food rationing, seeking for casual labour jobs, small scale business, running down assets and trade-off (buying of food instead of other household needs) among others. In spite of this, over 80 per cent of the households remain food insecure. Eighty one percent (81%) of the households did not practice the best strategies of agricultural production. The institutional frameworks have also not solved the problem of food insecurity in Makueni County. Part of the recommendations made by this study is need to explore ways of building on the household coping and adaptive strategies, enhancing and implementing National and County Government and private sector (multisector) interventions that aim at mitigating food insecurity. The study further recommends the need to establish suitable approaches to diversify economic activities for the farmers. Some of the approaches may include building agricultural industries to boost the communities’ food insecurity. The findings of this study will be useful to the National and County Governments and the private sector in developing more pragmatic and effective policies and programmes that can help in making Makueni County food secure.Item Assessment of Seasonal and Spatial Variations in Groundwater Quality of Kamiti-Marengeta Sub-Catchment in Kiambu County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022) Adongo, Judith Miriam; Mary Makokha; Joy ObandoThe rise in population within Kamiti-Marengeta Sub-Catchment significantly increased the need for essential services such as residential houses and water supply. However, the service delivery of these critical services, especially water supply in the area, has not progressed with the demand. This has forced many housing investors and institutions to turn to groundwater extraction to meet the population's needs. The main objective of the research was to assess variations in the physical and chemical parameters of groundwater in the Kamiti-Marengeta sub-catchment by assessing the following specific objectives: 1. Physical and chemical characteristics of the boreholes and shallow wells, 2. Spatial variations of selected groundwater quality parameters, 3. Effect of seasonal variations on the select groundwater quality parameters, and 4. Perception and opinions of the residents regarding water quality and demand and supply issues. Forty-seven groundwater samples, 30 from deep wells (boreholes) and 17 from shallow wells, were sampled in May 2016 and September 2017 to represent the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Standard methods were used for onsite and laboratory analysis of the physical and chemical characteristics of the samples. The results obtained from sample analysis were compared to the KEBS and WHO standard values to determine the potability of groundwater. The spatial variation of the physical and chemical parameters in the sub-catchment was determined through a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean separation procedure with the Turkey test. The kriging gridding methodology in Surfer 13 Golden Software was used to interpolate the spatial water quality parameters and generate thematic contour maps for the tested parameters. The student's t-test performed at a 95% confidence interval was adopted in determining variation in groundwater quality across the two seasons and SPSS and excel to analyze descriptive statistics and the relationship between multiple variables from the social survey. The concentration of turbidity, Ca2+, K+, Fe2+, and F- in some borehole samples and pH units, Ca2+, Na+, and Fe2+ concentration in some shallow wells did not meet the required standard for drinking water by KEBS and WHO. There was a significant difference in levels of DO between Kiwanja and Kenyatta University (p = 0.13) and Kenyatta University and Kahawa Wendani (p = 0.00), total hardness between Bypass and Membley (p = 0.018), and Bypass and Kahawa Wendani at (p=0.041); and turbidity between Kiwanja and Membley (p = 0.011) and between Membley and Kahawa Sukari (p = 0.024). Contour maps for concentration and units of tested parameters in borehole and shallow well samples showed the variation in the physical and chemical characteristics of the groundwater. A significant difference was registered in the mean concentration of EC, Turbidity, Total Hardness, Ca2+, and Fe2+ in boreholes and mean concentration in all parameters in shallow wells except for Mg2+ during the dry and wet season. The social survey revealed that the boreholes were the primary sources of domestic water within Kamiti-Marengeta sub-catchment. Poor water quality was highlighted as the major problem with the water supply by 44% of the respondent, followed by broken water supply by 39% and cost of water by 10%. 7% of the residents did not cite any problem with the water supply. 50% percentage of the residents perceived the taste of water as the most critical water quality attribute, followed by odour at 36% and appearance at 14%. Fifty-six percent of the respondents considered the water safe for drinking, 39% perceived the water unsafe for drinking, and 5% could not gauge whether water was safe or not. The scientific findings on the assessment of the physical and chemical characteristics of groundwater and the social survey findings indicate that groundwater in some parts of the six regions is chemically unfit for drinking. The findings of this study provide baseline information on the quality of the groundwater systems of the area. It also contributes to knowledge of the seasonal variation of groundwater quality of volcanic aquifers like the Nairobi Aquifer System (NAS), which is vital for water quality monitoringItem Socio-Economic Determinants of Integrated Floods Management for Vulnerability Reduction in Kano Plains, Kisumu County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022) Odero, Naomi Auma; Kennedy Obiero; Mary MakokhaFor several decades floods have continuously threatened communities’ livelihoods and caused destruction to properties and the ecosystem as a whole. In an attempt to minimize the destructive nature of these events, different flood mitigation strategies have been employed. Nevertheless, the challenge with these strategies employed is that they seldom give audience to the affected people, instead focusing on technical solutions. Of importance is the integrated floods management approach which puts local knowledge into consideration. Although some studies have emphasized the need to have this incorporated with technical expertise in order to get more lasting solutions to the negative flood effects, much work still needs to be done. This study was conducted in the Nyando sub-catchment, Kano Plains in Kisumu County, Kenya. The study addressed the following specific objectives: (i) To establish the flood risk areas of Kano plains in Nyando sub-catchment (ii) To assess the socio-economic determinants of community vulnerability to floods in flood risk areas (iii) To determine the effects and vulnerability of flood events in flood risk areas and (iv) To evaluate the effectiveness of existing mitigation measures for flood management. The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Stratified sampling technique was used to select the three flood prone areas in Kano Plains, namely, Nyando, Miwani and Lower Nyakach as study sites. Simple random sampling technique was then used to select 100 households for the survey. Purposive sampling was used to select the key informants. Methods of data collection included questionnaires, key informant interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), GIS-integrated participatory community mapping and desk reviews. Weighted analysis was done for the land cover, DEM, soil and river datasets as corroborative data for the community identified flood risk areas. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the questionnaires, and the qualitative data from key informant interviews was analyzed using content analysis method. FGDs recordings were transcribed and analyzed thematically using NVIVO software. The main research findings were that 65.93% of respondents in this study live at the downstream of river Nyando, of which 60.00% resided in Nyando Sub County, thus exacerbating the risk to floods. Secondly household income was found to be the most significant factor with a likelihood ratio of p=0.026, in determining flood vulnerability the other factor was type of housing with a likelihood ratio of p=0.002. Thirdly, loss of farmland (17.98%), houses and property (69.66%) were considered the most serious effects of floods. Fourthly, 100% of the respondents agreed that construction of dykes/dams was a very effective flood mitigation measure. The study therefore concludes that socio economic determinants such as household income, household size and type of housing have a significant role in determining household vulnerability to floods. The study recommends an integrated approach to floods management through government led initiatives that incorporate local knowledge. Finally, the watershed managers must prioritize activities and interventions such as policy changes that will help effectively use and manage flood plains.Item Effects of Oil Production on Groundwater Levels in Lokichar Basin, Turkana County. Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022) Gitari, Franklin Muchiri; Mary Makokha; Christopher A. ShisanyaOil production requires large volumes of water for hydraulic fracturing. Globally, water demand for oil production has been increasing over the past decade. Kenya successfully completed the Early Oil Pilot Scheme (EOPS) project which was being undertaken in Lokichar basin in Turkana County in 2020 and expects to commence full commercialization in 2022. Water required for oil production during the EOPS was being obtained from ten boreholes drilled in the study area. Increased groundwater abstraction leads to decline in water levels. This study sought to investigate the effects of oil production on groundwater levels in Lokichar basin in Turkana County, Kenya. The specific objectives for this study were: to establish changes in groundwater demand in Lokichar basin, to determine borehole water levels in Lokichar basin and to establish rainfall trends in Lokichar basin. The changes in groundwater demand were related with the changes in borehole water levels to identify relationship. With rainfall being the major agent of groundwater recharge in the area, rainfall trends were analysed to establish whether it is contributing to groundwater level changes. Water levels for two boreholes within the study area were recorded between 12th August to 11th September 2020. To analyse rainfall trends, CHIRPS rainfall data for the study area was adopted. Kenya Ministry of Water and Irrigation design manual guidelines were adopted in estimating groundwater demand. Study findings showed that groundwater demand in Lokichar basin increased from 1,846,001.55 l/d in 2009 to 4,951,043.44 l/d in 2019 and is projected to increase to 145,235,374.23 l/d when full commercialization of the oil fields begins in 2022. This represents an increase in groundwater demand of 168% and 2833% for the periods 2009-2019 and 2019-2022 respectively. On borehole water levels, the study showed that the average daily levels remained fairly constant with Chinese 1 and Nawoyatira boreholes registering average daily water level of 18.12m and 19.5m respectively. The study however found out that major decline in borehole water levels is experienced during peak hours with levels declining to 29.0m and 26.6m for Chinese 1 and Nawoyatira boreholes respectively. Incorporation of oil production water demand into abstraction results to further decline in water levels to lows of 74m and 61m for Chinese 1 and Nawoyatira boreholes respectively. The study showed no statistically significant trend in the rainfall patterns between 1981 to 2019. The average annual rainfall amount was obtained as 142.48mm. The average annual groundwater recharge was estimated at 21.37mm. From the study findings, it has been concluded that increased groundwater abstraction led to borehole water level decline which is further exacerbated by incorporation of oil production water demand. It has therefore been recommended that an alternative source of water be identified during full commercialization of the oil fields to avoid overreliance on groundwater for oil production. Turkana County government should enact policies aimed at protecting the Laggers which are the main agents of groundwater recharge. Further research should be carried out to establish the extent of groundwater level changes during full commercialization of the oil fields.Item Seasonal Rainfall Variability Effects on Maize Yields and the Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptive Strategies in Nyeri County, Kenya(2022) Kabata, Lilly Njeri; George L. Makokha; Kennedy ObieroAgriculture is Kenya's economic backbone and a source of income for the vast majority of the population. The primary goal of the agriculture sector is to achieve national food security. Because most agricultural activities in Kenya rely on rainfall patterns, short- and long-term variations in rainfall patterns affect crop productivity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of seasonal rainfall variability on maize yields and assess the adaptive strategies of smallholder farmers in Nyeri County's Kieni East sub-County. The specific objectives were to determine the inter and intra seasonal temporal rainfall variability in Kieni East sub-County between 1988 and 2018, analyze the effects of seasonal rainfall variability on maize yields in the sub-County between 2009 and 2018, and assess smallholder maize farmers' adaptive strategies to the effects of seasonal rainfall variability. The following data sets were used in the study: rainfall data (1988-2018), maize data (2009-2018), a household survey (N=223), and in-depth interviews with MoA, meteorological personnel, and local administration (N=8). Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from smallholder maize farmers in the sub-County. Rainfall data was evaluated using trend analysis, standard deviation, correlation of variation, running means, and the variability index, to assess if there is variability in rainfall annually, within and between the two rainfall seasons. Similarly, maize yield data acquired from the MoA in Nyeri County was used to conduct trend analysis and calculate the variability index on an annual and seasonal basis. A correlation analysis was carried out to investigate the relationship between annual and seasonal rainfall and maize yields. According to the findings, yearly rainfall mean was 780.07mm, a standard deviation (SD) of 156.38mm and a correlation of 0.20.For the long rains, a mean of 260.86mm, an SD of 84.49mm and a correlation of 0.32.The short rains mean was 276.55mm, an SD of 126.09mm and a correlation of 0.46. The Karl Pearson Correlation test revealed a relationship between annual rainfall and annual maize yield of r (10) = 0.821, p = 0.004. Similarly, the Karl Pearson Correlation test found r (10) = 0.634, p = 0.009 for rainfall and maize yield under the long rains. The Karl Pearson Correlation test between rainfall and maize yield following short rains yielded r (10) = 0.918, p= 0.000, showing a strong significant positive relationship. According to the findings of the study, most farmers in Kieni East sub-County respond to rainfall variability by planting maize varieties that are early maturing (82.9 %) and drought tolerant (57.5 % ), high yielding (77 %), disease resistant (57.6 % ), use manure and fertilizers (92 % ), seek extension training (29.6 % ), and employ various water harvesting strategies. The outcomes of the research will be used by the MoA, other policy-makers and stakeholders to develop policies that address rainfall variability. The information will be used by smallholder maize farmers to evaluate their adaptive tactics and develop successful techniques for dealing with extreme rainfall variability. This will increase food yield and resilience to rainfall fluctuation, supporting the country in meeting the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2 and 13, which aim to eliminate hunger and address climate change, respectively.