MST-Department of Environmental Science

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Assessing Health and Environmental Impacts of Quarrying In Embu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024) Kinyua, Maureen Muthoni
Quarrying has been studied extensively throughout the world and has been shown to have an effect on the natural environment and human health. Positively, stone extraction has led to job creation and development of areas. On the negative side, quarrying leads to land degradation, noise pollution, production of dust and formation of cracks in nearby buildings due to vibration during the quarrying process. The situation is not different in Kenya since there’s increase in stone use as a result of growth of construction industry and the industry is faced with challenges of poor working conditions, poverty, inadequate occupational safety knowledge, and the absence of laws. The study sought a deeper understanding of these issues and used qualitative and quantitative data descriptive research design. Questionnaires were utilized to collect information from members of the local community, site management, and quarry employees. The impacts of quarrying on the environment, including the landscape, have been studied and documented. It was decided to employ stratified random sample to gather data from the area citizens, while purposive sampling was used to gather data from quarry laborers. It was necessary to evaluate the information acquired with the assistance of statistical package for the social sciences SPSS, which was used for cross tabulation, as well as for the creation of frequencies and statistical graphs for the purpose of data interpretation. It was decided whether there is a link between quarrying activities and the well-being of both quarry workers and residents of the immediate neighborhood using the Chi square test. In this study, a sample size of 100 respondents was used, and findings were obtained from 92 percent of those who responded. Findings from the studyagree with other studies done that quarrying activities cause harm to the environment and human health and that multiple approaches should be used to deal with the menace.
Biogas Technology, Management of Human Excrement in Mukuru Kwa Njenga Slums, Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024-02) Munyigi,Lilian Wangui
Kenya is one of the developing countries with insufficient management of human waste in urban slums. One of the technologies used in Kenya's informal settlements to ensure sustainable management of human excrement is biogas technology. The Mukuru Kwa Njenga slums were chosen as the research area to evaluate the feasibility of employing technology to address current sanitation issues and enhance the livelihoods of populations living in informal settlements. The project's specific goals were to evaluate the effects of biogas technology on addressing sanitation issues in the study area, to determine the socio-economic effects of technology adoption on the study area residents, and to determine the main impediments to technology utilization. A descriptive research design was used. Six key informants were interviewed, as well as a sample of 100 households that included 50 technology users and 50 non-users. The information was then displayed in tables and charts. Multiple linear regression was employed to determine demographic factors that significantly influence the use of biogas technology. Chi-square and spearman’s rho were used to test for relationship between variables. Gender (P= .001) and education levels (P= .001) were found to significantly influence the use of technology. According to the study, there is a strong correlation between using technology and prevention of overflowing of fecal matter during severe rains, (r2= .513, P= .000, N=100) and reduced cases of open defecation (r2= .457, P= .000, N= 100). Managing human excrement results into conducive environment (median 2, N=50) and healthy family members (median 2, N=50). Inaccessibility (r2= -.634, P= .000, N=100), High installation cost (r2= -.458, P= .000, N=100), technology unreliability (r2= -.445, P=.000, N=100) and cultural beliefs (r2= -.422, P=.000, N=100) were found to have significant negative influence on management of human excrement through biogas technology. The study comes to the conclusion that using biogas technology to handle human waste has the ability to address the sanitation issues in the study area.
Anthropogenic Effects on the Water Quality and Quantity of Ruiru River in Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-04) Nyasimi, John Ondieki; Esther Kitur; Gladys Gathuru
Abstract
An Integrated Comparative Analysis of Hydroponics Technology and Soil Farming in Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-04) Brenda, A. Binge; Paul Obade; Ku McMahan
Abstract
Physico-Chemical, Nutrients and Bacteriological Water Quality of Mbagathi River, Kajiado County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) KOIKAI, JANE NASHILU; Julius Nzeve; Esther Kitur
Abstract
Zinc Effects Of Maize and Common Bean Grain Yield and Zinc Use Efficiency in Siaya County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Dominic, Mutambu Mwanzia; Monicah Mucheru Muna; Job Kihara
Abstract
Impacts of climate change in Cashewnuts production and livelihhods in Farmers in Kwale county kenya
(2023-08) Moranga, Nyakundi K; Nelson C. Menza
X ABSTRACT Every nation on earth has experienced the effects of Climate Change in the twenty- first century. Kenya has implemented attempts to alleviate the issue, but its effects are still seen widely, particularly around the shore and ASAL areas. Studies provide mounting evidence of how Climate Change is affecting agronomy, particularly as it relates to yield reduction and other changes. The main goal of the study was to evaluate Kenya's Kwale County cashew nut farmers' ability to adapt to Climate Change and maintain their way of life. The primary objectives were to determine the trends in Climate Change and related impacts on cashew nut production in Kwale County, secondly, to identify the adaptation strategies being adopted by cashew nut farmers in Kwale County and lastly, to determine the impact of Climate Change on net income of cashew nut farmers in Kwale County. To accomplish this precise goal, variables like temperature, rainfall, and net income from cashew nut were used to gauge how Climate Change may affect cashew nut output. The study covered all the four Sub- Counties in Kwale including; Msambweni, Kinango, Lunga Lunga, and Matuga. The cross-sectional survey data were gathered through interviews with 385 respondents in total. The Kenya Meteorological Department provided secondary data on temperature and precipitation for the last 40 years between 1981 and 2020. Both the linear and quadratic effects of a change in climate on cashew nuts, net revenue from cashew nut, and the combination were computed using the Ricardian model to examine the data. The statistical significance of the meteorological data was utilized to evaluate whether a positive or negative trend existed using the non-parametric Sen's and Mann-Kendall approaches. Annual temperature trends were positive and statistically significant for Kinango (Zs=0.692, Qmed=0.049, p<0.001); Lunga Lunga (Zs=0.677, Qmed=0.040, p<0.001); Msambweni (Zs=0.610, Qmed-0.042, p<0.001) and; Matuga (Zs=0.641, Qmed=0.043, p<0.001). However, the annual precipitation trends were not statistically significant for Kinango (Zs=0.026, Qmed=0.003, p>0.005); Lunga Lunga (ZS=0.210, Qmed-0.017, p>0.001); Msambweni (Zs=-0.077, Qmed=-0.011, p>0.001) and; Matuga (Zs=0.146, Qmed-0.011, p>0.001). The socioeconomic variables that were found to also significantly (p<0.05) affect net revenue from cashew nuts, included; access to credit services, farmer-to-farmer extension services, size of land owned, Climate Change awareness, and education level. The findings show a nonlinear link between climatic variables and net cashew nut income. This study concluded that cashew nut income decreases significantly with a rise in mean annual temperature yet increases in precipitation boost cashew nut revenues. This study recommends raising awareness of Climate Change and developing adaptation plans for cashew nut farming. Access to financing options is also crucial. This can make it much easier for farmers to get the supplies they need in time for cashew nut production. Additionally, it would be beneficial to train groups of farmers in the research area because trained farmers are more likely to share the technologies they have acquired with others through farmer-to-farmer extension programs. Enhancing access to information will allow farmers to receive information about suitable cashew nut cultivation technologies.
Small-Scale Farmers' Adaptation to Climate Variability in Manga, Nyamira County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-06) Gwaro, Bosire Isaac; Daniel G. Manguriu; Nelson Muthiani
Agriculture is among the most vulnerable sectors to climate variability effects globally. This stems from climate variability extremes that paralyze farming systems and affect the socioeconomic status of farmers. As the population surges, climatic changes continue to impair food security. This has created a variable demand for climate adaptation strategies towards small-scale farming. This study therefore aimed to assess small-scale farmers ‘adaptation strategies to climate variability in Manga Sub-County, Nyamira County. The specific objectives were: to determine small-scale farmers' adaptation strategies to climate variability effects; to assess the climate variability trend (rainfall and temperature) in the years 1991-2021 in Manga Sub-County; to assess the dissemination of climate variability adaptation strategies information to small-scale farmers; and to examine perceptions of small-scale farmers on climate variability effects in Manga Sub-County, Nyamira County. A mixed-method research design was used where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Questionnaires and interviews were the primary data collection tools. The sample size of 198 was derived through the application of the Naissuma sampling formula that determined the infinite sample, where different sampling techniques, such as purposive sampling and systematic sampling, were used. Raw data was coded in excel sheets and analyzed through SPSS. The results show that the annual rainfall (y =-2.199x+2088.2,R2= 0.0096) and annual average maximum temperature(y=0.0186x+25.528,R2=0.249) have retrospectively increased overtime through a simple regression model. On average, Manga Sub-County had an annual average temperature of 25.5°C.Use of mixed cropping (n=196,96.45%) and rainwater harvesting (n=192,97.46%) were the most preferred adaptation strategies. The least preferred adaptation strategies as non-adaptors were greenhouse technology (n=182,92.39%) and use of climate index insurance (n = 181,91.88%). In addition, the small-scale farmers perceived the notable climate variability effects with a strong agreed tally of (n=130,65.66%). Use of radio (94.21%) was the main source of climate variability information. From the findings, the study recommends the development of early warning systems (EWS) by the environmental department in collaboration with NEMA county office in Nyamira County to give accurate weather and climatic prediction trends and the establishment of proper climate communication pathways and channels to embed small-scale farmers with adequate weather and climate information to enable better adaptation.
Adoption of Climate-Smart Technologies and their Effect on Income among Agro-Pastoralists in Marsabit County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Ngauri, Gudere Ann; Evelyn Wemali; Ezekiel Ndunda
The world is facing variable weather events and gradual climatic change and Kenya’s arid lands where pastoralism is a viable livelihood option are not exceptional. Marsabit County, inhabited by diverse pastoral and agro-pastoral groups, faces extreme climatic events that affect local livelihoods. Despite the government and development organizations disseminating climate smart technologies and practices, the communities still rely on emergency food aid which is unsustainable. Given climate-induced uncertainties, climate-smart technologies may offer viable adaptation options for agro- pastoralism based economies that enhances resilience, increases productivity and reduces greenhouse gases. This study was conceptualized in line with the action theory of adaptation to climate change leading to four objectives; analyze temperature and rainfall trends in Saku Sub-County (1980-2020), identify livestock-crop smart technologies adapted, analyze determinants of climate-smart technologies adoption and assess the impact of adoption of smart technologies on household income. The research design was a survey with a sample size of 373 households in Karare, Marsabit Central (Dakabaricha) and Sagante/Jaldesa wards. Stratified sampling was used in selecting the study sites while systematic random sampling was applied in selecting the households of the agro-pastoralists. The data was collected using questionnaires installed in Kobocollect that were administered through face-to-face interviews with agropastoralists, interview schedules administered to 10 key informants and focus group discussions held with 6 groups. Climate data on temperature and rainfall trends were analyzed with Mann Kendall and Sen's slopes, descriptive statistics were generated for the socio-demographic characteristics of the sampled households while determinants were assessed through multivariate probit regression and propensity matching score on the impact of climate smart technologies adoption on income. Decreasing rainfall and increasing maximum temperature trends were significantly in August and September while the minimum temperature trend was significantly increasing in all the months. Agro-pastoralists practiced crop and livestock climate smart technologies and the most adopted categories were improved and traditional crop varieties and soil fertility management (92%), followed by water and water use management (85%) while the least used was livestock management (15%). Agro-pastoralists age, household size, gender, education status, marital status, average income per month, access to credit, training, extension services and weather information influenced the adoption, with agro-pastoralists who adopted multiple climate smart technologies showing significantly higher income. The study recommends that agro-pastoralists should have timely access to weather information in order to make important decisions for adoption of climate smart technologies. Governments, research institutions and nongovernmental institutions should closely work together in training and providing extension services to agro-pastoralists on livestock and crop husbandry best practices. The governments and development partners to consider socioeconomic and institutional factors when disseminating multiple crop-livestock climate-smart technologies and practices for enhanced income and more resilient communities.
Impact of Climate Change on Cashew Nut Production and Livelihoods of Farmers in Kwale County, Kenya
(kenyatta university, 2023) Morang’a, Kevin Nyakundi; Ezekiel Ndunda; Dan Adino
Every nation on earth has experienced the effects of Climate Change in the twenty- first century. Kenya has implemented attempts to alleviate the issue, but its effects are still seen widely, particularly around the shore and ASAL areas. Studies provide mounting evidence of how Climate Change is affecting agronomy, particularly as it relates to yield reduction and other changes. The main goal of the study was to evaluate Kenya's Kwale County cashew nut farmers' ability to adapt to Climate Change and maintain their way of life. The primary objectives were to determine the trends in Climate Change and related impacts on cashew nut production in Kwale County, secondly, to identify the adaptation strategies being adopted by cashew nut farmers in Kwale County and lastly, to determine the impact of Climate Change on net income of cashew nut farmers in Kwale County. To accomplish this precise goal, variables like temperature, rainfall, and net income from cashew nut were used to gauge how Climate Change may affect cashew nut output. The study covered all the four Sub- Counties in Kwale including; Msambweni, Kinango, Lunga Lunga, and Matuga. The cross-sectional survey data were gathered through interviews with 385 respondents in total. The Kenya Meteorological Department provided secondary data on temperature and precipitation for the last 40 years between 1981 and 2020. Both the linear and quadratic effects of a change in climate on cashew nuts, net revenue from cashew nut , and the combination were computed using the Ricardian model to examine the data. The statistical significance of the meteorological data was utilized to evaluate whether a positive or negative trend existed using the non-parametric Sen's and Mann-Kendall approaches. Annual temperature trends were positive and statistically significant for Kinango (ZS=0.692 , Qmed=0.049, p<0.001); Lunga Lunga (ZS=0.677 , Qmed=0.040, p<0.001); Msambweni (ZS=0.610 , Qmed=0.042, p<0.001) and; Matuga (ZS=0.641 , Qmed=0.043, p<0.001). However, the annual precipitation trends were not statistically significant for Kinango (ZS=0.026, Qmed=0.003, p>0.005); Lunga Lunga (ZS=0.210 , Qmed=0.017, p>0.001); Msambweni (ZS=-0.077, Qmed=-0.011, p>0.001) and; Matuga (ZS=0.146, Qmed=0.011, p>0.001). The socioeconomic variables that were found to also significantly (p<0.05) affect net revenue from cashew nuts, included; access to credit services, farmer-to-farmer extension services, size of land owned, Climate Change awareness, and education level. The findings show a nonlinear link between climatic variables and net cashew nut income. This study concluded that cashew nut income decreases significantly with a rise in mean annual temperature yet increases in precipitation boost cashew nut revenues. This study acclaims raising cognizance of Climate Change and developing adaptation plans for cashew nut farming. Access to financing options is also crucial. This can make it much easier for farmers to get the supplies they need in time for cashew nut production. Additionally, it would be beneficial to train groups of farmers in the research area because trained farmers are more likely to share the technologies they have acquired with others through farmer-to-farmer extension programs. Enhancing access to information will allow farmers to receive information about suitable cashew nut cultivation technologies
Physico-Chemical, Nutrients and Bacteriological Water Quality of Mbagathi River, Kajiado County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Koikai, Jane Nashilu; Esther Kitur; Julius Nzeve
Monitoring of water quality is important to determine the use of that water in different sectors. Water pollution negatively impacts on human health, through exposure to disease causing pathogens in water and chemical toxicants via the food chain. The broad objective of this study was the assessment of the physico-chemical, nutrients and bacteriological contamination of Mbagathi River. The specific objectives included: to determine the physico-chemical parameters of water quality, to determine the bacteriological contamination of Mbagathi River, and assessment of the land use changes and land cover impacts on water quality along the river. The design used was longitudinal. The parameters measured were temperature, pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids, biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, nitrates, phosphates; as well as total coliforms and fecal coliforms. Water samples were collected in three sampling sites along the river, once every month for a period of four months. Temperature, pH, turbidity and total dissolved solids (TDS), were measured on site using portable meters. Water samples for biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrates, phosphates; as well as total coliforms and fecal coliforms were analyzed in the Water Resources Authority Laboratory in Nairobi. Data collected was analyzed using one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to test for significant differences at p≤0.05 between the different sampling points. Where significant differences were found to exist, Post-Hoc Tukey’s test was used to separate means. The Pearson correlation was also employed to find the relationship among the water quality parameters at the different sampling sites. The land use changes were assessed for the forest area, water area, cultivated areas and built-up areas. Results showed that temperature (20.0±2.94 - 20.50±3.11), pH (7.27±0.11 - 7.53±0.05), TDS (423.00±8.16 mg/l - 487.0±8.29 mg/l), BOD (3.88±1.14 mg/l - 10.45±3.47mg/l) and nitrates (23.50±2.04 mg/l - 62.70±5.06 mg/l) were within the acceptable set standards for drinking by WHO. However, turbidity (2.72±1.09 NTUs - 105.33±4.68 NTUs), COD (15.90±4.04mg/l - 35.33±3.61mg/l) and phosphates (2.10±1.07 mg/l - 3.35± 1.63mg/l) were above the WHO recommended levels of drinking water. Both total coliforms and fecal coliforms were exceedingly higher and ranged from 2415±10.0 MPN/100ml to 184± 52.19 MPN/100ml and 2400± 10.0 MPN/100ml to 7.25± 5.06 MPN/100ml respectively. The land use results showed there was a reduction in the forest area and an increase in the built-up area. A decrease in the water areas also resulted to a decline in the cultivated area. The findings indicated that the water was not fit for human consumption. The county government of Kajiado together with other lead agencies such as National Environment Management Authority and the Ministry of Water, need to come up with measures of reducing the channeling of municipal waste into the river. It’s also recommended that the public be informed on ways and importance of protecting the river as it’s their immediate source of water.
Adoption of Climate-Smart Technologies and Their Effect on Income among Agro-Pastoralists in Marsabit County, Kenya
(kenyatta university, 2023) Gudere, Ann Ngauri; Evelyn Wemali; Ezekiel Ndunda
The world is facing variable weather events and gradual climatic change and Kenya’s arid lands where pastoralism is a viable livelihood option are not exceptional. Marsabit County, inhabited by diverse pastoral and agro-pastoral groups, faces extreme climatic events that affect local livelihoods. Despite the government and development organizations disseminating climate smart technologies and practices, the communities still rely on emergency food aid which is unsustainable. Given climate-induced uncertainties, climate-smart technologies may offer viable adaptation options for agro-pastoralism based economies that enhances resilience, increases productivity and reduces greenhouse gases. This study was conceptualized in line with the action theory of adaptation to climate change leading to four objectives; analyze temperature and rainfall trends in Saku Sub-County (1980-2020), identify livestock-crop smart technologies adapted, analyze determinants of climate-smart technologies adoption and assess the impact of adoption of smart technologies on household income. The research design was a survey with a sample size of 373 households in Karare, Marsabit Central (Dakabaricha) and Sagante/Jaldesa wards. Stratified sampling was used in selecting the study sites while systematic random sampling was applied in selecting the households of the agro-pastoralists. The data was collected using questionnaires installed in Kobocollect that were administered through face-to-face interviews with agro-pastoralists, interview schedules administered to 10 key informants and focus group discussions held with 6 groups. Climate data on temperature and rainfall trends were analyzed with Mann Kendall and Sen's slopes, descriptive statistics were generated for the socio-demographic characteristics of the sampled households while determinants were assessed through multivariate probit regression and propensity matching score on the impact of climate smart technologies adoption on income. Decreasing rainfall and increasing maximum temperature trends were significantly in August and September while the minimum temperature trend was significantly increasing in all the months. Agro-pastoralists practiced crop and livestock climate smart technologies and the most adopted categories were improved and traditional crop varieties and soil fertility management (92%), followed by water and water use management (85%) while the least used was livestock management (15%). Agro-pastoralists age, household size, gender, education status, marital status, average income per month, access to credit, training, extension services and weather information influenced the adoption, with agro-pastoralists who adopted multiple climate smart technologies showing significantly higher income. The study recommends that agro-pastoralists should have timely access to weather information in order to make important decisions for adoption of climate smart technologies. Governments, research institutions and non-governmental institutions should closely work together in training and providing extension services to agro-pastoralists on livestock and crop husbandry best practices. The governments and development partners to consider socioeconomic and institutional factors when disseminating multiple crop-livestock climate-smart technologies and practices for enhanced income and more resilient communities.
Zinc effects on maize and common bean grain yield and zinc use efficiency in Siaya County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Mutambu Dominic Mwanzia; Monicah Mucheru-Muna; Job Kihara
Soil zinc deficiency is a modern-day challenge in the global food production systems, lowering crop yields and yield quality. Research shows that crop yields and nutritional quality can be restored, and human health burden reversed by agronomic bio-fortification of zinc in staple crops. As a result, this study was designed to: i) determine the effects of nano-particulate zinc oxide, zinc sulphate, and chelated zinc on maize and common bean yields; ii) establish the effects of nano-particulate zinc oxide, zinc sulphate and chelated zinc on grain nutrient accumulation in maize and common bean, and iii) evaluate the effects of nano-particulate zinc oxide, zinc sulphate and chelated zinc on agronomic efficiency in maize and common bean in Siaya County. The experiment was laid in a randomized complete block design constituting twelve treatments in 7 m by 4.5 m plots replicated four times during 2020 short rains and 2021 short and long rains. All treatments received 90 N, 60 P and 60 K kg ha-1. The treatments were NPK only (control), NPK + nano-particulate ZnO (10, 15 and 20 kg Zn ha-1), NPK + zinc sulphate hepta-hydrate (11.4, 17 and 20 kg Zn ha-1) each as one-time and split application, NPK + nanoparticulate zinc oxide foliar (2 g litre-1) and NPK + chelated zinc foliar (1 millilitre litre1). Before the experiment was laid out soil samples were collected and analyzed for plant available Zn, Olsen P and pH. Crops were harvested at physiological maturity; grain samples were taken, and yields determined at 12.5% moisture content. A sub-sample of the grain was used to determine the nutritional quality following standard procedures. The pre-planting soil was moderately acidic (pH = 5.0), zinc (Zn = 0.66 ppm), and phosphorous (P = 3.60 ppm) deficient. The data were analysed by the analysis of variance and means separated by Fisher’s LSD at 95% confidence interval. Over the three seasons, maize grain yield ranged from 4.2 to 6.4 t ha-1 while bean grain yield was 0.315 to 1.68 t ha-1. Zinc application either achieved the same or increased maize grain yields marginally (8.2%) above the control. Zinc fertilizers did not significantly increase the maize and common bean grain nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, protein, boron, copper, iron, and manganese. Grain zinc concentrations ranged from 18.8 to 23.6 mg kg-1. Use of nano-particulate zinc oxide (soil), zinc sulphate, nano-particulate zinc oxide (foliar) and chelated zinc increased the maize grain Zn by 7.4, 15.8, 17.0 and 25.5%, respectively. Common bean grain Zn ranged from 23.03 to 30.3 mg kg-1 and was significantly increased (p<.001) in all Zn treatments, by up to 19.3% by the application of zinc, above control. Foliar nano-particulate ZnO significantly (p<.001) increased the zinc agronomic efficiency by up to 445 and 198 kg grain kg Zn-1 in maize and bean, respectively. Zinc application did not increase maize and common bean grain yield but improved the grain nutritional quality. Use of zinc in maize and common bean production systems with aim of improving nutritional value is thus recommended.
Effect of production and land management systems on soil properties in Murang’a and Kirinyaga counties, Kenya
(Kenyatta university, 2023-11) Kibet, Jemutai; Monicah Mucheru-Muna; Anne Muriuki
World population is expected to continue increasing while the arable fields are becoming a threatened resource and unproductive jeopardizing food security in many regions globally. To meet the high food demand agricultural practices have been intensified e.g., by the application of industrial inputs such as fertilizers and agro-pesticides. However, due to the negative impacts of conventional agriculture on environment and human health, organic agriculture is being promoted as an alternative production system. Decreasing soil fertility in Kenya threatening food security is becoming of concern. Thus, this study aimed to investigate soil fertility under organic and conventional management in Kenya’s central highlands. The specific objectives of the study were: 1. to assess the effect of production and land management systems on soil physical properties in Kigumo and Kirinyaga East, 2. to determine the effect of production and land management systems on soil chemical properties in Kigumo and Kirinyaga East and 3, to determine the influence of production and land management systems on soil biological properties in in Kigumo and Kirinyaga East. This study employed a cross-sectional survey approach where the study population on each site was 300 farmers, (117 organic, 183 conventional in Kigumo, and in Kirinyaga east 97 organic and 203 conventional). Due to budget constraints ten farmers from each production system were randomly selected, arable and agroforestry systems were identified in Murang'a and agroforestry systems with macadamia and sole macadamia plantations in Kirinyaga. A total of 72 composite samples taken at a depth of 0-20 cm in Murang'a and 28 in Kirinyaga were collected. They were analyzed using standard procedures at the National Agricultural Research Laboratories, Kabete. The output showed that agroforestry and organic farming systems documented significantly higher soil pH and total nitrogen levels than arable and conventional in Murang’a. Conventional and organic farming systems logged significantly greater levels of soil organic carbon in Murang’a and Kirinyaga respectively. Organic farming system in Murang’a recorded significantly elevated levels of exchangeable basic cations, copper, sodium, and moisture retention and content and rhizobium population. Arable land management recorded significantly higher levels of iron and bulk density in Murang’a. Agroforestry documented significantly greater levels of rhizobium, moisture content, zinc, magnesium and exchangeable magnesium cation. In Kirinyaga, conventional farming system listed greater levels of calcium, manganese and exchangeable magnesium ions. Available phosphorous, iron, copper, bacteria and fungi were significantly higher in organic production systems. The results demonstrate the importance of applying organic soil inputs and retaining crop biomass after harvest to buildup soil organic materials, which acts as a temporary pool of nutrients in the providing living space for soil microbes and enhancing soil health and productivity which in the longrun advances profitability.
Small-Scale Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Variability in Manga, Nyamira County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Bosire, Isaac Gwaro; Daniel G. Manguriu; Nelson Muthiani
Agriculture is among the most vulnerable sectors to climate variability effects globally. This stems from climate variability extremes that paralyze farming systems and affect the socioeconomic status of farmers. As the population surges, climatic changes continue to impair food security. This has created a variable demand for climate adaptation strategies towards small-scale farming. This study therefore aimed to assess small-scale farmers' adaptation strategies to climate variability in Manga Sub-County, Nyamira County. The specific objectives were: to determine small-scale farmers' adaptation strategies to climate variability effects; to assess the climate variability trend (rainfall and temperature) in the years 1991–2021 in Manga Sub-County; to assess the dissemination of climate variability adaptation strategies information to small-scale farmers; and to examine perceptions of small-scale farmers on climate variability effects in Manga Sub- County, Nyamira County. A mixed-method research design was used where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Questionnaires and interviews were the primary data collection tools. The sample size of 198 was derived through the application of the Naissuma sampling formula that determined the infinite sample, where different sampling techniques, such as purposive sampling and systematic sampling, were used. Raw data was coded in excel sheets and analyzed through SPSS. The results show that the annual rainfall (y = -2.199x + 2088.2, R2 = 0.0096) and annual average maximum temperature (y = 0.0186x + 25.528, R2 = 0.249) have retrospectively increased overtime through a simple regression model. On average, Manga Sub-County had an annual average temperature of 25.50C. Use of mixed cropping (n = 196, 96.45%) and rainwater harvesting (n = 192, 97.46%) were the most preferred adaptation strategies. The least preferred adaptation strategies as non-adaptors were greenhouse technology (n = 182, 92.39%) and use of climate index insurance (n = 181, 91.88%). In addition, the smallscale farmers perceived the notable climate variability effects with a strong agreed tally of (n = 130, 65.66%). Use of radio (94.21%) was the main source of climate variability information. From the findings, the study recommends the development of early warning systems (EWS) by the environmental department in collaboration with NEMA county office in Nyamira County to give accurate weather and climatic prediction trends and the establishment of proper climate communication pathways and channels to embed smallscale farmers with adequate weather and climate information to enable better adaptation
Effects of Landscape Structure and Bioclimatic Variables on Pollinators in Avocado Production Systems in Murang’a County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Eunice Wambui King’ori; Paul T. Obade; Elfatih M. Abdel-Rahman
One of the most essential ecosystem regulatory services is pollination. It enables the direct production of pollination-dependent food crops such as avocado. Recent climate change and human activities have affected landscape structure by degrading, fragmenting, and interfering with natural pollinator activity (habitats and the foraging sites). The purpose of this research was to determine the impact of landscape structure and bioclimatic characteristics on avocado pollinators in the Murang'a County production system. The study's specific goals were to describe land use/cover (LULC) and assess the impact of landscape structure and bioclimatic variables on pollinators. The random forest (RF) technique was used to categorize LULC using a 2018 composite image generated from the Sentinel 2 (S2) image. Annual croplands, avocado, built-up areas, grasslands, permanent croplands, shrublands, tree cover, and bodies of water were among the mapped classes. The LULC was then refined using pixel and polygon reference data, 70% of which was utilised to train the RF model and 30% as a validation set. For classification, reflectance (Ref), reflectance and vegetation indices (Ref + VIs), reflectance and red-edge-based vegetation indices (REF + RE-VIs), reflectance and vegetation phenology (Ref + Pheno), and reflectance, vegetation indices, red-edge-based vegetation indices, and vegetation phenology (Ref + VIs + RE-VIs + Pheno) were used. The bioclimatic data represent monthly temperature and precipitation values, with the real evapotranspiration and interception variable serving as a humidity proxy. Topographical data was created using a 30 metre digital elevation model (DEM) (aspect and slope). Pollinator data was collected using a global positioning system (GPS). Ref + VIs + RE-VIs + Pheno earned the greatest overall accuracy in the site-specific validation test for both polygon and pixel-based classification, with 80.76 and 70.56 percent, respectively. In the pattern-based accuracy evaluation, Ref + VIs + RE-VIs + Pheno had the highest average similarity (g) of 0.75 for polygon-based classification and Ref + RE-VIs had the highest average similarity (g) of 0.76 for pixel-based classification. The effect of landscape structure and bioclimatic conditions on pollinators was examined using the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model. The data showed that the warmest quarter precipitation (Bio18) contributed the most to the presence of Diptera and honeybee, with 52.4% and 56.5% contributions, respectively. Hymenoptera (other), LULC contributed the most to its prevalence, accounting for 42.7%. Diptera had an AUC of 0.84, Hymenoptera (others) had an AUC of 0.83, and honeybee had an AUC of 0.81. The study demonstrated that using polygon-based training data and integrating Sentinel 2 derived vegetation indices, spectral bands, and phenology metrics, a heterogeneous landscape can be accurately mapped using S2 multi-spectral images. This study employed logistic regression to confirm that landscape structure and bioclimatic variables influence pollinator occurrence and that pollinators such as Diptera, Hymenoptera others, and honeybees were present. Finally, the findings of this study could be used to provide credible information on effective decision-making for long-term pollinator management.
Impacts of Climatic Variability on Wildlife and Livestock Composition and Productivity Index in Maasai Mara Narok County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Chege, Mercy Wairimu; Shyam Manohar; Gladys Gathuru
Climatic variability is the spatial and temporal differences or fluctuations in climatic factors that include, total annual precipitation, timing of precipitation events, the amount of rain that falls during a single precipitation event and its duration, total rainfall differences in areas that are geographically similar, temperature averages in a particular season and temperature extremes in a single season. Mara-Serengeti region is a rangeland supporting the most diverse migration of grazing animals. The study looked into impacts of climatic variability on wildlife and livestock species composition and productivity index in the Maasai Mara National Reserve and ten adjacent conservancies. The specific objectives were 1) To examine rainfall and temperature trends on wildlife and livestock numbers in Maasai Mara National Reserve and conservancies, Narok County from 1975 to 2016. 2) To establish the selected livestock and wildlife productivity index using the Prying livestock productivity model.3) To establish the selected livestock and wildlife composition in the study area using the Prying livestock productivity model. Stratified random sampling was applied to determine the sample size of 382 respondents from ten conservancies and 185 respondents from the hospitality sector and government. Questionnaires were distributed randomly within the manyattas. Interviews were conducted on key informants. Prying livestock productivity a species independent bio-economic model was used to assess productivity and composition of the animals which was compared with variations in climatic trends. Landsat images of 1976, 1985, 1995, 2000, 2003, 2013 and 2016 were acquired, analysed and classified for change detection of land cover. Statistical Package of Social Sciences and excel sheets are used for analysis of data. T-tests were used to find out significance difference at a confidence level of 95%. The null hypothesis where wildlife and livestock productivity vary significantly indicated that the FEE of livestock and wildlife grazers and browsers are not significantly different with a P-value of 0.024 and 0.028 respectively. Comparisons in composition of livestock and wildlife yielded a P-value of 0.013, therefore they were not statistically significant. The data was presented in line and bar graphs and tables. Landsat images indicated decreasing grasslands and increasing shrublands, more so from 1976 to 2016 when grasslands decreased from 88% to 75% while shrublands increased from 6% to 18%. In dry years wildlife numbers decreased from1976 and notably 1995 and 2000 when there were droughts and also 2013 and 2016, a contributing factor being the upward trend in temperatures and reduced rainfall, that was also erratic. The results show that Elephants had the lowest productivity with a Feed Energy Efficiency of 0.02 and warthog had the highest, of 0.10, yet Elephants consume large amounts of dry matter. Mixed feeders had the highest productivity with a mean of 0.062, browsers 0.056 and grazers 0.053 Feed Energy Efficiencies. Goats and sheep (Shoats) numbers increased as the wildlife decreased attributed to high percentages of breeding females and controlled management practices in livestock. The study recommends that, drought resistant forage should be encouraged to provide good nutritional feed to livestock and wild animals’ to cope with climate variability, to increase the wildlife and livestock numbers. Number of water points is introduced depending on the total area to cope with dry seasons/droughts. Animal populations and their composition need to be maintained depending on the carrying capacity of the land, to avoid overstocking.
Sorghum Production Using Zai Pits and Integrated Soil Fertilty Management in Kitui County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kerubo, Getare Ednah; Monicah Mucheru-Muna; Felista Muriu-Ng’ang’a
Food insecurity in the arid and semi-arid land regions of Kenya is partly caused by climate change and variability resulting to prolonged dry periods and water scarcity directly affecting crop production. The dry lands of Kitui County have been facing soil fertility decline over the years as well as low crop yields due to crop failure resulting to food insecurity and low economic returns. This is associated with the poor soil and water conservation methods practiced in the area. The objectives of the study were: i) to determine the effect of zai pits in combination with selected integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) technologies on the chemical properties of soils in Kabati, Kitui County, ii) to determine the effect of zai pits combined with selected integrated soil fertility management(ISFM) technologies on sorghum yield in Kabati, Kitui County and iii) to assess the economic feasibility of using zai pits combined with selected integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) technologies on sorghum production in Kabati, Kitui County. An experiment was set up in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 8 treatments replicated thrice, sorghum gadam variety used as the test crop. The treatments were; zai+ manure, zai+60kg N ha-1, zai+manure+30kg N ha-1, zai+ no inputs, conventional + manure, conventional + 60kg N ha-1, conventional+manure+30kg N ha-1 and conventional + no inputs. Soil sampling was done at a depth of 0-15 cm before setting up the experiment and at the end of the experiment. The samples were analyzed in the laboratory for total nitrogen, available phosphorous, soil pH, soil organic carbon and electric conductivity using standard methods. Data on sorghum yield and economic returns was subjected to analysis of variance and mean separated using Standard Error of Difference at p<0.05. The results indicated that total nitrogen reduced significantly (p<0.05) in zai with sole manure and zai with manure and fertilizer treatments after the two cropping seasons. Organic carbon significantly (p<0.05) reduced in conventional without input, zai with fertilizer and zai with manure and fertilizer treatments. Soil electrical conductivity significantly (p<0.05) increased in zai with fertilizer, zai with manure and zai with manure and fertilizer treatments. Available phosphorous increased significantly (p<0.05) in conventional with sole manure, zai with fertilizer and zai with manure. Sorghum grain yields were significantly (p<.005) higher in zai with manure, zai with fertilizer and zai with manure and fertilizer compared to the conventional counterparts during the SR2018 season. In the same season stover yields were significantly (p<0.05) higher in zai with manure and mineral fertilizer compared to their conventional counterpart. During the SR2018 season, return to labour was significantly higher (p=0.0269, p=0.0252, p=0.0379, respectively) in zai with fertilizer, zai with manure and zai with manure and fertilizer compared to their conventional counterparts. The findings of this study highlight the importance of rain water harvesting using zai pits and the use of manure in combination with mineral fertilizer supplements in improving soil fertility, enhancing crop yields and profitability. To enhance crop yields, this study recommends that Zai pits should be used with a combined application of both organic resources and inorganic soil fertility inputs. The farmers should also be trained on the importance of using zai pit as a soil and water conservation technique in ASALs to improve crop production.
Impacts of Climatic Variability on Wildlife and Livestock Composition and Productivity Index in Maasai Mara Narok County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Chege, Mercy Wairimu; Shyam Manohar; Gladys Gathuru
Climatic variability is the spatial and temporal differences or fluctuations in climatic factors that include, total annual precipitation, timing of precipitation events, the amount of rain that falls during a single precipitation event and its duration, total rainfall differences in areas that are geographically similar, temperature averages in a particular season and temperature extremes in a single season. Mara-Serengeti region is a rangeland supporting the most diverse migration of grazing animals. The study looked into impacts of climatic variability on wildlife and livestock species composition and productivity index in the Maasai Mara National Reserve and ten adjacent conservancies. The specific objectives were 1) To examine rainfall and temperature trends on wildlife and livestock numbers in Maasai Mara National Reserve and conservancies, Narok County from 1975 to 2016. 2) To establish the selected livestock and wildlife productivity index using the Prying livestock productivity model.3) To establish the selected livestock and wildlife composition in the study area using the Prying livestock productivity model. Stratified random sampling was applied to determine the sample size of 382 respondents from ten conservancies and 185 respondents from the hospitality sector and government. Questionnaires were distributed randomly within the manyattas. Interviews were conducted on key informants. Prying livestock productivity a species independent bio-economic model was used to assess productivity and composition of the animals which was compared with variations in climatic trends. Landsat images of 1976, 1985, 1995, 2000, 2003, 2013 and 2016 were acquired, analysed and classified for change detection of land cover. Statistical Package of Social Sciences and excel sheets are used for analysis of data. T-tests were used to find out significance difference at a confidence level of 95%. The null hypothesis where wildlife and livestock productivity vary significantly indicated that the FEE of livestock and wildlife grazers and browsers are not significantly different with a P-value of 0.024 and 0.028 respectively. Comparisons in composition of livestock and wildlife yielded a P-value of 0.013, therefore they were not statistically significant. The data was presented in line and bar graphs and tables. Landsat images indicated decreasing grasslands and increasing shrublands, more so from 1976 to 2016 when grasslands decreased from 88% to 75% while shrublands increased from 6% to 18%. In dry years wildlife numbers decreased from1976 and notably 1995 and 2000 when there were droughts and also 2013 and 2016, a contributing factor being the upward trend in temperatures and reduced rainfall, that was also erratic. The results show that Elephants had the lowest productivity with a Feed Energy Efficiency of 0.02 and warthog had the highest, of 0.10, yet Elephants consume large amounts of dry matter. Mixed feeders had the highest productivity with a mean of 0.062, browsers 0.056 and grazers 0.053 Feed Energy Efficiencies. Goats and sheep (Shoats) numbers increased as the wildlife decreased attributed to high percentages of breeding females and controlled management practices in livestock. The study recommends that, drought resistant forage should be encouraged to provide good nutritional feed to livestock and wild animals’ to cope with climate variability, to increase the wildlife and livestock numbers. Number of water points is introduced depending on the total area to cope with dry seasons/droughts. Animal populations and their composition need to be maintained depending on the carrying capacity of the land, to avoid overstocking.
Disaster Risk Interventions for Enhancing Resilience among Pastoral Communities of Mandera County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Irungu, Francis Kamau; Daniel Manguriu
Climate change is among the greatest challenges being experienced globally today and affects all aspects of sustainable development. Consequently, climate-related hazards have been recorded as the major triggers for major disasters worldwide. However, extensive research in Disaster Risk Reduction Interventions is greatly lacking. This study sought to investigate the disaster risk reduction interventions for enhancing resilience among pastoral communities of Mandera County. The specific research objectives were; determine trends variation in climatic elements of temperature and precipitation from 1989 to 2019 in Mandera County, investigate the impacts of drought hazards on livelihoods of pastoral communities residing in Mandera County from 1989 to 2019, identify the opportunities and constraints for Disaster Risk Reduction and evaluate institutional capacity in improving pastoral societies’ resilience to Drought Disaster and their capacity for action. Three sampling techniques; stratified sampling, simple random and purposive sampling were used to collect primary and secondary data from both the respondents and key informants with a sample size of 157. The findings were analysed with Statistical Package of Social Sciences and Excel. The results show, at least 55.7% of the sampled respondents had basic primary level education. The months of December, January and February were the most water scarce months of the year, with 54.2% of the respondents stating that they depend on dam water as their main source of water in their households as opposed to 3.8% who depend on piped water. The findings of this study also found out that the most food insecure months were February, March and July of each year which were also the months impacted mostly by drought with a minimum of 23.8oC and maximum of 38.2 oC for the years between 1989 to 2019. The analysed results were presented inform of tables, pie-chart and graphs. The hypothesis was tested by Chi-Square (χ2). The null hypothesis of drought shocks had no association χ2 =4.468, DF=6, P=0.624, with effective and affordable practices of drought mitigation and preparedness in Mandera County, and failed to be rejected This study is recommends need to strengthen their weather forecast and improve on early warning to enable local communities’ to better plan their activities and prepare for any probable occurrence of future climate related disasters in Mandera County.

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