MST-Department of Geography

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    Seasonal Rainfall Variability Effects on Maize Yields and the Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptive Strategies in Nyeri County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2022-08) Kabata, Lilly Njeri
    Agriculture |s_Kenya's economic backbone and a source of income for the vast majority of the: population. The primary goal of the agriculture sector is to achieve national food security. Beca}lse. most agricultural activities in Kenya rely on rainfall patterns, short- and long-term val'}311011§ in rainfall patterns affect crop productivity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of seasonal rainfall variability on maize yields and assess the adapuv_e strategies of smallholder farmers in Nyeri County's Kieni East subCQunly. Th_e s.p'emf_'lc objectives were to determine the inter and intra seasonal temporal -rainfall Val‘lab.lhty in Kieni East sub-County between 1988 and 2018, analyze the effects of seasonal rainfall variability on maize yields in the sub-County between 2009 and 2018, au'd assess_smallholder maize farmers' adaptive strategies to the effects of seasonal rainfall val:lability. The following data sets were used in the study: rainfall data (1988- 2918), maize data (2009-2018), a household survey (N=223), and in-depth interviews with VMoA, meteorological personnel, and local administration (N=8). Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from smallholder maize farmers in the subCounty. Rainfall data was evaluated using trend analysis, standard deviation, correlation of variation, running means, and the variability index, to assess if there is variability in rainfall annually, within and between the two rainfall seasons. Similarly, maize yield data acquired from the MoA in Nyeri County was used to conduct trend analysis and calculate the variability index on an annual and seasonal basis. A correlation analysis was carried out.to investigate the relationship between annual and seasonal rainfall and maize yields. According to the findings, yearly rainfall mean was 780.07mm, a standard deviation (SD) of 156.38mm and a correlation of 0.20.For the long rains, a mean of 260.86mm, an SD of 84.49mm and a correlation of 0.32.The short rains mean was 276.55mm, an SD of .126.09mm and a correlation of 0.46. The Karl Pearson Correlation test revealed a relationship between annual rainfall and annual maize yield of r (10) = 0.821, p = 0.004. Similarly, the Karl Pearson Correlation test found r (10) = 0.634, p = 0.009 for rainfall and maize yield under the long rains. The Karl Pearson Correlation test between rainfall and maize yield following short rains yielded r (10) = 0.918, p= 0.000, showing a strong significant positive relationship. According to the findings of the study, most farmers in Kieni East sub-County respond to rainfall variability by planting maize varieties that are early maturing (82.9 %) and drought tolerant (57.5 %), high yielding (77 %), disease resistant (57.6 % ), use manure and fertilizers (92 % ), seek extension training.(29.6 %), and employ various water harvesting strategies. The outcomes of the research will be used by the MoA, other policy-makers and stakeholders to develop policies that address rainfall variability. The information will be used by smallholder maize _t'armers to evaluate their adaptive tactics and develop successful techniques for dea'ling with extreme rainfall variability. This will increase food yield and reSiliC{lCE to rainfall fluctuation, supporting the country in meeting the L.Jn{ted Nations' Sustainable Deve!opmem Goals (SDGs) 2 and 13, which aim to eliminate hunger and address climate change, _respectively.
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    Socio-Economic Determinants of Horticultural Farming in Yatta Furrow, Machakos County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-02) Muema, Victor Muli
    In many African nations, including Kenya, horticultural gardening has been regarded as one of the primary pathways to eradicating poverty and alleviating food insecurity. Nevertheless, despite the favorable climate, focused policy and program implementations through a number of technical advancements, its development has not been as anticipated. The sector ensures food security as well providing employment which raises income to many households in the country. Despite several production-improvement initiatives, small-scale farmers' expansion in horticulture farming inside domestic markets has lagged behind. Horticultural farming is still a significant part of Kenya's economy, but it has become stagnant, endangering domestic food security and household income. Majority of the studies have focused on technical aspects of adopting modern farming technologies among the farmers with little attention being given to the social and economic aspects that would improve innovation mechanisms to improve production among the farmers. In Kenya, socio economic factors are major concern affecting horticultural productivity. In attempt to address this, efforts have been fruitless. The sector has failed to expand and little has been done to solve the challenges arising from the socio-economic factors within the farmers. Specifically, in Yatta furrow, horticultural farming has declined significantly, with the farmers turning away from the sector to other viable economic ventures. The studies conducted only concentrated in climatic hazards, ignoring the human socio-economic part. This study therefore sought to examine how the prevailing socio-economic factors influence horticultural growth in Yatta furrow. The main objective of the study was to establish the socio economic factors influencing horticultural farming in Yatta furrow. The study targeted 109 farmers, computed using the Cochran’s formula(1963) from the 526 farmers as per the 2019 horticultural report, selected using stratified random sampling across the three wards in Yatta Sub County. The study employed structured questionnaires to source information from the farmers. Interviews were conducted with the key informants being purposively selected. Quantitative data analysis was done using SPSS. Tables, frequencies, and percentages were used to create and show descriptive statistics. Thematic analysis and presentation of tables using qualitative data. The impact of socio economic determinants on the horticultural growth in Yatta furrow was investigated using a regression model. The findings of this research revealed that factors specifically age (p-0.001.), income, gender (p-0.911) education level (p-0.0403), household size (p-0.005) access to extension service (p-0.003),were statistically significant at 5% significant level. The study recommended that, of great concern is the creation of platform from which the socio-economic challenges can be addressed if horticultural growth was to be attained. Men and women should have equal access to training opportunities so they may learn about efficient manufacturing techniques. The study concluded that socio economic factors are significant components that continue to affect horticultural growth in Yatta furrow, and under whatever reasons, the effects are undesirable and therefore, there is the need to improve on socio economic aspects through the services of the relevant bodies.
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    An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Street Vendors Associations among Women Street Vendors in the Central Business District, Nairobi City County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Dudi, Mercy
    The search for employment opportunities in urban centers has led to the rise of the informal sector which comprises of street vendors with a large proportion being women. Women street vendors have formed or joined street vendors association to help them navigate street vending. This study was occasioned by the disparity gaps between allied associations supporting the rights of stre`et ven`dors to oper`ate in pub`lic spa`ces, the membership of street vendors into street vending associations and street vendors being incorporated in urban planning. The study assessed the effectiveness of street vendors associations among women street vendors in N`airobi C`ity County basing on the following obje`ctives; to examine fac`tors influ`encing mem`bership in street vendors associations, to assess the functions of street vendors associations, to evaluate the benefits and the challenges of street vendors associations. The study ado`pted descri`ptive sur`vey desi`gn to coll`ect qualitative and quantitative data using questionnaires, interviews and content analysis from published materials, journals, and magazines. Snowball samp`ling was used in selecting women street vendors from the streets creating a sample frame of 204 vendors for the research. Quantitative data was filtered, coded, and anal`yzed usi`ng the Social Sciences Statis`tical Pac`kage (SPSS) while qualitative data was analyzed using verbatim quotes. The standard deviation and computation averages were performed to show the rankings for benefits and challenges of women street vending associations while the Likert scale was used to determ`ine the future of wo`men stre`et ven`dors in Nairobi Central Business District (CBD). A chi-squ`are test was performed to show the relation`ship bet`ween benefits accrued from street vendor associations and membership and challenges faced in str`eet vend`ors associations and membership. Fin`dings of the computation averages showed that leadership opportunity was the highly ranked benefit (mean=0.913). while poor leadership was the most highly ranked challenge in street vendors associations (mean=1.651). The findings of the chi-square revealed that all benefits of street vendor associations influenced membership as their p-values were less than 0.05; Leadership opportunity (p=0.000), Welfare and access to credit (P=0.002), training in business (P=0.001) and networking (P=0.003). Challenges such as poor leadership (P=0.001), wrangles within street vendors association (P=0.001) and unfavorable working conditions (P=0.03) were found to influence membership in street vendor associations. Lack of childcare services (p=0.061) was the only challenge which insignificantly influenced membership The study concludes that street vendors associations among women street vendors in Nairobi city county have been very effective as a in creating synergy that is greater than individual effects of each member, they have also been a platform where members can get briefs on important issues such as new legislative rulings, and market trends. The study recommends associations leaders to acquire leadership and management skills to enable them fully carry out their mandate.
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    Land Use Effects on Spatial and Seasonal Variations of Water Quality in Thika River Sub-Catchment, Upper Tana Basin, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-09) Odero,Joanes Ooko
    The study examined effects on physicochemical and microbial water quality of the Thika River in the upstream, midstream, and downstream sections, and between dry and rainy seasons of 2021. The water samples collected were tested for turbidity, pH, total coliform & fecal coliform, nitrates, and Sulphates at Kenya Water Research Institute (KEWI) laboratories. R-studio was used to calculate the mean values and t-test performed at 95% confidence interval to determine the seasonal variation of the physico-chemical parameters in the two seasons. Temperature measurements in the upstream, midstream and downstream were 14.93±0.43°C, 14.97±0.34°C, and 14.27±0.19°C, respectively, all within the permissible range of 12-25°C by KEBS and WHO with no significant variation (p=0.4). pH decreased from 6.82±0.13 in the upstream to 6.16±0.15 in the downstream, indicating weakly acidic conditions, with significant differences observed (p=0.009). Turbidity values were between 1.03–3.43 NTU across the river sections, all within WHO and KEBS limits of 5 NTU. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) showed no significant variation (p=0.018). Stream flow and water levels had significant variations, with stream flow increasing from 0.03±0.01 m³/s upstream to 1.25±0.57 m³/s downstream (p<0.001), and water levels rising from 0.14±0.03 m to 0.25±0.07 m (p<0.001). Nitrate concentrations were highest upstream (11.13 mg/L) and lower downstream (5.54 mg/L and 6.37 mg/L), but no significant differences were found (p=0.5). Sulphate concentrations increased from 215 mg/L upstream to 286 mg/L downstream with significant variation (p=0.4). Total coliform levels ranged from 1,630 to 2,089 TC/100 mL, showing no significant variation (p=0.3), while fecal coliform levels ranged from 99 to 315 TC/100 mL, with no significant changes across sections (p=0.3). Seasonal comparisons revealed significant differences in turbidity (p=0.001), water levels (p<0.001), and microbial parameters, with total coliforms and fecal coliforms increasing during the rainy season (p<0.001). Nitrate concentrations decreased significantly from dry to rainy seasons (p=0.043), while sulphate concentrations and other parameters showed significant seasonal variation (p<0.001). Overall, the study concluded that Thika River is fairly of good quality, but there need to establish safeguarding frameworks to enhance sustainability and safety of the water for community use.
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    Impervious Surface Areas and Runoff in Urban Watersheds: A Case of Mihang’o Watershed, Nairobi-Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Omwoyo, Ongaga Cyrus
    The frequency and severity of flooding in urban watersheds, including the Mihang’o watershed on the outskirts of Nairobi, has been on the rise. Over the years, Mihang’o has witnessed continuous urban expansion. This urbanization disrupts natural landscapes by replacing vegetated areas with impervious surfaces, which limit water infiltration and significantly increase surface runoff within the watershed. The overall objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship between change in impervious surface area and runoff amount of Mihang’o watershed from 2000 - 2022. The specific objectives of this study were: To determine change in impervious surface area of Mihang’o watershed, trend of precipitation amount in the watershed and the trend in runoff amount from the watershed from 2000 - 2022. Supervised classification was done on Landsat images using ArcGIS (10.4) to determine percentages of impervious surface cover for the study period and linear regression analysis was done to establish the trend. CHIRPS rainfall data was retrieved from Google Earth Engine then processed in MS Excel to produce monthly and annual rainfall totals then Mann-Kendall trend tests were used to establish the rainfall trend for the watershed. The HEC-HMS model was used to simulate runoff from the watershed with the rainfall data and impervious surface area percentages as inputs then linear regression analysis was done to establish the runoff trend. Impervious surface area increased by 87.03% from 2.78% (0.49 km2) of the total surface area of the watershed in 2000 to 22.21% (3.91 km2) in 2022. Rainfall analysis showed two rainfall seasons: short rains November to December and long rains March-April-March, with the highest annual rainfall being 1172.8 mm and the least annual rainfall being 491.7 mm, which is consistent with the Nairobi region’s climate data that shows no significant linear trend in rainfall. The Mann-Kendall trend tests results (Sen’s slope results (β = .832), Kendall’s tau results (τb = .146), and p-value (.625)) confirmed that there is no trend in rainfall time series of Mihang’o watershed. Runoff increased by 84.75% from 0.18 mm in 2000 to 1.18 mm in 2022. The regression analysis results (p < .001) supported the alternative hypothesis (H1) that there is a positive trend in the impervious surface area time series; the Mann-Kendall trend test (p > .05) supported the null hypothesis (H0) that there is no trend in the rainfall data time series; the linear regression results (p < .000) supported the alternative hypothesis (H1) that there is a positive trend in the runoff time series. Overall, correlation analysis found a significant positive relationship between impervious surface area and runoff r (6) = .99, p < .000. As the study has demonstrated a significant positive relationship between impervious surface area and runoff in the urban watershed, urban planners can leverage these findings and embrace development practices that reduce runoff, including expanding green spaces such as green roofs, permeable pavements, and urban forestry, increasing storage capacity of excess rainfall and runoff water, and constructing retention basins and infiltration trenches on the streams.
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    Assessment of Water Supply and Demand in Walatsi Sub-Catchment, Busia County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Diang’a, Justus
    Many governments around the world are confronting serious problems in freshwater management because of growing competition for the dwindling natural resource. Overexploitation of water supplies remains the most serious constraint on its sustainability. Water resources in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are highly varied, with on average a relatively low supply per capita. In Kenya, inadequate water supply management, years of frequent droughts, pollution of existing water, and a fast growth in water demand due to a relatively rapid population increase have all contributed to water scarcity, which is a serious issue. This study was conducted in Walatsi sub catchment, traversing Busia and Bungoma counties in Western Kenya. Increasing demand for water in the sub-catchment and unsustainable use are substantially putting pressure on water volume, jeopardising the livelihoods of growing populations, in particular during dry seasons. The study addressed the following objectives: to determine the available water supply in Walatsi sub-catchment; to establish the current and future water demand in the sub-catchment; and to develop and simulate the water balance in the sub-catchment. This study therefore adopted a Decision Support System (DSS), the WEAP model, for scenario analysis and simulations to assess water supply and demand in the sub-catchment from the year 2022 up to 2030. This was used to determine the available water supply, establish the current and future water demand, and simulate and develop the water balance for the sub-catchment. The study utilised data from key informants, experiment, direct observations, and GIS analyses. QGIS software was used for GIS analyses and mapping, and Microsoft Excel for data and statistical analyses (including correlation and regression). The outcome of the analyses was fed into the WEAP software for its calibration and validation and as a parameter for water supply, demand scenario, and balance analysis. By using a built-in supply and demand database, available water supply, present and future water demand, and water balance were determined in monthly and annual timesteps with a projection done after 3 years and 5 years for 8 years to the year 2030. The results from the study indicated an annual supply of between 31.63 and 31.65 Mm3 and a monthly supply ranging from 0.48 to 6.80 Mm3 . There was an upward annual spiral in water demand in both scenarios and overall, by 9.87% and 27.59% in 2025 and 2030 from 6.45 Mm3 in 2022.The outcome further revealed a declining annual water balance in the scenarios and overall, by -2.54% and -7.07% in 2025 and 2030 from 25.18 Mm3 in 2022 and an increasing annual monthly water deficit in February (driest month) from -0.02 to -0.06 and -0.15 Mm3 . The strong negative correlation (r = -0.999, p < 0.001) explained the increasing deficit as due to growing demand and was confirmed by the widening gap in unmet demand by 0.91% and 1.85% in 2025 and 2030 from 0.24% in 2022. The variations in monthly supply annually are due to the bimodal dry and rainy seasons (r = 0.73, p < 0.01) and annual supply due to normal and leap years. The positive trend in demand is likely to put pressure on available water supplies. The increasing deficit indicates pressure on water sources and exploitation of the reserve. This study indicates a water scarcity sub-catchment and recommends, among other interventions, the protection and conservation of water resources and the exploitation of alternative sources; the adoption of best demand management practices, including economical and efficient water use technologies to satisfy the needs; and the development of a water allocation and monitoring plan to sustainably manage the resource
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    Land Use and Land Cover Changes on River Water Quality in Mbagathi Catchment, Nairobi County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Munyoki, Faith N.
    Increase in population, urbanization and industrialization contributes immensely towards land use and land cover change and decline in water quality in most rivers such as Mbagathi. This study investigated the significant effect of population growth, urbanization and industrialization on land use and land cover changes and declining water quality in rivers, particularly in the case of the Mbagathi River. The main objective was on determination of the effects of land use and land cover changes on the quality of water in Mbagathi River catchment from 1990 to 2020. The specific objectives of the study included (i) determining land use and land cover changes, (ii) identifying the key drivers of these changes, (iii) determining the levels of selected water quality parameters, and (iv) determining the effects of land use land cover changes on water quality. To achieve the first objective, the study employed classification and analysis of Landsat satellite images of 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020 using the Google Earth Engine. The second objective was addressed through the analysis of population and urban development data in relation to the land use and land cover outputs. The third objective focused on assessment of water quality and was accomplished by conducting in-situ measurements and laboratory analysis of water samples collected from the catchment. The fourth objective investigated the link between land use/land cover and water quality and was achieved through SWAT modelling using the multi-temporal land use and land cover imagery. The findings of the classification and analysis process revealed notable changes in land use and land cover over the study period: a reduction in forest cover from 32% to 14%, a decrease in grassland from 53% to 30%, an increase in bare ground from 10% to 38%, and an expansion of urban land cover from 4% to 17%. Key drivers of these changes were attributed to high population growth, urbanization, inadequate development plans, proximity to Nairobi town, and land tenure dynamics. The study also observed the emergence of new settlements around major urban centers like Kiserian, Ongata Rongai, Ngong, Mlolongo, and Tuala. Analysis within a 3-kilometer radius of these towns indicated substantial increases in urban areas, reinforcing the influence of population growth and urban development as primary drivers of land use and land cover changes in the catchment. Water quality analysis revealed key parameters, with an average temperature of 20.8°C, a pH of 7.74, an electrical conductivity of 737 μS/cm, total dissolved solids at 371 mg/l, dissolved oxygen at 7.71 mg/l, turbidity at 17.88, total nitrogen at 5.58 mg/l, and total phosphorus at 1.62 mg/l. The study identified significant differences in water quality among sampling points, particularly downstream of urban development, which indicated a direct correlation between land use and land cover changes and water quality. The correlation analysis further highlighted a strong positive relationship between nitrogen and urban land cover, demonstrating that as urban land cover increased, so do total nitrogen and total phosphorus levels. Additionally, an association between bare ground, surface flow, and sediment yield underscored that increased bare ground contributed to greater surface flow and sediment yield. Further analysis revealed a strong and positive significant (p=<0.05) correlation between bare ground and surface flow and sediment yield. Overall, this study confirmed that land use and land cover changes have a substantial and adverse impact on water quality in the Mbagathi River, necessitating comprehensive management strategies to mitigate the effects and support the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 6 on water availability and quality.
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    Assessing Challenges of Urban Water Supply: The Case of Low- Income Households in Migori Town, Migori County Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Kasuku, Margaret Awino
    Lack of access to safe water remains a significant challenge in developing countries. There has been a challenge when it comes to provision of clean and adequate water to the low income households living in urban areas such as Migori Town. Numerous reasons beyond individual’s households capability have been identified, despite having numerous water projects and government actions. The aims of the study were to establish sources of water, examine water inadequacy, coping strategies and effectiveness of water-use strategies among the low income households in Migori Town. The research was guided by the research questions for each objective. The research can be used to justify the need for policy implementation pertaining to challenges of water provision in Migori Town. Descriptive Survey Design was used to explore the challenges of water supply in the six informal estates of Migori town that is Soweto, Sauri Yako, Panda, Pieri, Dip and Nyangubo. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and through observations. Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to identify significant correlations between water supply and demand. It was also used to test the null hypothesis. The research was guided by Graph Theory of water supply by Euler Leonhard which advocates for a design of water portioning for both multiple and single source networks. The research findings showed that MIWASCO is the official water supplier in Migori though not a major distributor of water to the low income households in Migori Town. Some individuals used alternative water sources which were not fit for their consumption. Long distances in search of water was established to be dangerous. It prevented women and children from carrying out other activities for the day thus jeopardizing income generation within households. Due to long distances, 82.7% of the respondents rely on water vendors who were very costly (charging up to Kshs. 20/= per 20 litre).The study was limited to a sample and thereby recommends that future research should cover all town residents. From the findings the efforts should be directed towards eliminating the challenges of water shortages and reduce the risk factors associated with water shortages. Areas for further study are to examine influence of governance and infrastructure on the effective water supply within the informal settlements
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    Prioritization of Soil Erosion Prone Areas Based on Morphometric and Land Use / Cover Parameters in River Thiririka Watershed, Kiambu County Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-05) Inyele, Juliet
    Morphometric studies and land use / land cover analysis play a key role in integrated watershed management. Sustainable resource utilization at a watershed level requires an in-depth understanding of the vegetation characteristics, land surface features, land use, drainage and hydrological patterns of the watershed. In developing countries, poverty have led to unsuitable land management practices (e.g. deforestation, continuous tillage), contributing to increased runoff causing land degradation and increased soil erosion in watersheds. This inhibits the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of zero hunger, access to clean water, and sanitation. To reduce soil erosion at the watershed level, watershed managers need to make informed decisions such as developing vegetative cover, agroforestry, and terracing. However, this is limited in Kenya due to lack of readily available data to guide the process. This study explored the potential use of basin and drainage network properties, land use / land cover characteristics with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) tools to identify sub watersheds susceptible to soil erosion in Thiririka watershed in Kenya. Five sub watersheds were delineated and assigned a code from SW1 to SW5 using the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) 30 meter resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with Arc Hydro tools in ArcGIS 10.8 software. These was followed by the analysis of morphometric parameters of linear, aerial, and relief characteristics of the watershed. Land use / land cover classes were generated from an annual median composite of Sentinel-2 image for the year 2020, collected using Google Earth Engine (GEE). The training polygons were systematically sampled from the field using handheld GPS. A supervised classification scheme was used to develop a random forest classifier to perform the classification. In addition, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) extracted from a median composite of Sentinel-2 image for 2020 and the SRTM-DEM were incorporated to improve the classification accuracy. The overall accuracy was 0.88, and Kappa statistics of the classifications was 0.86. Further, to understand the spatial distribution of water in the catchment, the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) values were extracted from the SRTM DEM. The effect of land use / land cover, vegetation cover and soil moisture to soil erosion tested using a two way ANOVA showed that all the parameters have a positive correlation with soil erosion. Finally, the effects of morphometric parameters, land use/ land cover, vegetation characteristics and soil moisture on soil erosion were assessed and assigned ranks 1 to 5. The ranks assigned for all the parameters were averaged to get the compound priority value (CP). Results showed that sub watershed 5 (SW5) and sub watershed 1 (SW1) are highly susceptible to soil erosion needing immediate management actions, while sub watershed 4 (SW4) and sub watershed 3 (SW3) show less susceptibility to soil erosion. This study provides information on sub watersheds exposed to soil erosion, which is important for all the stakeholders in watershed management such as agricultural officers, farmers, planners, and policymakers to focus the appropriate sustainable watershed management practices.
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    An Investigation on Savings and Internal Lending Communities’ Relationship to Household Welfare in Shangai Informal Settlement-Mpika-Zambia.
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Chewe, Margaret
    The study aimed at assessing effects of Savings and Internal Lending Communities (SILC) on informal operators’ household welfare in Shangai informal settlement. SILC is a kind of informal social security mechanism which is widely used by low-income households among informal operators. About 4 billion people around the world are not provided with social protection by the government, they remain entirely unprotected ILO (2020). In the informal economy, traditional and informal mechanisms provide social protection due to inadequate provision of formal social protection programmes. Informal operators have had involved themselves in informal social security mechanisms such as savings groups that raise income through internal accruals. Shangai informal settlement has had experienced increasing levels of SILC participation, however, many are still having poor standards of living. This study was conducted to determine if SILC programmes as a social security mechanism made any positive impact on livelihood outcomes of Shangai informal operators. The specific objectives of the study were; to find out the reasons for joining SILC, assess the effects of SILC on poverty reduction, establish the challenges faced by SILC members and to assess whether participation in SILC leads to socio economic empowerment among informal operators. The study employed descriptive research design. Questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data and Key Informant Interviews (KII) were used for qualitative data. Fourteen registered SILC groups were purposively sampled because had the target population. Study sample size was 112 which was randomly selected. Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics by use of SPSS version 22 and results were presented as means, frequency and percentages. While qualitative data collected from 8 key informant interviews was analyzed by content, classified according to major themes that were covered in this study. Examination on effects of SILC participation and poverty reduction was by use of independent t test while examination of influence of SILC participation on socioeconomic empowerment was through use of paired t test and chi square test with a p<0.05 as criterion of Statistical significance. Saving money, access to loans, and access to social funds were major reasons study participants joined SILC in Shangai informal settlement. This study established that SILC participation had positive effect in poverty reduction through assets accumulation of phones (p=0.044), bed (p=0.016), sponge mattress (p=0.014) and breakable plates (p=0.054). Main challenges faced by SILC study participants were non-repayment, late repayment, late reporting and poor attendance of SILC meetings. Study results further revealed that participation in SILC empowered informal operators with increased household monthly income (p=0.001) and funds for any emergency (p=0.054). Therefore, this study recommends to the government to capacity build SILC groups as viable social protection cover for informal sector. Furthermore, comparative studies should be conducted between SILC participants and non-SILC participants in Shangai informal settlement as to determine if SILC could be an alternative financial intervention.
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    Devolution of Agriculture and Its Effects on Mango Marketing by Small Scale Farmers in Makueni County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Vamba, Mary Kaluki
    Many mango farmers face significant post-harvest losses due to poor logistics, insufficient government support and limited market access, leading to unproductivity, unsustainability and increased poverty due to reliance on middlemen. This study sought to establish the indicators of agricultural devolution, assess the benefits of devolution to mango farmers, examine the challenges faced by mango farmers in selling their produce despite devolution and investigate the coping strategies on challenges faced by mango farmers in Makueni County. Mango farming has been a source of misery for many farmers owing to its huge post-harvest losses that have resulted from limited market access, low prices and lack of proper farmers’ management organizations. The study pre tested the research tools for validity and reliability, data gathered during the pilot guided in further improving the research tools. Quantitative data underwent cleaning process before sorting and entry into SPSS (V27) package which helped in analysis. Descriptives were used to descriptively analyze the data based on the specific objectives, while correlation analysis was used to test the hypothesis formulated. Graphs and tables presented the data. Qualitative data from interview guides was analyzed through thematic analysis. This involved identifying patterns or themes in the data by systematically coding and categorizing responses. The findings were significant to policy makers, the farmers and researchers in the same field of study. The study found that the indicators of devolution included better marketing guidelines (40.2%), promotion of farm cooperatives (36.7%), processing of farm produce (15.3%), better infrastructure (16.6%), better bargaining power (14.1%) among others. The findings also demonstrated a strong positive correlation between agricultural devolution and mango marketing (r = 0.572, p = 0.000). The study concluded that though mango marketing cooperatives helped the farmers to market their products, the Makueni County government did not have enough marketing options for its farmers in their mango produce. Consequently, the County Government has not made significant investments in more effective marketing frameworks, which has resulted in poor prices for their produce, restricted access to finance and a lack of markets. The report suggests that in order to boost mango demand and marketing strategies, the Makueni County administration and mango growers should collaborate. This can be done by promoting mangoes and the benefits of consuming them, finding new markets for mangoes, improving the quality and quantity of mango production and supporting value addition and processing.
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    Adaptation Strategies to Rainfall Variability by Small Scale Dairy Farmers in Uasin-Gishu County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Nyongesa, Geoffrey Mukhebi
    Dairy farming in Kenya remains among the key wheelers to the Nations GDP contributor at about 6- 8%. Majority of the farmers in this sector, are small scale who mostly have no knowledge and capacity to handle challenges posed by rainfall variability that causes frequent droughts, impacting on water and pasture supply to their animals. The research investigated the adaptation strategies to rainfall variability by small scale dairy farmers in Uasin-Gishu County in Kenya. Objectives of study were: To assess the extent to which rainfall variability had affected small scale dairy farming, to evaluate the adaptive mechanisms used by small scale dairy farmers in response to rainfall variability between years 2010-2020 and to investigate the challenges faced by these farmers in adapting to this condition. Rainfall data was collected from the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD), Eldoret. While milk produce data was obtained from Ministry of Agriculture Uasin-Gishu County. Structured Questionnaires were used to collect data on adaptive mechanisms and its challenges. The questionnaire was administered to small scale dairy farmers who were sampled in a stratified manner based on their sub counties, then randomly within the Sub County. In total about 368 small scale dairy farmers were sampled out of which 300 (82%) of administered questionnaire were fully responded to. Analysis of objective one was done by Pearson correlation to establish the relationship between various rainfall characteristics and milk produce. Total annual rainfall with total annual milk had correlation of r= 0.53, number of rainy days in a year to the amount of milk with Pearson correlation of r =0.23, P>0.05. Onset and cessation periods had Pearson correlation of r=0.31 and r=0.02 respectively. Average monthly rainfall to milk had Pearson correlation indicating a negative relationship of r= -0.42, P= 0.17, meaning months with high rainfall amounts had lower milk produced while dry ones had higher milk produced. In the second and third objectives, SWOT analysis was used to analyze them. Adaption strategies were taken as strengths and included: Keeping resistant breeds, they also access loans from banks and co-operative societies and also farmers rely on stored hay and silage during dry conditions. Challenges to adaptation were weaknesses and included: constraint by lack of adequate funds, lack of enough knowledge and skills to implement adaptive strategies besides in adequate support from County government. Research recommended that farmers should keep more of cross breed animals which cope with climate variability unlike exotic ones. There was also need for farmers to join and strengthen cooperative societies to assist them adapt, this is besides use of digital methods of sharing challenges and solutions to rainfall variability. The research findings are expected to benefit policy makers and other stake holders in improving dairy sub sector besides offering a body of knowledge to further researches.
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    Socio-Economic Implications of Immigration into Kitengela Town, Kajiado County, Kenya between 2011 And 2021
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-02) Musyimi, Margaret Mueni
    Globally, there had been an overwhelming concern on increasing population, whereas resources to sustain the increased number of people in most parts of the world were getting rare every day particularly in developing countries including Kenya. Kajiado County‟s population as per the 2019 census report was at 1,117,840 an increase from the 687,312 as per 2009 census. Kitengela Town has had unprecedented growth in immigrant population to 154,436 for the past ten years, a phenomenon unlikely to be as a result of natural increase. This population comprises a mosaic of different communities. This study main objective was to determine the socio-economic implications of immigration in Kitengela Town, Kenya. The following specific objectives were used to guide the study; to establish the socio-demographic characteristic of the immigrants, to determine the economic effect of immigration in Kitengela Town and to identify factors influencing immigration to Kitengela Town. The study was grounded on the Neoclassical Theory. A stratified sampling technique was used to select 153 immigrants residing in Kitengela Town and three key informants. The study employed a descriptive survey design to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. The data was collected using questionnaires and interview guides. Quantitative data was organized, cleaned, coded and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS v 25.0) software. Percentages and frequencies were computed and presented in charts and tables. Qualitative data was cleaned and transcribed to bring out important information in the best way. The study results showed that there are both positive and negative implications of immigration in Kitengela Town. The study also established that immigration to Kitengela Town is facilitated by better healthcare facilities, better housing infrastructure, industrialization of urban areas, better employment opportunities as well as good learning institutions. However, some of the problems encountered by immigrants included traffic congestion, weather change, and difference in living standards (either high or unmanageable), struggle to settle in, fluctuating financial status, and insecurity especially at night among others. From the findings, the study proposes targeted initiatives in Kitengela Town to address immigration challenges and harness opportunities. Customized educational programs, encompassing language training and skill development, are recommended for immigrants with diverse educational backgrounds. Empowering female immigrants through equal access to education, employment, and community programs is emphasized. Comprehensive family support services, including healthcare and counseling, are suggested, along with community events to strengthen family bonds. Awareness campaigns promoting cultural understanding and collaboration with local businesses for inclusive job opportunities are crucial. Addressing housing issues, improving safety measures, expanding healthcare facilities, and facilitating civic engagement programs are essential
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    Influence of Water Quality on Macroinvertebrate Diversity in Nairobi River, Nairobi City County, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Ndichu, Naomi Nyambura
    Globally anthropogenic activities have resulted in water pollution threatening aquatic life. This study aimed to analyze the influence of water quality on macroinvertebrate diversity. The study's specific objectives were: i) to analyze selected physical-chemical quality of water ii) to assess the abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates iii) to establish the relationship between macroinvertebrate diversity and water quality and iv) to determine the effect of rehabilitation on macroinvertebrates' diversity along Nairobi River. Data on the physico-chemical parameters of water and the type and number of macroinvertebrates were determined in the field and in the phytotherapeutic laboratory using laboratory standard procedures. Data collection methods also included direct observation and interview guides. Data analysis was done using: ANOVA, T-test, Shapiro-Wilk test, multiple regression tests, and Pearson's correlation in SPSS version 29 and descriptive data analysis was done in Excel. Study results indicate a significant variation in water quality parameters between rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated zones (P< 0.05) during the dry days. However, the wet days' results indicate no significant differences in water quality among sample plots (P > 0.05). The number of macroinvertebrates was not significantly different (P > 0.05). Using Pearson's correlation, a significant negative relationship between macro- invertebrates’ diversity with nitrates and phosphate levels was established (r = -0.863 and -0.603, P < 0.05). Although not statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05, a negative relationship was found between macro invertebrates' diversity with water temperature, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and water turbidity. Dissolved oxygen and pH positively correlated with macroinvertebrates' diversity. Species evenness was significantly positively affected by the levels of nitrates in the waters (r = 0.360, P = 0.043). Other positive relationships with the species' evenness were recorded in water, turbidity, and phosphates in water (P > 0.05). Electrical conductivity (r = 0.360, P = 0.043) had a significant positive correlation. Total dissolved solids also increased the number of macroinvertebrates. The diversity of macro-invertebrates in the mean rehabilitated area (310) was not significantly different from the non-rehabilitated area (mean 222.18), t = 0.478, P = 0.636. Species evenness in the rehabilitated (middle course) compared to the non-rehabilitated area (upper and lower courses) showed a significant difference, t = 2.35, P = 0.0255). Water pH and Dissolved Oxygen were slightly high in the rehabilitated area. Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity were high in non-rehabilitated areas. Nitrates and phosphates were significantly higher in the non-rehabilitated area than in the rehabilitated area (P < 0.05). The study found that 25% of the respondents said that the water quality had deteriorated while 75% reported problems to human as well as macroinvertebrates. The predominant parameters in the study area were dissolved oxygen, nitrates, and phosphates. Macroinvertebrates were more abundant and diverse in the middle course. The predominant parameters had a significant effect on the diversity and abundance of macroinvertebrates where oxygen had positive correlation and phosphates and nitrates had negative correlation with macroinvertebrates’ diversity and abundance. Rehabilitation was noted to have a positive impact to aquatic life since diversity was higher in the rehabilitated areas. Measures to prevent pollution such as proper disposal of wastes, imprisonment, and penalizing those who will be found polluting the river should be enhanced. More research should be done to establish distribution of other species in the river, their adaptability as well as identifying the extinct species. Citizens should be educated on the impact of pollution on aquatic life. Rehabilitation activities should be extended to cover larger or the whole section of the river. The study findings will make people living along the river to be aware of the harm caused to biodiversity in the water.
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    Credit Accessibility and Motorcycle Transport Service in Kakamega County, Kenya.
    (Kenyatta University, 2024-04) BED, ANNE SORE
    The transport services shape the livelihoods of the population living in rural sub-Saharan Africa and have significant implications for poverty alleviation and ease of mobility. However, the unmet demands by public transport services have leveraged several informal transportation modes such as the adoption of the motorcycle either for personal mobility or the creation of an informal public transport system. Nonetheless, there are significant challenges to ensuring that the motorcycle transport activity operates smoothly. The acquisition of a motorcycle in Kenya entails both formal and informal financing mechanisms. Due to the contextual gaps in the studies relating to financial arrangements surrounding the acquisition of motorcycles, the study sought to evaluate credit accessibility and the growth of motorcycle transport services in Kakamega County. The study had four objectives; to assess the sources of credit for motorcycle transport; to establish the determinants of the choice of credit facility; to evaluate the constraints in accessing credit facilities by motorcycle owners; and to determine the influence of credit facilities on the growth of motorcycle transport services in Kakamega County. The study was supported by the financial intermediation theory. The study was situated in Kakamega County with a specific emphasis on the Kakamega East sub-county and adopted a descriptive design with a target population of 14,500 motorcycle owners from which 144 motorcycle owners were drawn through multi-stage random sampling. The study used two primary research instruments; the questionnaire and interviews to collect primary data. The instruments were validated through a panel review and pilot testing. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse data and the output was presented in tabular and pictorial formats. The findings showed that motorcycle owners mainly acquire these assets through loans from credit unions (SACCOs) and financing institutions (commercial banks and microfinance). These owners selected the credit facilities based on perceived friendlier terms and conditions, friends' opinions and nearness to a financing institution. Based on the ANOVA analysis, F = 3.309, p < 0.05, the null hypothesis that credit access does not significantly influence the growth of motorcycle transport service in Kakamega County was rejected and concluded that accessibility to credit facilities influenced the number of motorcycles owned and thus by extension influenced the growth in motorcycle transport service. The most important determinant of the use of credit facilities was the rate of interest, securing guarantees and collaterals. Most of the owners belonged to a SACCO because of the ease of accessing credit and savings. Challenges in accessing credit included unwilling guarantors, lengthy application procedures and impediments to accessing credit due to credit history information. The study made the following conclusions; access to a credit facility significantly impacted motorcycle transport. Lastly, the study recommends that the financing institutions introduce specific credit facilities for motorcycle ownership, increase entrepreneurial and business skills by training the owners and encourage the motorcycle owners to form or join a SACCO.