MST-Department of Geography
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Item Land Use and Land Cover Change on Watershed Functions in Tungu-Naka River Sub-Catchment in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-12) Njage, Rose KananaWatersheds provide a main function of maintaining ecological balance and giving the most important services, like a home for biodiversity, water provision, and agricultural yields. The Tungu-Naka sub-catchment is an important hydrological unit that maintains different socio-economic activities for the communities in the watershed. The primary objective of this research was to assess the impacts of land use and land cover change (LULCC) on watershed functions in the Tungu-Naka River sub-catchment, Tharaka Nithi County. The specific objectives were to: (1) analyze the trends in land use and land cover in the Tungu-Naka watershed from 2002 to 2018, (2) identify and evaluate the driving factors of land use and land cover change in the Tungu-Naka sub-catchment between 2002 and 2018, and (3) assess the impacts of land use and land cover change on hydrological and ecological functions of the Tungu-Naka watershed. A mixed-methods research design combining both qualitative and quantitative approaches was employed. LANDSAT TM imagery from 2002, 2006, 2012, and 2018 was obtained from the Regional Center for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD) in Kasarani. These images were used to analyze LULCC over the study period and partially evaluate its impacts on the Tungu-Naka sub-catchment through supervised classification. The study targeted households residing within the Tungu-Naka watershed, as well as key informants. SPSS software was used to examine the relationship between LULCC and watershed functions, specifically employing Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient (r). Key findings revealed significant LULCC, including the conversion of wetlands for farming, deforestation, the destruction of riparian zones, and increased settlement. Population growth and planting of eucalyptus were identified as primary drivers of LULCC. The main impacts observed included drying of wetlands and reduced river water volumes. Population growth, urbanization, and shifts in farming practices were highlighted as significant contributors to land use changes. The research identified riparian land restoration through tree planting as a common watershed conservation strategy within the sub-catchment. However, this approach has been largely unsuccessful due to tree-cutting by farmers and its limited application in the upper watershed zones. The study rejected the null hypothesis and accepted the alternative hypothesis, confirming a statistically significant relationship between LULCC and watershed functions. There is a need for regulated water abstraction in the rivers and for strengthening the capacity of the community members on the importance of protecting riparian land. From the findings, there is a need for a debate on the suitable land use activities that can be considered in the different watersheds. Consequently, there should be proper channels of communication by the community members to the relevant authorities in case of an illegal activity within the watershed.Item Investigation of Recreation Parks Utilization in Nyeri Town, Nyeri County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-10) Wanjohi, Fausto MainaIncreasing demand for park recreation needs in the modern society has pushed public and private agencies to provide opportunities for physical, mental and social activities and meet the needs, in order to improve the quality of life. However, utilization of parks may be affected by various factors including park design and maintenance and characteristics of users in many cities and towns including those in Kenya. The main purpose of this study was to analyze utilization of parks in Nyeri county, Kenya. Further, the study had the following specific objectives: to determine socio-economic characteristics of park visitors in Nyeri county; to determine reasons that motivate visitors to want to visit the parks; to assess activities that park visitors engage in during park visits; and to identify challenges in utilizing the parks. The study adopted a descriptive design. The study sample was selected using the convenience/accidental sampling technique. Self-administered questionnaires, observation checklist and a key-informant interview schedule were used. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was utilized to analyze inferential statistics through logit-chi-square model and elicit the strength of association between the variables. Analyzed data was presented in form of frequency distribution tables, grouped frequencies and graphic representation. The study established that there was regular visit of the parks in a month and most of the visitors were youthful males of adult age. It was also established that majority of park visitors had high school level of education, were in business, were married, and whose income ranged between Ksh10,000-Ksh20,000. In addition, the study revealed that the main reason that motivates visitors to want to visit the park was relaxation. More so, it was established that majority of park visitors took 1-2 hours in the park and that majority made their visits during both weekdays and weekends. The most preferred time of visit was at midday. Majority of visitors visited the park more than once a week. Park experience, cleanliness, security, and accessibility of the park were rated as ‘Good’ by majority of respondents. Furthermore, the condition of grass, quietness, privacy, park location, and park design were rated as ‘Bad’ by majority of park visitors. On the other hand, majority of visitors rated condition of sanitary facilities and seats as ‘Very Bad’. The study further revealed that distance from home to the park was 1-3 Km for majority of visitors. Majority of park visitors walked to the park as means of transport to the park from home. The visitors did not have a pleasant experience while citing challenges in relation to hygiene, lack of sanitation facilities, poor grass management and seats. Observations on the park facilities supported the descriptive findings. The municipal manager in charge of the public park cited that the County Government of Nyeri was responsible for management of Sungura Park, thus the dire situation described by users indicated poor investment in parks infrastructure to visitors’ comfort. Baden Powel manager cited challenges on facilities, security and encroachment by motor vehicle garages. Results further show that the most significant factors influencing utilization of recreation parks were park experience, park management services and security. Other important factors include: facilities availability, park conditions and distance to the parks. Gender factor also had some influence on park usage. The study thus concluded that parks utilization in Nyeri County was limited by infrastructure and management challenges which the management of these parks must strategize to address and develop. The study recommended that the institutions managing the park need to enhance policies on park usage in ensuring residents are attracted to the parksItem Land Disputes and the Consequences on Socio-Economic Activities of Households in Chiakariga Ward, Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Thiong’o, Samuel KabirDemand for food, population growth and climate change have put pressure on land resources, resulting in emerging land disputes and conflicts globally when not resolved on time. In African countries, about 80% of the population resides in rural areas where they carry out agricultural activities. Kenya witnessed inter-ethnic conflicts in 2007 triggered by post-election violence, access and control of land resources. This prompted the Government of Kenya to accelerate titling programs to provide security of tenure to mitigate the effects of conflicts. Tharaka-Nithi was among the counties that benefitted from the titling program. The objective of this study, therefore, was to investigate the consequences of land disputes on social and economic development in Chiakariga ward, Tharaka-Nithi County. The study investigated the sources of land disputes, the consequences of these land disputes on social and economic development and the local informal procedures adopted by the households to resolve land disputes. The study used descriptive research design targeting 1598 households affected by land disputes. Purposively sampling technique identified Chiakariga ward, Tharaka-Nithi County, where the demarcation of land was in progress raising many land disputes. The study was guided by both eco-violence and honey pot theories. A Sample of 85 households was selected using systematic random sampling out of 94 targeted, where open and closed ended structured questionnaires were administered to the respondents to collect quantitative data. Three focus group discussions (FGDS) and ten key informants with in-depth knowledge and experience in land disputes were purposely sampled to collect qualitative data which was analyzed by creating themes around the study objectives. These three research methods were used to collect primary data. Secondary data was obtained from journals, reports from MLPP and County reports. Quantitative data was analyzed in terms of percentages and summarized into frequency distribution tables, bar graphs and pie-charts. It was then, followed by a brief explanation. The study according to objectives concluded that land claims, boundary issues, succession of land, sale of land, use of land, size of land, politics and discrimination of women were sources of land disputes. The study further concluded that the existence of land disputes affected household social economic activities in terms of income, food production and nature of houses constructed within the ward. The study further concluded that the households affected by the land disputes adopted local informal strategies to mitigate the consequences of the land disputes. Mostly they used the MLPP 96.8%, the Ministry of Interior Coordination to resolve their land disputes 93.6% and exceptional Environment and Land High Court 85%. Other households used traditional methods through community clan elders and traditional oathing 95% as an alternative form of dispute resolution mechanism. The study recommended that the national government to strengthen and formalize land allocation procedures, encourage marking of physical boundaries, promote gender equity, improve succession and sale of land procedures and encourage traditional methods as alternative dispute resolution mechanisms to resolve land disputes amicably. Findings from the study are beneficial to stakeholders in the land sector and policymakers in the county and national government to make decisions that minimize causes of land disputes and quick resolutions when they occur to spur social and economic developmentsItem Design and Performance Evaluation of Low Cost Domestic Solar Water Heating System in Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Kwach, Sarah AchollaKenya’s energy consumption is dominated by biomass, with an estimated 75% of households relying on firewood and charcoal for cooking, heating, and lighting. This dependency accelerates deforestation, contributes to indoor air pollution, and poses severe health risks. Yet, Kenya’s equatorial location provides abundant solar energy, averaging 4–6 kWh/m² per day, making solar water heating (SWH) a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative. Despite this potential, SWH technology adoption has been limited due to high installation costs, dependence on imported copper collectors, and inadequate local manufacturing capacity. This study focused on the design, construction, and evaluation of low-cost flat plate solar water heating systems (FPSWHS) using locally available materials, tested under real Kenyan climatic conditions. The experiments were carried out at Kenyatta University in Kiambu County (1°10'50.0"S, 36°55'41.0"E) between March and May 2015, a period marked by alternating sunny and cloudy weather patterns. Two prototype systems were developed: System A, incorporating an aluminum absorber plate, and System B, utilizing galvanized steel. Both were designed and fabricated locally at the Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI). A commercially manufactured copper-based collector imported from China (System C) was used as the control. System sizing was based on the estimated hot water demand of a typical five-member household, with each person requiring approximately 20 liters of water heated to 50°C per day. Using local solar irradiance data (approximately 800 W/m²), estimated daily water consumption, and standard thermal design equations, each system was optimized to efficiently meet domestic hot water needs The experimental setup comprised three flat plate solar water heating systems, each with a collector area of 2 m², tested simultaneously under actual field conditions. Solar radiation was measured using a pyranometer, while outlet water temperatures were recorded hourly using digital thermometers positioned at the outlets of each system. All three systems successfully heated water above the 50°C threshold recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for safe domestic use. The highest outlet temperatures recorded were 78.7°C for the copper collector, 74.1°C for aluminum, and 69.4°C for galvanized steel, with corresponding mean outlet temperatures of 63.5°C, 61.2°C, and 57.3°C, respectively. Thermal efficiencies were calculated as 34.0% for copper, 32.8% for aluminum, and 28.8% for galvanized steel. Although the galvanized steel system demonstrated the lowest efficiency, it was the most economical, costing Ksh 45,996.80 (USD 353.82), which is approximately 20% less than the aluminum system at Ksh 54,160 (USD 416.61) and significantly cheaper than the copper system at Ksh 68,664 (USD 528.18). Additionally, the aluminum collector showed a payback period of 24 months, indicating a favorable balance between performance and investment. The findings demonstrate that low-cost, locally manufactured solar water heating systems— particularly those constructed with galvanized steel—offer an affordable, sustainable, and effective solution for meeting domestic hot water needs in Kenya. The widespread adoption of such systems has the potential to significantly reduce reliance on biomass fuels, thereby mitigating environmental degradation and deforestation. Additionally, improved access to clean hot water can enhance public health outcomes by reducing waterborne diseases and improving hygiene. These benefits align with the objectives of Kenya’s Vision 2030 and contribute to the achievement of global sustainability goals.Item Geospatial Distribution and Quality of Drinking Water in Shallow Wells in Kipsonoi Sub-Catchment in Bomet County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-07) Segut, Janeth ChelangatSurface runoff from agricultural land has crucial consequential challenge to the quality of water in shallow wells, introducing pollutants such as fecal contaminants, herbicidal and pesticidal residues, and chemical fertilizers. This research focal point is to examine the condition and potability of drinking water sourced from shallow wells in the Kipsonoi Sub-Catchment. The specific objectives included: mapping the spatial arrangement of shallow wells the region, assessing key physical, chemical, and biological water quality indicators, and determining the fitness of these water sources for human utilization. The spatial mapping of wells with depths below 15 meters was conducted using handheld GPS devices, and their coordinates were plotted using ArcGIS software version 10.8. A total of 31 shallow wells were sampled during both the wet season (April) and the dry season (January) to analyze selected parameters. Laboratory analyses were conducted following standard procedures, and the outcomes were benchmarked against water quality guidelines provided by NEMA, USEPA, and WHO. The WQI was computed to evaluate the potability of the sampled water. Findings from the study indicate the existence of roughly 321 shallow wells within the Kipsonoi Sub-Catchment, with 150 (47%) serving as sources of drinking water—96 wells (64%) located in the upper catchment and 54 (36%) in the lower zone. Widespread contamination was noted, with more than 60% of samples exceeding acceptable thresholds for nitrates (61.29%), turbidity (70.97%), and faecal coliforms (80.66%), as outlined by the referenced environmental and health authorities. A student’s t-test performed at a 95% confidence level showed a statistically meaningful difference (p ≤ 0.05) in E. coli concentrations between the dry and rainy seasons. Elevated extends of faecal coliforms during the rainy season pointed to human and livestock waste as principal sources of contamination during periods of heavy rainfall. According to the WQI assessment, over 60% of the sampled wells produced water that met the criteria for potable use, whereas 32.2% were classified as having substandard quality. The analysis highlights extensive contamination, particularly from nitrates, turbidity, and faecal indicators. The assessment recommends that water quality in the Kipsonoi Sub-Catchment is substantially compromised by agricultural runoff, which contributes to the increased concentration of pollutants in shallow groundwater. To mitigate these risks, government entities for instance the Ministry of Water, Water Resources Authority, and Geological Survey should initiate geophysical assessments to identify potential aquifers for deeper well development, even in areas constrained by clay layers. It is imperative that wells are properly sealed to prevent infiltration from surface contaminants. Moreover, water from shallow sources should undergo appropriate treatment before consumption to reduce excessive levels of turbidity, nitrates, and microbial pathogens, thereby aligning with national and international water safety standards.Item Streamflow Response to Rainfall Variability in Zaaba River Sub Catchment of Vihiga County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-08) Aholi, JoelVariation in rainfall on monthly, seasonal and annual time scales, land cover changes and anthropogenic activities determine streamflow response, which is of great concern for water resource management and conservation at a watershed. In Zaaba sub catchment, the main problem is anthropogenic activities like encroachment on riparian areas and forested areas. The main study objective was to determine streamflow response to rainfall variability in Zaaba sub catchment. Specific objectives of the study were: (i) To determine rainfall trends for Zaaba River sub catchment from 1991 to 2020, (ii) To determine discharge trends for Zaaba River from 1991 to 2020, (iii) To determine current discharge of Zaaba River, and (iv) To establish factors that influence hydrological response of Zaaba River. Historical rainfall data from Kenya Meteorological Department and historical discharge data from Water Resources Authority were used to determine rainfall and discharge trends. Land cover data for 2001, 2011 and 2020 was downloaded from USGS website https://www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov/. Field experiments determined current discharge for Zaaba River. Focus Group Discussions, interviews and questionnaires were used to determine factors influencing hydrological response of the river. Regression analysis determined the correlation between rainfall and discharge. Mann Kendall test was used for trend detection. A slightly increasing monthly rainfall trend was observed at α = 0.05 with P-value = 0.037 and Qr = 0.125. There was slightly increasing trend in MAM rainfall with Qr = 0.030 and P-value = 0.043 while OND had a slightly increasing trend with Qr = 0.136 and P-value = 0.046. Trend analysis of annual rainfall revealed the existence of slightly increasing trend in annual rainfall with Qr = 1.081 and P-value = 0.010. Discharge trend analysis at α = 0.05 revealed monthly discharge for the study period had slight increasing trend with Qd = 1.070 and P-value = 0.010.A slightly increasing trend in discharge for MAM with Qd = 0.75 and P-value = 0.009 while OND discharge had an increasing trend with Qd = 2.018 and P-value = 0.008. Annual discharge trend analysis indicated an increasing trend with Qd = 0.085 and P value =0.009. The trend analysis of rainfall and discharge revealed the existence of trend on monthly, seasonal and annual time scales. Regression analysis between rainfall and discharge data monthly timestep revealed a moderately positive relationship with r = 43.1%. At seasonal time step, the relationship was positive, although very weak with r = 12.4% for MAM and 6.7% for OND. At annual time step, r = 5.1%, indicated a weak positive relationship. The field experiments resulted in current discharge of May 2024 for Zaaba River as 42.36 m3 /s. Statistical analysis revealed that major land cover changes occurred between 2001 and 2020 where agricultural area that decreased from 50.05% (2001) to 32.8% (2020) as buildup areas increased from 5.06% in 2001 to 17.68% in 2020 as attributed to increased population, expansion of urban areas and encroachment into river riparian that decreased from 5.18% (2001) to 0.87% (2020). 83% of the respondents revealed that agriculture is the main activity leading to intense run off generation. However, other activities that increase run off and lower ground water recharge are brick making, pottery, quarrying and small-scale gold mining. This study’s findings would encourage capacity building on increasing rainfall trends in order to take measures to control floods and enact policies that would encourage community participation in reafforestation programs in Maragoli Hill Forest and policy on restoration and protection of wetlands and riparian areas.Item Socio-Economic Drivers of Agroforestry in Kaiti Watershed in Makueni County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-04) Ngila, Vallary MutaveForests and trees are essential resources for sustainable provision of goods and services. They provide social, economic and ecological benefits. However, increasing human population has led to reduction of forest lands for agriculture and settlement. Trees have not only been depleted in reserved forests but also on agricultural lands. Several measures have been formulated to improve forest cover in Kenya. One of such strategies is implementation of Agriculture (Farm Forestry) Rules, 2009. This requires farm owners to set up at least 10 per cent of the land under agroforestry. Existing literature on agroforestry studies focus on factors affecting agroforestry adoption and benefits and challenges in agroforestry. This study aimed at bridging the knowledge gap by examining tree density on farms and determining the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and tree density on farms. This study was carried out in Kaiti watershed, Makueni County, Kenya and assessed (1) types of agroforestry practices and tree species diversity (2) tree density on farms (3) socio-economic characteristics of households and (4) determined the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and tree density on farms in Kaiti watershed. The study targeted a sample of 100 households. Cluster sampling was used to divide Kaiti watershed into 3 clusters: Machakos Town, Kaiti and Makueni sub-counties. In each sub-county, locations were purposively selected. Further, households were proportionally distributed across locations and simple random sampling was applied where households were randomly selected from each location. Quadrats were used to determine tree species diversity and tree density on farms while questionnaires were used to record socio-economic characteristics of households and benefits and challenges of agroforestry. Data files were prepared in the Microsoft Excel and SPSS version 20 software where descriptive and inferential statistics were used. One-Way ANOVA determined whether the mean of species diversity differed across the study area while Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test ascertained where significant differences in species diversity occurred across the study area and multi linear regression determined the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and tree density on farms. The study found 8 agroforestry practices and the most dominant were multipurpose trees on croplands, orchards, trees on pasture and windbreaks. Fifty two tree species were found where 55.8% are indigenous and 44.2% are exotic. Tree species richness range was 2 to 28 and the mean was 6.86. The results of One-Way ANOVA for both Shannon Diversity Index and Simpsons’ Index of Diversity showed significant difference in species diversity in Kaiti watershed with p-value of 0.00023 and 0.00012 respectively. The mean of tree density was 104.5 trees per acre where 54% of farms had less than 40 trees per acre below the recommended number of trees per acre while 46% of farms had more than 40 trees per acre. This study found that household income, land tenure, household farm size, sex of household head, secondary occupation and household age composition (18 to 60 years) had significant influence on tree density on farms with p value of < 0.05 and household income was the most significant. The study recommends sensitization of farmers about importance of trees and suitable tree species for growing in arid and semi-arid areas. Further, supply of certified seedlings close to farmers and at affordable prices would improve tree species diversity and tree density on farms. There is also need for private land ownership for households to promote sense of ownership of trees.Item Effects of Coffee Production on Food Security of Small –Scale Farmers in Kisii County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2025-10) Momanyi, Wycliffe MasongoFood production has decreased in Kenya in general and in particular Kisii County as a result of the switch from food crops to cash crops. In Kenya Kisii County, Nyaribari Chache Sub-County, this study was conducted. The County's 60% of population experiences household food insufficiency. The purpose of the study was to look into how coffee farming in Kisii County affects food security. The specific objectives of the study were ; To analyze small-scale coffee production since 2017 in the study area; To establish the sources of food consumed by coffee farming households in Kisii County; To determine the level of food insecurity among coffee farming households in Kisii County; To establish the statuses of food consumption among coffee farming households in Kisii County; And to determine the coping mechanisms employed by coffee farming households during times of food shortages in Kisii County. The research used a descriptive survey approach. After utilizing Cronbach Alpha's measure of internal consistency to represent the results, the questionnaire data produced a reliability coefficient of 0.9. The study used Sloven's method on the 3378 people it was trying to reach in order to arrive at a sample size of 100. SPSS version 25.0 was used to analyze the data. Analyses of correlation, logit regression, and descriptive statistics were applied. Household consumption patterns, the Household s Food Access Scale (HFAS), and the Coping Strategies Index were used in the quantitative study (CSI). The findings show that R Square, Chi-Square, and Log Likelihood are all positive. According to the study's findings, there is a 114.873 Log probability, a 37.964 Chi-Square, and a 0.381 R Square. These suggest that food insecurity levels in the study area are strongly impacted by coffee growing. According to the model's summary, independent factors account for 68.7% of the variance in the degree of food insecurity. The study calls on the Kisii County Government to increase access to markets for both food and coffee products, access to flexible inputs, and improvement in market pricing in order to improve household food security situation in the study area. To lower food insecurity, it is necessary to improve food consumption habits, access to food, and availability of food among the households.Item Influence of Geography Teachers’ Competencies on Students’ Map Reading Achievement in Secondary Schools in Nakuru County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-03) Omodu, Paul MollayTeacher competencies and student achievement have contributed significantly to society’s social, political, and economic growth and development. We expect competent teachers to guide learners more productively, potentially increasing students’ self-efficacy. The objectives of the study were to i) establish the type of competencies Geography teachers displayed in the classroom, ii) identify factors that influence students’ achievement in teaching and learning map reading, iii) establish the link between teachers’ competencies and students' academic achievement in map reading, and iv) establish gender differences in the performance of students in Map reading. The study was guided by the teaching model of knowledge acquisition, as well as Locke's (1981) and Shulman's (1987) theories of goal setting and task performance. The study employed a descriptive survey method, a mixed research (qualitative and quantitative) method, and simple random and purposeful sampling to select 221 students from a group of 2076 students, 14 geography teachers from a group of 56 geography teachers, and seven heads of department from a group of 28. A sample of seven public secondary schools in the study's location was chosen, and data was collected through questionnaires, assessment tests, interview schedules, and observation plans. Content analysis was employed to extract qualitative data, central tendency measures were implemented to analyse quantitative data, and descriptive statistics were implemented to review the characteristics of the collected data. Infographics and bar graphs were implemented to illustrate the findings. The results indicated that geography educators exhibited pedagogical content knowledge, as well as technological content knowledge and self-efficacy. The P-value (.001) of the test was below the significance threshold (α=.05), indicating a statistically significant correlation between instructor competency and student map reading achievement. The competence of instructors in performing their duties was the determining factor in the success of students in map reading, according to more than half of the respondents (71.4%). Nevertheless, 28.6% of the instructors indicated that, although competency was a significant predictor of academic success, it was not the sole factor influencing performance. We identified the classroom environment, instructional material availability, and the attitudes of students and teachers towards outdoor learning as factors that influence academic achievement. Learning achievement was not affected by gender disparities among students. The research suggests that school administrators should guarantee that geography teachers receive regular seminars, workshops, and in-service map reading training. Instructional tools should be accessible to facilitate effective learning. We concluded that the recommended method for teaching map reading to partially theoretical principles, which involves exposing students to outdoor learning, would be advantageous. The study recommends additional research be conducted to determine the impact of pedagogical and technological content comprehension on academic achievement.Item Sand Harvesting and Its Social Economic and Environmental Effects on Household’s Livelihoods in Homabay County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023) Buke, MercySand harvesting is an economic activity that has social, economic, and environmental effects on people's lives. The magnitude of the effects varies from place to place based on the prevailing circumstances in such places. This study, therefore, sought to find out the socio-economic and environmental effects of sand harvesting on residents of Homa-Bay County. Subsequently, the key objective of this study was to explore sand harvesting and it’s social, economic and environmental effects on household’s livelihoods in Kobala sub-location in Homabay County. The findings of the study are instrumental in creating public awareness of the sustainable way of managing these socio-economic effects and improving the standards of living of Kobala residents. This study was guided by the Local Economic Development Theory and Driving Pressure State Impact Response (DPSIR) model. The study adopted a descriptive survey design and used questionnaires and key informant interviews as the instruments of data collection. Using Yamane formula, the study sampled 370 respondents from the residents of the Kobala sub-location. Purposively, 15 key informants were selected; ten residents of Kobala engaging in sand harvesting activities and five NEMA officials of Homabay County. Data from questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive statistics while thematic analysis was used to analyze and report data from key informant interviews. The findings of the study revealed that sand harvesting in the Kobala sub-location has had negative social effects on the residents by increasing the rate of education wastage among teens, an increase in domestic violence, an increase in prostitution which has, in turn, increased the HIV/AIDS burden in the area. Further, the findings have established that the cost of treatment for the residents has risen due to increased mosquitos breeding in open valleys as well as in the management of waterborne diseases. The net economic effect of sand harvesting has been established to have been overshadowed by the negative social effects of the activities in the area. The study therefore, recommends that mitigation measures be taken to tame the negative social effects of sand harvesting by ensuring that teens are not allowed to participate in sand harvesting activities to avoid education wastage as well as the need to institute conflict mitigation measures in ensuring that tensions arising from land use are amicably addressed. The NEMA officials need to work closely with the local administration in addressing issues of increased health management costs resulting from sand mining activities by developing policies that would help reduce the gaping valleys that trap water for mosquito breeding and the chances for the spread of waterborne diseases.Item An Investigation on How Savings and Internal Lending Communities Affect Household Welfare in Shangai Informal Settlement-Mpika-Zambia(Kenyatta University, 2025-05) Chewe, MargaretThe study aimed at assessing how Savings and Internal Lending Communities (SILC) affected household welfare in Shangai informal settlement. SILC is a kind of informal social security mechanism which is widely practiced by low-income households. In the informal economy, traditional and informal mechanisms provide social protection due to inadequate provision of formal social protection programmes. Shangai informal settlement has had experienced increased levels of SILC participation, however, how it affected their household welfare had not been researched. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the effects of SILC participation as a social security mechanism on the welfare of Shangai informal settlers. The specific objectives of the study were to; determine demo- socioeconomic characteristics, know reasons for joining SILC, establish the challenges faced by SILC members and assess the effects of SILC on households’ welfare in Shangai informal settlement. The study used descriptive research design. Questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data and Key Informant Interviews (KII) were used for qualitative data. Study sample size was 112 which was arrived at through purposive sampling. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics by use of SPSS version 22 and results were presented as means, frequencies and percentages. Qualitative data collected from 8 key informants interviewed was analyzed by content and classified according to major themes that were covered in the study. Examination on effects of SILC participation and household welfare was done by use of independent t test while examination of influence of SILC participation on socioeconomic empowerment was through use of paired t-test and chi square test with a p<0.05 as criterion of Statistical significance. Saving money, access to loans, and access to social funds were major reasons study participants joined SILC in Shangai informal settlement. This study established that SILC participation had positive effect on households’ welfare through asset accumulation of phones (p=0.044), bed (p=0.016), sponge mattress (p=0.014) and breakable plates (p=0.054). Main challenges faced by SILC study participants were non-repayment of SILC loan funds, late repayment of SILC loan funds, late reporting and poor attendance at SILC meetings. Study results further revealed that participation in SILC empowered informal operators with increased household monthly income (p=0.001) and funds for emergencies (p=0.054). Therefore, this study recommends to the government to capacity build SILC groups as viable social protection cover for the informal sector. Furthermore, comparative studies should be conducted between SILC participants and non-SILC participants in Shangai informal settlement as to determine if SILC could be an alternative financial intervention.Item Socio-Economic and Technological Factors Affecting Macadamia Farming among Small-Scale Farmers in Meru County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2025-02) Mwendwa, Fridah NkiroteThe global market demand for macadamia has risen rapidly over the last two decades due to its high nutritional value. In Kenya, many farmers from areas previously predominated by coffee cultivation have diversified to macadamia farming. However, farmers in Meru County have not achieved optimal returns, with a yield of 35kg against the potential of 70 to 100 kg per tree per year. This study was prompted by the persistence of low macadamia yields among farmers. The study examined the socio-economic and technological factors affecting macadamia farming among small-scale farmers in Meru County. The objectives included: To determine the social factors affecting macadamia farming among small-scale farmers in Meru County, to determine economic factors affecting macadamia farming among small-scale farmers in Meru County, to evaluate technological factors affecting macadamia farming among small-scale farmers in Meru County, to determine the benefits experienced by small scale macadamia farmers in Meru County, and to determine the challenges experienced by small-scale macadamia farmers in Meru County. The study was informed by Cobb-Douglas production theory and adopted a descriptive survey research design, employing the stratified sampling technique to select respondents, with the four wards of Central Imenti sub-county serving as the strata. The sample size of 98 respondents was proportionally distributed across the four wards, and a simple random sampling technique was employed for their selection. Purposive sampling technique was used in selection of key informants. The data instruments included observation schedule, questionnaires for small-scale macadamia farmers, and an interview guide for key informants. SPSS v28 was used in processing the data. Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics while thematic analysis was used for qualitative data. Cobb-Douglas production function was used for inferential statistics for the first three objectives. The findings indicated that social, economic and technological factors affect macadamia farming. Significant social factors include household size, education level, marital status and gender. Significant economic factors encompass household income, farm size, number of macadamia trees, access to credit, labour and market type. Significant technological factors include cultivation of improved varieties, pesticides usage, application of inorganic and organic fertilizers, irrigation practices and access to agricultural technology extension. Further, the study revealed that macadamia farming offers various benefits to farmers, including high returns, low dependence on external inputs, and opportunities for long-term investment. Additionally, the study identified several challenges encountered by macadamia farmers, such as pests and diseases, theft of macadamia nuts, fluctuation of market prices, exploitation by middlemen and inadequate access to market price information. The study recommends that the County Government of Meru support young farmers and promote gender equality through training, financial aid, and mentorship. It also suggests that farmers form cooperatives to improve access to credit and market opportunities. Extension officers should assist with the adoption of modern technologies and, in collaboration with the government, facilitate market linkages and value-added processing. Additionally, enhanced security measures and pest management training should be provided to ensure productivity and prevent theft.Item Heavy Metals Concentration in Sediments and Characterization of Hydrochemical Facies in the Surface Water In Lokichar Basin, Turkana County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2025-06) Lusweti, ElizabethSurface water contamination due to heavy metals has become a great concern to the health of human beings. Thus the research examined the concentration of heavy metals in water sediments and the characterization of the hydro-chemical facies of the surface wa-ter in the Lokichar basin. The key objectives included the investigation of the selected physical and chemical properties in surface water, determination of the level of concentra-tion of selected heavy metals in sediments and characterization of the hydro-chemical fa-cies of surface water in the Lokichar basin. Water and sediment samples were collected by the typical method, processed and analyzed. The parameters which were sampled insi-tu are Temperature, pH, Turbidity and Electrical Conductivity while BOD,COD, D.O, pH, Sulphate, Nitrate, Magnesium, Chloride, Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Zinc, Iron, Cadmium, Arsenic and Lead were sampled and analysed in the laboratory. ANOVA was used to determine the variations between water quality parameters. Piper and Durov dia-grams were used to determine the hydro-chemical facies of water. Finally, samples of sediments were analysed using geo –accumulation (Igeo) and contamination factor (CF) to determine the heavy metal concentration and sources. The results showed that there was no significant difference in each site (p ˃ 0.05) in all physical-chemical water quality parameters in different sampling sites. The hydro-chemical analysis revealed the water types in the region as; 40 % Ca2+-Mg2+-Cl-SO42- type, 40% Ca2+Mg2+-HCO3-, 20 % Na+-K+-HCO3-, with no Na+-K+-Cl--SO42- water type in 50 % of the sample. Durov and Piper diagrams illustrated that a simple mineral dissolution or mixing process is mainly respon-sible for variation in the hydro-geochemistry of surface water in the study area. Igeo re-vealed that Lokichar Basin was practically uncontaminated with anthropogenic sources with values ranging between 0-1. The CF indicated that the pollution intensity ranged from low to moderate in Lokichar Basin. Overall, it can be concluded that oil exploration has not interfered with the quality of the surface water resources in the Lokichar Ba-sin.The study recommends continuous monitoring of surface water resources in Lokichar Basin,Item Effect of Coffee Prodution on Food Security of Small –Scale Famers Iin Kisii County , Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Mommanyi, Wcliffe MasongoFood production has decreased in Kenya in general and in particular Kisii County as a result of the switch from food crops to cash crops. In Kenya Kisii County, Nyaribari Chache Sub-County, this study was conducted. The County's 60% of population experiences household food insufficiency. The purpose of the study was to look into how coffee farming in Kisii County affects food security. The specific objectives of the study were ; To analyze small-scale coffee production since 2017 in the study area; To establish the sources of food consumed by coffee farming households in Kisii County; To determine the level of food insecurity among coffee farming households in Kisii County; To establish the statuses of food consumption among coffee farming households in Kisii County; And to determine the coping mechanisms employed by coffee farming households during times of food shortages in Kisii County. The research used a descriptive survey approach. After utilizing Cronbach Alpha's measure of internal consistency to represent the results, the questionnaire data produced a reliability coefficient of 0.9. The study used Sloven's method on the 3378 people it was trying to reach in order to arrive at a sample size of 100. SPSS version 25.0 was used to analyze the data. Analyses of correlation, logit regression, and descriptive statistics were applied. Household consumption patterns, the Household s Food Access Scale (HFAS), and the Coping Strategies Index were used in the quantitative study (CSI). The findings show that R Square, Chi-Square, and Log Likelihood are all positive. According to the study's findings, there is a 114.873 Log probability, a 37.964 Chi-Square, and a 0.381 R Square. These suggest that food insecurity levels in the study area are strongly impacted by coffee growing. According to the model's summary, independent factors account for 68.7% of the variance in the degree of food insecurity. The study calls on the Kisii County Government to increase access to markets for both food and coffee products, access to flexible inputs, and improvement in market pricing in order to improve household food security situation in the study area. To lower food insecurity, it is necessary to improve food consumption habits, access to food, and availability of food among the householdsItem Performance of Small-Scale Commercial Fish Farming Supported by Economic Stimulus Program in Nyericounty, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022-06) Kariuki, Mwangi RichardAbstractItem Effects of Riparian Cover Types on Water Quality and Macroinvertebrate Population in River Isiukhu Watershed, Kakamega County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022-06) Abuyeka Tela, SamuelAbstractItem Seasonal Rainfall Variability Effects on Maize Yields and the Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptive Strategies in Nyeri County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022-08) Kabata, Lilly NjeriAbstractItem Effects of Produced Water on Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Lokichar Basin, Turkana County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-07) Mbugua, DavidGlobally, there has been an increase in wastewater generation from oil mining activities that pollutes freshwater resources. Inadequate handling of oil mining wastes in Africa has caused water bodies to become contaminated. The advent of oil exploration and mining activities in south Lokichar basin in Turkana County, Kenya (Ngamia 1 oil well pad) has led to the generation of wastes such as drilling muds, drilling cuttings, and Produced Water. In Kenya, there are relatively few studies that have been done on the effects of the oil mining wastes on the environmental resources since oil exploration is a new phenomenon in the country. This study's goal was to determine if Produced Water from oil mining operations at Ngamia 1 oil well pad leads to contamination of the groundwater resources in the study area. The specific objectives were to: 1) determine the physicochemical properties of Produced Water; 2) determine the physicochemical properties of boreholes water; and 3) determine the effects of Produced Water on groundwater quality. To achieve these objectives water samples were collected from ten boreholes within the catchment divide, and one sample collected from outside the divide as the control of the study in the month of August 2020. Data on the selected physicochemical water quality parameters for both the Produced Water and groundwater was obtained from the field measurements and using standard laboratory procedures at Kenya Water Institute (KeWTI), Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) and the National Materials Testing and Research Division (NMTRD) laboratories. The outcomes were compared to the established requirements for drinking water quality by both WHO (2017) and NEMA (2006). Produced Water was found to be highly contaminated with heavy metals and salts whose levels were found to exceed the set drinking water quality standards by WHO and NEMA as follows: Lead by 15,680%, Zinc by 22%, Iron by 16,567%, Chlorides by 8,128%, Fluorides by 2,500%, and Nitrates by 480%. This was attributed to the usage of production chemicals to enhance oil recovery through hydraulic fracturing. The heavy metals present and salts in levels not within the set drinking water quality standards by both WHO and NEMA were observed at the following boreholes: Nalemsekon borehole whose Iron level exceeded these standards by 250%, Chloride level by 10.4%, and Fluoride level by 148%; RCEA borehole whose Lead level exceeded these standards by 1,500% while Fluoride level exceeded by 56%; Nakwakipi borehole whose Lead level exceeded by 5,180% and Nitrate level by 287%; Nakukulas 10 borehole whose Zinc level exceeded by 51% and Nitrate level by 111%; Nakwakitela borehole whose Fluoride level exceeded by 36% and Nitrate level by 428%; Nitrates levels at Irir 1, Chinese 1 and Nawoyatira boreholes exceeded these standards by 604%, 463% and 322% respectively. The study discovered that the high concentrations of salts and heavy metals observed in these boreholes could be as a result of contamination from Produced Water. Therefore, strategies on safe handling and disposal of Produced Water should be put in place to safeguard the study area's groundwater supplies.Item Effects of Variations in Rainfall Amounts on the Water Table Fluctuations in Kano Plains, River Nyando Basin, Kisumu County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-01) Odhiambo, Gor GeorgeAbsractItem Seasonal Rainfall Variability Effects on Maize Yields and the Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptive Strategies in Nyeri County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022-08) Kabata, Lilly NjeriAgriculture |s_Kenya's economic backbone and a source of income for the vast majority of the: population. The primary goal of the agriculture sector is to achieve national food security. Beca}lse. most agricultural activities in Kenya rely on rainfall patterns, short- and long-term val'}311011§ in rainfall patterns affect crop productivity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of seasonal rainfall variability on maize yields and assess the adapuv_e strategies of smallholder farmers in Nyeri County's Kieni East subCQunly. Th_e s.p'emf_'lc objectives were to determine the inter and intra seasonal temporal -rainfall Val‘lab.lhty in Kieni East sub-County between 1988 and 2018, analyze the effects of seasonal rainfall variability on maize yields in the sub-County between 2009 and 2018, au'd assess_smallholder maize farmers' adaptive strategies to the effects of seasonal rainfall val:lability. The following data sets were used in the study: rainfall data (1988- 2918), maize data (2009-2018), a household survey (N=223), and in-depth interviews with VMoA, meteorological personnel, and local administration (N=8). Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from smallholder maize farmers in the subCounty. Rainfall data was evaluated using trend analysis, standard deviation, correlation of variation, running means, and the variability index, to assess if there is variability in rainfall annually, within and between the two rainfall seasons. Similarly, maize yield data acquired from the MoA in Nyeri County was used to conduct trend analysis and calculate the variability index on an annual and seasonal basis. A correlation analysis was carried out.to investigate the relationship between annual and seasonal rainfall and maize yields. According to the findings, yearly rainfall mean was 780.07mm, a standard deviation (SD) of 156.38mm and a correlation of 0.20.For the long rains, a mean of 260.86mm, an SD of 84.49mm and a correlation of 0.32.The short rains mean was 276.55mm, an SD of .126.09mm and a correlation of 0.46. The Karl Pearson Correlation test revealed a relationship between annual rainfall and annual maize yield of r (10) = 0.821, p = 0.004. Similarly, the Karl Pearson Correlation test found r (10) = 0.634, p = 0.009 for rainfall and maize yield under the long rains. The Karl Pearson Correlation test between rainfall and maize yield following short rains yielded r (10) = 0.918, p= 0.000, showing a strong significant positive relationship. According to the findings of the study, most farmers in Kieni East sub-County respond to rainfall variability by planting maize varieties that are early maturing (82.9 %) and drought tolerant (57.5 %), high yielding (77 %), disease resistant (57.6 % ), use manure and fertilizers (92 % ), seek extension training.(29.6 %), and employ various water harvesting strategies. The outcomes of the research will be used by the MoA, other policy-makers and stakeholders to develop policies that address rainfall variability. The information will be used by smallholder maize _t'armers to evaluate their adaptive tactics and develop successful techniques for dea'ling with extreme rainfall variability. This will increase food yield and reSiliC{lCE to rainfall fluctuation, supporting the country in meeting the L.Jn{ted Nations' Sustainable Deve!opmem Goals (SDGs) 2 and 13, which aim to eliminate hunger and address climate change, _respectively.