MST-Department of Environmental Science

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An Assessment of the Water Quality of Lake Baringo, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 1990) Tarus, Paul Kipkosgei
Farmer- Trainer Extension Approach in Agroforestry: An Application of Cost Benefit Analysis in Selected Project Sites in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2001) Tanui, J. K.
Agroforestry can improve productivity in many ways. This includes increased output of tree products, improved yields of associated crops, reduction of cropping systems input and increased labour efficiency. Though ready access to appropriate technology can better the lives of the resource poor farmer, the adoption rates of recommended technologies has not been as high as would be expected. The challenge therefore has been to look for extension alternatives that embrace a defined methodology for participatory learning, and mobilize local creativity, energy, knowledge and experience in the search for context-specific solutions, which capitalize on diversity. The Farmer-trainer extension approach is based on group training of identified farmers who have the scope and skills to become trainers of other farmers on agroforestry techniques. Their existing skills are improved through on-the-job farmer and extension staff joint training workshops. The farmer-trainers are then encouraged to train their neighbour fanners the skills acquired and hence make them farmer-followers through adopting recommended technologies and also taking up training of other farmers. It is envisaged that this would create a multiplier effect improving and expanding the practice of agroforestry innovations thereby improving the adoption rates. The overall objective of this study is to establish the viability of the Farmer-trainer extension approach in terms of influencing adoption of agroforestry innovations, and more specifically the adoption of high value trees and the impact, if any this has had on the farmers. This would be achieved through determination of the usage of the taught agroforestry innovation; the economic returns of the innovation and a comparison with other on-farm enterprises; an assessment of the cost of training one farmer to the level of being a farmer-trainer; determination of factors affecting the performance of farmer-trainers; the average conversion of fanner-followers by farmer-trainers; farmers assessment of the approach; calculation of the cost benefit ratio and Net Present Value of the farmer-trainer approach; and exploration of the policy implication of the study. A multistage purposive sampling procedure with stratified random selection was used to select farmers for the survey in the study areas. In the study, primary and secondary data were collected where primary data consisted mainly of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), group discussions and interviews, observations and empirical field measurements. Four sites were selected for the study and these were Embu, Kisumu, Migori and Keiyo districts. The results thus attained show that the Fanner-trainer extension approach is a viable concept of dissemination and results are generated within a Sh0l1 time. The study shows Embu district has the highest establishment of improved mangoes. This was the crop used for economic evaluation given that it was adopted in all the study sites. In the economic evaluation the study showed a positive retum to investment of nine years given a discount rate of 18%. The study also illustrates factors that influence the performance of the farmers in the approach, whereby availability of a tree nursery, location of the study sites, gender, and farm size, were found to be of great significance to the performance of the farmer-trainer. ln comparison to other farm enterprises, the study shows an increasing role of tree crops within the farming system. The study also explores policy implications of the farmer-trainer approach especially in research, extension, marketing and credit provision.
Soil and Water Conservation under some Improved Fallow Plant Species in Vihiga District, Kenya.
(2002-07) Orindi, V. A.
Soils in parts of western Kenya are degraded due to continuous cultivation thus contributing to low crop yields. Alternative farming systems involving the use of short-term tree legume fallows are being encouraged instead of the conventional system where land is left under natural fallow after crop harvest. This study was carried out over a nine-month period to assess the effect of improved fallows on soil erosion and soil water conservation in a subhumid area in Western Kenya. Soil erosion was assessed in the field using a rainfall simulator. The following treatments were considered: (a) Continuous maize (b) Natural fallow cover (c) Improved fallow cover of Tephrosia candida, (d) Improved fallow no cover, (e) Natural fallow no cover ~illed,and (e) Improved falliw no cover tilled. Soil moisture storage was assessed on a weekly basis using a lO-cm interval up to a depth of 60 ern under: (a) Continuous maize, (b) Natural fallow, (c) Tephrosia candida, (d)Tephrosia candida + Macroptilium atropurpureum, (e) Crotalaria grahamiana, and (f) Crotalaria paulina. Runoff intensity, turbidity and soil losses were higher under natural fallow no cover tilled (47.6 mm h-l , W.87 g L-I , 3.02 t ha") compared to the improved fallows no cover tilled (42.4 mm h-I, 4.92 g L-I , 1.31 t ha"). There was no significant difference (p= 0.05) in terms of aggregate stability in the top lO-cm soil between the treatments. Fluctuations in soil moisture content were greater in the upper soil layers and reduced with depth but the variation among treatments increased with depth. There was a faster recharge of water stocks but a gradual decrease under the improved fallows compared to conventional farming practices. Rainfall events of less than 10 mm had very limited effect under the treatments where the cover was over 70%. Improved fallows performed better in improving soil physical conditions as shown by the decrease in soil detachability. Improved fallows offer better opportunity for controlling soil erosion and conserving soil moisture.
Ethnobotany, Phenology and Conservation of Four Species of The Genus Sansevieria Thunb: Case of Nakuru and Maragua Districts, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2005) Khalumba, Mercelyne Luxen
Many people especially in developing countries rely on wild collected plants for construction, fuel wood, medicine and many other purposes. Today there is often a decrease in the availability of wild plants resources due to increased human and animal populations and the effect of competition with other forms of land use. The destruction of the ecosystem and loss of genetic wealth are depriving man of the natural condition of life. The erosion of biodiversity is an irreversible process, and this has resulted in worldwide call for the conservation of biodiversity. Approximately 75 species constitute Sansevieria Thunb, a tropical terrestrial genus of Ruscaceae. About 41 of these species are found in East Africa, 21 in Kenya while 9 are endemic in Kenya. Information on ethnobotany, phenology and conservation status of these species in Kenya is limited and in order to conserve wild plants they must carefully documented. It is in this light that the study of ethnobotany, phenology and conservation of the four Sansevieria species was considered important for investigation. The study was designed to find out: the use-value, the phenological pattern, indicator species and threats to conservation status of Sansevieria sufJruticosa. N.E Br., Sansevieria parva. N.E Br Sansevieria rafjillii N.E Br and Sansevieria ehrenbergii Schweinf.ex Bak growing naturally in Nakuru and Maragua districts. Data was collected by means of a questionnaire and observation schedules using random sampling technique. Data gathered was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. From field survey S .parva is highly valued for fodder for both domestic and wild animals; S. sufJruticosa and S. ehrenbergii are valued for fibres and soil conservation. The results indicate that leaves of S. sufJruticosa and S. ehrenbergii are valued for treatment of ear-ache and open fresh wounds while their rhizomes are used to treat snakebite and stomach ulcers. The Common method of extraction is squeezing the extracts to the affected area. The rhizome of S. rafjillii was reported to be poisonous. The results indicate that the three Sansevieria fibres can be used in briquette production and weaving (51 %). The study found out that the commonest plant species associated with Sansevierias are: Opuntia vulgaris (88%), Aloe nyeriensis (83%), Euphorbia candelabrum (78%), Cissus quadrangularis (68%) and Aloe graminacollii (67%) and they belong to the following families, Cactaceae, Aloaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Vitaceae. Field observation indicated that there was poor no regeneration from seeds. Field observation indicated that there was low regeneration level at a rate of S. ehrenbergii (5%) and S. raffillii (13%) young shoots per quadrat from the rhizome and none from seeds during the study period. The leaf size structure revealed that there were many mature plants S. ehrenbergii (90%), S. rafjillii (86%) compared to juvenile ones (10% and 14% respectively) in the quadrats studied. The results also indicated that man is the main threat of Sansevieria species in the field, destroying over (80%), due to settlement, clearance for agricultural land and felling of firewood tree species. The information from this study could be useful in designing intervention conservation programmes and sustainable utilization of Sansevieria species. More research is needed to determine chemical compounds which lead to treatment of diseases such as ear-ache, snake bite remedy, skin infection and treatment of fresh wounds. Effective conservation would be achieved by having more research on Sansevieria products .The focus should be, on production of certain fibre products, better technologies for sustainable briquette production.
The relationship between gender-equity, resource management and poverty alleviation among the masai community in Narok South
(2011-05-09) Chebet, Cheruiyot Caroline
Across the world, Africa included, poverty is one of the greatest problems of our time because it undermines economic development and human dignity. Currently, statistics indicate that 56% of Kenya's population lives below the poverty line and the most affected are households headed by women. The problem has been attributed to lack of empowerment and decision-making in resource allocation. This has impacted negatively on women and their household since it has even extended to their children. So there is a need to come up with ways which poverty can be alleviated among the communities especially women, hence the main purpose of this research was to investigate gender equity and sensitization in poverty alleviation and resource management among the maasai community of Rift-Valley province, Kenya. The main objective of the study was to identify the available resources and the key factors that enhance poverty and determine the key strategies towards poverty alleviation. This study is very important because its results can expose the gender inequity and this can help the community to address their poverty situation. The researcher utilized ex-post factor research design because events had already occurred and the researcher could not manipulate the variables. I)ata was collected using questionnaires, interviews and transect walk. The target population was 263,780 Maasai. A sample size of 400 was used. Descriptive analysis was used to give meaning to the collected data. The results of the study showed the available resources such as: land, livestock, water and forests/ wildlife which can be exploited to alleviate poverty. The study also revealed that gender roles contribute to poverty, for instance, 62% of women's work is domestic chores which take most of their productive time hence making them poor. Gender inequity in resource allocation was revealed in the findings to be one of the obstacles to poverty alleviation. For example, men owned 37% of the cattle while women owned 28%. The available resources in the area have not assisted the community to alleviate poverty because of lack of gender equity and sensitization in resource management. This calls for harmonization of gender roles in resource management and creation of awareness among the genders through empowerments which gives the community the capacity to manage their resources well.
Adoption status of multi-storey gardens and opportunities for vegetables production in Pumwani division, Nairobi
(2011-08-01) Karimi, W. Julia; Waswa, F.; Abwao, Peter
Pumwani division is one of the areas that have been affected by the high rate of urbanization in Nairobi. Land for agricultural production has greatly reduced posing a threat to food security among the urban poor. The contribution of urban agriculture to food security and nutrition is critical. In the recent past, the government and other stakeholders have enhanced the growth of vegetables by using multi-storey gardens. However the adoption rate among potential users remains low. This research focused on the adoption status of multi-storey gardens in the division with the aim of contributing to scaling-out this technology for increasing vegetable production. A descriptive survey with both quantitative and qualitative aspects was adopted as the research design. Data were gathered using questionnaires, observation and photography from 90 households who live in both formal and informal settlements. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that 80% of the respondents were aware of multi-storey garden farming system but the adoption rate was 60%. This was attributed to the various challenges faced by respondents such as inadequate land size, income and lack of technical skills. It further revealed that those who adopted the technology 65% grew exotic vegetables where 40% used no organic fertilizers. Social factors such as education, age, attitude and customs played a major role in the consumption of the indigenous vegetables in the division. The conclusion drawn from the results of the study was that multi-storey gardens systems were not fully adopted by the community. Most of the farmers grew exotic vegetables and organic fertilizers were not utilized to increase production. Scaling-up and out the multi-storey gardens by planting indigenous vegetables and use of organic fertilizers to increase vegetable production. This would contribute to better health and achieve food security in the division. The researcher recommends that the extension staff on the ground should continue to educate the community on the nutritive importance of indigenous vegetable and need to increase production and consumption. Further they should sensitize and train the community on the available resources that can be utilized to make organic fertilizers locally. City by-laws that do not allow farming should be revised to incorporate urban farming as a mean of improving food security in the urban setting. There is need for further study to assess the effectiveness of extension services in improving food security in the division. More should be done on vegetable value addition to ensure continuous supply throughout the year.
Legume fallows for fuelwood production and soil fertility improvement in Sauri millennium village, Siaya district, Kenya
(2011-08-02) Kimilu, Mutinda Gabriel
This research work was conducted between March 2008 (before start of long rains) and August 2008 (the season for harvesting maize), in Sauri Millennium Village, sub location of Yala division, Siaya district, Kenya. The general objective of this study was the adoption of legume fallows in Sauri millennium village with specific objectives;- (i) To study the current status of legume fallows in Sauri millennium village (ii) To investigate the leguminous tree species for high fuelwood production, (iii) to find out the role of leguminous tree species for the improvement of soil fertility and lood production in the study area, and (iv) To assess rudimentary economic implications on households from the use of legume fallows. The methodology used was a field sure e y based on stratified random sampling on households with, and without legume fallows. l The size of the Sample frame was based on the Millennium villages project households (three hundred (300) households), out of which ninety (90) households were selected for sampling. Structured questionnaire combined with observation and existing documentation were used to gather data for objectives i, ii and iii, while soil tests, fuelwood quantification and maize yield estimates were done to gather data for objective iv. Social variables were analyzed by use of SPSS package, and t-test used to compare average costs and average savings from fuelwood. Soil spectral analysis was done and calibration models developed from existing Sauri soil spectra and used to make predictions for the new soil samples, and principle component analysis (PCA) model developed to compare the distribution of the two sets of soil spectra within the same spectral space. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were used to compare statistical differences between treatments i.e. means of treatments for soil attributes and means of maize yield. The results showed that, soil fertility and fuelwood production were the motivating reasons for adopting legume fallows. Tephrosia candida is the most recommended for fuelwood and together with Mucuna pruriens and Tephrosia vogelli showed better soil attributes. Mixed intercropping with Tephrosia candida produced 2.2 tonnes per hectare of fuelwood compared to Crotalaria paulina 0.8 tonnes per hectare. All fallowed treatments produced high maize yield up to 5.5 tonnes per hectare compared to non fallowed at 4.6 tonnes per hectare and the controls at 3.6 tonnes per hectare. In conclusion the study has shown that, combining legume fallows with crops has enabled farmers to spend less to buy fuelwood from market, while producing high crop yields on their farms. This has generally improved the livelihood of the rural community. This study recommends, a thorough economic analysis of the intervention, cation, introduction of other leguminous tree species, provision of credit facilities to farmer. and the promotion of agricultural productivity which is among the key strategies in Sauri, in order to ensure sufficient fuelwood and food security in the area.
Seasonal changes in physico-chemical status and algal biomass of lake Naivasha, Kenya
(2011-08-09) Murakaru, Mugo James
Lake Naivasha located at latitude 0° 45' S, and longitude 36° 20' E, was designated a Ramsar site in 1995. It is an important resource to many stakeholders and has a fragile ecosystem that experiences rapid changes associated with natural and anthropogenic factors such as huge water abstraction for irrigation agriculture, fertilizer residues runoffs from the agro-based farms and sediments discharged by River Malewa among others. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the levels and seasonal changes in physico- chemical properties and algal biomass in order to provide current information on lake's water characteristics and hence propose suitable measures for sustainable management of the lake. This study was conducted in Lake Naivasha from December 2007 to April 2008, covering both dry and wet periods. Surface and bottom water samples were collected in replicates every month using Van Dom water sampler for nitrate nitrogen (N03 - N), ammonium nitrogen (NH4 - N), total nitrogen (TN), orthophosphate phosphorus (P04 -P), total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll a and measured using standard spectrophotometric methods. Water conductivity, pH, temperature and secchi depth were measured in situ. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was measured by Winkler method. Trophic state index (TSI) was calculated using chlorophyll a and total phosphorus. The results show that mean f SD N03 - N values for the lake were 63 ± 31 lag L-1, NH4-N 128 f 46 Vg L-1, TN 304 196 pg L-1, P04 10 f 6 pg L-1 and TP 43 ± 26 gg L-1. There was significant seasonal and spatial variation for these nutrients p < 0.001. Mean f SD (DO) was 6.0 ± 1.3 mg L-1, temperature 21.8 ± 1.0 °C, conductivity 259 f 23 [is cm-1 and chlorophyll a 33 f 13 pg L-1. Gross primary production meant SD values ranged from 266 t 170 mg C m3 hr -1 to 473 f 230 mg C m3 hr 1. Based on the above results it can be concluded that the lake: (a) is eutrophic with respect to total phosphorus (TP) Carlson's Trophic State Index (TSI, 59.4) and chlorophyll a (TSI, 64.8) with significant seasonal difference being observed. Sewage Discharge Point (Station 2) and Malewa River Mouth (Station 3) are the two point sources for these nutrients entry into the Lake (b) Has high turbidity as indicated by low Secchi depth (c) Has a high algal biomass especially at Sewage Discharge Point and Mid Lake (Station 4). This study recommends: (1) efficient water quality monitoring through coordinated research involving research institutions, universities and nongovernmental organizations (2) Naivasha Municipal council in partnership with other stakeholders managing urban development around Lake Naivasha and the catchment should develop programs for managing waste water and soil erosion.
The challenges and opportunities for sustainable management of cattle ranches in Kitui district, Kenya
(2011-08-09) Mwele, Mbithe Esther
The study pursued a concept of organizational differentiation with a particular reference to cooperative and group ranches to understand the challenges and opportunities for cattle ranches management. It evaluated the existing policy framework on livestock development in terms of its strengths and weaknesses. It also identified the factors constraining operations and performance and environmental problems associated with ranching. Further, it explored the opportunities available for sustainable cattle ranching. In carrying out the study, a questionnaire, an interview schedule and a guide and an observation record sheet were used to collect data. Data collected were collated, coded and analysed. Data were analysed descriptively using contingency tables that generated frequencies and percentages. The study established that mismanagement of cattle ranches was the greatest internal constraint to its operations and performance. This was attributed to lack of proper advance planning for ranch activities, demoralized and incompetent staff that were easily corruptible. Both members and non-members identified a prominent external constraint as the encroachment of ranches. These resulted in change of land use, and a complete halt of ranch activities. It further leads to wastage of resources especially finances through court proceedings, fuel, equipment and personnel for patrol and eviction diverting attention from important activities. The environmental problems identified were competitive land uses, livestock wildlife conflicts and social conflicts. With the emergence of these problems the activities of cattle ranches were highly challenged. The study found that there are opportunities for revival and success of ranch activity. For this opportunity to be realized, the study recommends the following; proper plan formulation, implementation and management of ranch activities, provision of professional expertise and election of new officials in management committees, settlement of court case concerning illegal settlement and reconciliation of all conflicts, awareness creation programmes that focus on the importance of cattle ranches, explore the opportunities of exploiting other resources such as; wildlife conservation and harvesting, wood carving and the need for develop a comprehensive policy on effective cattle ranch management.
Factors influencing tree diversification at farm level in Runyenjes division, Embu district, Kenya
(2011-08-10) Njuguna, Maina Luke
Mount Kenya Reserve is vital to the livelihood of the local population who revere it. The forest reserve is of vital ecological, economic and environmental importance and is recognized as a world heritage site. The forest reserve serves as a water catchment reservoir for nearly a third of Kenya's population and feeds the country's largest River Tana, which in turn supports hydro electric plants that provide more than 50% of the country's electricity. The forest reserve is currently exposed to high degradation owing to illegal and unsustainable timber harvesting of high value indigenous trees such as Vitex keniensis and Ocotea usambarensis. Domestication of high value indigenous trees and their intensive planting on farmlands is one way of controlling degradation of Mt. Kenya forest. The study aimed at identifying factors that undermine indigenous tree planting on farmlands and the conservation mechanisms in place towards their conservation. The study was undertaken in Runyenjes Division in Embu District. A sample of 180 farmers was interviewed. It was drawn from three sub-locations randomly selected from three different purposively selected agro-ecological zones. Household members were interviewed using a farm-based interview schedule. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. The results obtained revealed that farmers in Embu plant trees for different reasons including timber production (67.8°/0), fuel wood (63.3%), poles and posts (31.1%), food (26.1%), among other uses or services. The most abundant tree species on farms was Grevillea robusta (100%), Mangifera indica (79.4%), Eucalyptus spp (43.3%) and Bredellia micrantha (70%). About 82% of farmers reported that there was value in planting indigenous trees. Constraints towards successful indigenous tree planting on farms were slow growth rate (60%), inadequate germplasm (55.7%), incompatibility with other crops (11%), low survival of planted seedlings (7.45%), and inadequate knowledge on economic returns (6.7%). The conservation measures in place included a concerted effort by various government agencies and non-government organizations in promotion of indigenous trees. It is highly recommended that a tree germplam policy will be developed and implemented. Though some farmers (60%) perceive indigenous trees as slow growers, there were others who were willing to plant them (82%) and those concerned in conservation of the trees should take this advantage and scale up the indigenous tree planting. Further research is suggested that a tree domestication process for the preferred and appropriate indigenous trees be initiated in addition to developing appropriate propagation techniques for indigenous trees including the use of biotechnology.
Conservation and management of sandalwood trees: (osyris lanceolata hochst & steudel,) in Chyullu hills Kibwezi district, Kenya
(2011-08-10) Ochanda, Khasenye Valentine
Sandalwood trees are valuable because of their highly priced aromatic oil and durable wood. Sandalwood can be found in Africa, Asia, Europe and Central America. As a result of over-exploitation, Sandalwood is now an endangered species with countries banning its trade. This study sought to establish whether there were any efforts to conserve sandalwood within the Chyulu hills in Kibwezi division. It also sought to study sandalwood morphology, growth, development and distribution within the division as well as the propagation methods adopted by the locals in an effort to come up with better management of sandalwood trees, including domestication. Other objectives were to assess local and international utilization of Osyris and how the market forces of the demand and supply of its products was driving its harvesting. The study also sought to find out the role of policy and legal framework in the conservation of sandalwood within Chyullu Hills. Data were collected through questionnaires and field surveys in individual farms and within Chyullu hills where quadrants were laid to establish the density of sandalwood in the area. The measures of central tendency were used to present the results. The study found that although the tree is dioecious and it produces seed three times a year, the community members have been trying to propagate it using the seeds, and the main challenge was low survival rate as most of the seedlings died in the nursery and after transplanting. A large population of the residents (64%) of Chyulu hills used sandalwood for commercial purposes; and 21.2% use the tree for medicinal purposes for the treatment both for animals and human beings such treatment of snake bites. The study also established that internationally, the tree is mainly used in the perfume industry as a fixative since the oil produced from the tree is an essential oil. Due to illegal harvesting, most of the mature trees have been removed but young trees are now sprouting from the stumps. The study found out that sandalwood was available in Kibwezi although scattered in smaller portions and under threat from wood collectors, loggers and poachers, due to the ready market in Tanzania. There is underground harvesting, which are being driven by exports for the production of sandalwood oil. The study also established that in harvesting, the entire tree was uprooted, as the roots were the main targets. In Kenya for instance, trade in sandalwood is now illegal following a Presidential ban in February 2007.1t is imperative however, that the domestication of the economically viable species through community sensitization be the long-term solution, vegetative propagation can also be seen as an option since the tree is semi parasitic and may require a nurse plant for it to survive, to enable better management of the tree at the same time enabling households generate income from the sale of sandalwood products.
Enhancing propagation of Melia Volkensii Gurke(MUKAU) to Increase tree cover in Mwingi District,Kenya
(2011-08-11) Mfahaya, Nafasi Wambui; Kung'u, J.B.; Theresa C. Aloo
Kenya's arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) represent 80% of total and area. The natural resources of ASALs are being degraded rapidly. The crisis has been aggravated over the last three decades by repeated drought and inappropriate land use practices, as a result of rapid population increase of people and livestock. This has resulted in clearing of forests for agricultural production and settlement, cutting of trees for charcoal production for both home and commercial purposes. Afforestation in ASALs has been emphasized to ensure a sustainable management system, which will contribute towards poverty alleviation. One of the highly valued multipurpose trees in ASALs, which has been recommended for planting in Kenya, is Melia volkensii Gurke (Meliaceae). The wood from the tree is durable and resistant to termite, the leaves and fruits are used as fodder for livestock in the dry season; the flowers also provide bee forage and are used as tick, flea and fly repellant. Branches act as a source of fuel. Propagation of Melia volkensii Gurke is difficult and requires careful handling for optimal gel urination in the nursery. Development of an appropriate vegetative propagation technique through use of cuttings is of highest priority for production of large amount of planting material. This research study was carried out at Nuu tree nursery in Mwingi district to investigate seed germination and rooting of cuttings. Seeds were subjected to different pretreatments against the control. Soaking seeds in 10% sulphuric acid for 10,30 and 60 minutes and nicking followed by soaking seeds in 10% sulphuric acid for 10,30 and 60 minutes respectively. Cuttings obtained from three different sections (bottom, middle and top) of the stem were subjected to different hormones concentrations 01'0.5% Indole butyric acid (IBA), 0.33% of IBA and 0.11% IBA. Seedlings were also subjected to different watering regimes so as to get the best quality seedlings. 100 seedlings were used per replicate for four watering regimes, normal watering, 2.5, s 0 and 10 litres. Nicking followed by soaking in 10% sulphuric acid for 10 minutes gave the highest germination percent (53.33%) and soaking in 10% sulphuric acid for 60 minutes gave the lowest (6.67%). Cutting from the bottom section had the highest rooting percentage and use of 0.33% IBA was the best. Watering on alternate days using 1itres four times in a week gave the best quality seedlings. Success in nursery production through vegetative production will open an opportunity to successful plantation establishment of M. volkensh.
Gender differentials in adoption of soil nutrient replenishment technologies in meru south district, Kenya
(2011-08-15) Kirumba, Edith Gathoni
Understanding gender differentials in adoption of soil nutrient replenishment technologies is critical to the successful uptake of these soil improving innovations by farmers. The importance of gender issues in adoption of soil innovations is increasingly gaining global recognition and there is a strong call for its integration in development projects and programs. This study was conducted firstly to investigate gender differences in the frequency of participation in soil related project activities, secondly, to determine how choices of technologies adopted differed between male and female headed households and finally to investigate socio-economic. institutional, farm characteristics and demographic factors influencing adoption. Primary data was collected using semi-structured interview schedules. focus group discussions and keyinformant interviews. Secondary sources included the agro forestry systems journal. science direct. agricultural systems journal. nature journal. and related articles, books and periodicals. Descriptive and bi-variate analyses were done to determine relationships between the variables under study. Descriptive analysis involved the use of means. percentages. range. standard deviation and cross tabulation. BI-variate analysis was conducted by use of Chi-square and T-tests run at P<0.05 to test for significant relationships between variables. Multi-variate analysis was done by use of logistic regression analysis to determine factors that significantly influenced adoption. The results indicated that female headed households participated in significantly lesser numbers in project activities than male headed households. Further, adoption of cattle manure and mineral fertilizer was significantly higher for male headed households in comparison to female headed households. The results of logistic regression analysis indicated that in maleheaded households, adoption was significantly influenced by number of cattle owned, access to credit, number of adults working on farm and farmer group membership. For female headed households, adoption was significantly influenced by size of land under cash crops, number of goats owned, number of adults working on farm, participation in project activities, and farmer group membership. Based on these results, there is a clear need for strategies, policies and efforts geared towards promoting gender parity in adoption of soil fertility enhancing technologies. Efforts aimed at increasing adoption and agricultural productivity for both male and female headed households should consider increasing farmers' membership in groups and improve their ability to purchase inputs such as fertilizers and labor
Influence of integration of open-air markets on food security in Meru South and Mbeere Districts, Kenya
(2011-08-18) Mwithirwa, Ken Gatobu; Koske, James K.A.
The relationship between agricultural marketing systems and food security has continued to attract a lot of attention both locally and globally. This has been due to realization that increased food production does not automatically lead to improved food security. Markets and marketing components have been viewed to have influence on food security, however, the degree of influence varies from region to region and it's determined by a number of factors. This study was, therefore, conducted to determine the influence of integration of open-air markets on food security in Mbeere and Meru South districts of Eastern Province, Kenya. The study analyzed the spatio-temporal distribution of open-air markets, computed price disparities for maize and beans retail prices and assessed factors that influenced market operations and how each factor influenced food availability and accessibility in the area. The primary data were collected using semi- structured interview schedules administered to traders while secondary data were collected mainly from the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and local government offices. Simple random sampling was used to sample markets in which surveys were administered; purposive sampling to sample open-air markets upon which retail prices for maize and beans were collected and systematic sampling was used to sample traders who were interviewed. In total one hundred and thirty one traders were interviewed in both districts. Data generated was coded, keyed in excel and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). Nearest neighbours' indices was used to compute the nearest neighbor distance between markets. The study revealed that the nearest neighbour statistics (Rn) was 1.53 and 1.62 for open air markets in Meru South and Mbeere Districts respectively. Since the Rn values were more than 1, the markets were evenly distributed. The calculated Z-scores values were 4.13 and 3.24 respectively which were all significant at 0.05 confidence level. These results showed that open air markets and market days within the study area were uniformly distributed. On average, each market place had two markets days in a week. These results further showed that the spatio-temporal distribution of open air markets was sufficient to efficiently serve all participants in the region. The analyses of price disparities revealed existence of high price differences between some markets either within the same district or across the two districts. The high price differences indicated that the open air markets were poorly integrated. However, the poor market integration witnessed in the area did not result from the spatio-temporal distribution of the markets but from a range of factors which includes; transportation challenges, lack of storage facilities, lack of standardized unit of measurement, lack of access to adequate capital and poor market information flow. Each of these factors had profound influence on food security by influencing food availability and accessibility in the area. Therefore to enhance the contribution of open-air markets in promoting food security, the study has recommended both institutional and infrastructural interventions. These include improvement of the rural transport network to ensure efficient flow of goods especially from surplus regions to deficit regions, formulation of policies to regulate pricing, standardizing of units of quantity measurement, establishment of effective and efficient mechanism for enhancing market information flow and addressing the storage challenges. In addition, there is need to enhance the operation of National Cereals Produce Board (NCPB) within the study area to help in price regulation and quality checking. This will guarantee reasonable prices and which will benefit both farmers and consumers
Rapid assessment of soil condition in Kenya through development of near infrared spectral indicatators
(2011-08-18) Olive, Muthoni
Soil degradation in Kenya has environmental and economic impacts. Large area assessments are needed to quantify and diagnose problems of soil fertility and environmental degradation and target sustainable land management interventions, such as agroforestry, and to measure impacts of interventions. Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (LAIRS) is a low cost, rapid and robust method for characterizing soil condition. The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has compiled an extensive spectral library of several thousand soil samples from Kenya. However, soil test data of properties determined using wet chemistry is available for only a subset of samples in the database because the methods are too expensive to measure on large numbers of samples. In addition it is tedious to develop separate individual calibrations for each soil property and region. Soil spectra integrate information on a number of soil physical and chemical components and it is against this background, that this study was carried out to derive integrated spectral indictors of soil condition for Kenya based on near infrared spectra. The specific objectives were to summarize the main variation in reflectance spectra in the soil samples into simple metrics, summarize the main variation in the soil chemical and physical properties and relate the spectral metrics to the individual soil chemical and physical properties and their combined principal components. Eight hundred and forty three soil samples (0-20 and 045cm depths) from different parts of Kenya that had complete physical and chemical data were randomly selected. The soil properties tested were organic carbon, pH, exchangeable Ca and Mg, extractable P and K, sand and clay content. Soil spectra were recorded on these samples using a Fourier Transform infrared spectrometer. The absorbance peak heights of the three principal spectral absorption features after baseline correction were proposed as the basis for the spectral condition index. The soil properties were related to the absorbance peak heights using Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS) regression. A second set of relationships was developed by relating the soil properties to the full spectrum using the Bruker Quant 2 method, which is also based on PLS but uses all the wavebands. The peak heights displayed higher correlation with soil properties after baseline correction - Continuum Removal (CR) as compared to before CR. The peak heights predicted exchangeable Ca which is a key soil fertility parameter moderately well, with calibration and cross-validated r2=0.60. Sand, exchangeable K and extractable P however, had the poorest correlations with the spectral peak data. The full spectrum (use of Quant 2 method) provided effective predictions for the individual soil properties: ExCa (r2 =0.86), ExMg (r2 =0.74) and pH (r2 =0.61). The method was also most robust in predicting the first principal component of the soil properties(r 2=0.76). Better models to predict soil condition from spectral metrics are obtained by using the full wavelength range, as opposed to restricting the models to the use of the three peak regions (using the PLS method), using basic peak height and width information related to the key absorption features. The study showed that the full spectrum method was most robust in developing spectral indicators of soil condition in Kenya based on the first principal component of the soil conditions.
Impact of water pollution on Nairobi river, Kenya
(2011-10-24) Kinyanjui, Anne Wanjiru
Nairobi River, like many other rivers in sub-Saharan Africa, is facing serious water pollution problems due to increased discharge of industrial, commercial and domestic effluents into the river system. Extensive literature review has shown that the effects of water pollution on microbial diversity of the river remain largely unknown. Samples were collected from different points along Nairobi River from the months of October 2005 to March 2006 with two aspects in mind: to assess physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics, and macro invertebrates and algal species found within the river. The study was aimed at evaluating the impact of water pollution and bacteria on macro invertebrates and algae in the river. Samples collected were analyzed in the field and in the laboratory. Data obtained was subjected to SPSS statistical analysis. The highest turbidity levels of 11.00, 17.72 and 35.81 NTU and algal counts of 680, 690 and 947 organisms within the river were recorded at Ruai, Mwiki and Kamukunji sampling sites. The water here was dark coloured and murky. Nitrate levels recorded in all stations ranged between 0.031-0.068 mg/1 and did not exceed the specified USEPA, KBS and WHO limits. Naivasha Road and Museum Hill stations marked the beginning of pollution and as the river moved downstream, its status deteriorated even further. Total coliforms investigated along the river exceeded the KBS guidelines with Kamukunji, Mwiki and Ruai stations registering values of 30, 34 and 38 colonies respectively in stagnant waters. The presence of enteric bacteria, such as the coliforms was an indication of serious contamination of Nairobi River. Diversity of benthic organisms in Naivasha, Kamukunji, Mwiki and Ruai sites was low and was mostly dominated by pollution tolerant species from the orders Diptera, Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. Ruai station had the highest number of algae and those collected were 947 in total while the relatively clean water at Ondiri Swamp had the least number of 100 organisms. The increased presence of algae in the river was also an indicator of severe pollution. During the wet season, bacterial colonies in stagnant water increased due to total dissolved solids while those in flowing water were greatly influenced by turbidity. Algal diversity was determined by turbidity, air temperature, total phosphates, nitrates and biochemical oxygen demand. During the dry season, bacteria in stagnant water varied due to biochemical oxygen demand. Algal variation was due to biochemical oxygen demand and nitrate concentrations. It is concluded that field investigations coupled with laboratory analysis of samples obtained from the six sampling stations confirmed gross pollution of Nairobi River. Sustainable use and conservation of freshwater resources, water pollution prevention, institutional capacity building and awareness creation need to be promoted. Data derived from the study as a whole will be useful as it provides important baseline information required for prudent decision making on best development alternatives that incorporate environmental considerations. This data will also be useful to the Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Nairobi Metropolitan Development, National Environment Management Authority and the United Nations Environment Programme among other organizations in the country involved in the work of environmental protection and conservation.
Effects of pollution on the Motoine river dams, Kenya
(2011-10-27) Miheso, Rogan Lawrence; Kerich, Richard Kimutai; Njuguna, Steven G
The study assessed the status of the environment of Motoine River dams in Nairobi area. The main aim of the study was to assess the physical and chemical quality of water in dams with an emphasis on nutrients and heavy metals loading as well as land use and management practices between September and December 2005. This is important because the area forms the catchment for Ngong River and is the main source of water for the Nairobi Dam. The Motoine River is heavily used in the Dagoretti area for irrigation agriculture and other domestic purposes. The water samples were collected from each of the three dams studied, namely, Ngong Forest Station Dam, Karen Dam and Racecourse Dam at points located within transect zones established in the dams. The parameters determined in the field included temperature using mercury glass thermometer, pH using Oaklon 510 series, and electrical conductivity using Jenway Probe model 4075 conductivity meter. The samples were analyzed in the laboratory for turbidity using an Egkelkamp Al 1000 model, and DO and BOD using the Azide modification iodometric method. Water samples for nitrates were digested by steam distillation then measured using an EL 021060 variac spectrophotometer. Total Phosphorus was measured photometrically using model 6300 spectrophotometer. Heavy metals, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Mn and Pb were analyzed by spectroscopic methods using an AAS model AA-1275. They were subjected to statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) for analysis. The results showed that the mean measurements for Karen Dam were 22.9°C for temperature, pH 6.99, turbidity 51.75 NTU, conductivity 325.7 ~IS/cm, DO 5.3mg/l, BOD 37.2 mg/l, Total Phosphorus 0.62 mg/1 and Nitrates 2.17 mg/1. The mean values for heavy metals in the Karen Dam were 0.17 mg/l, 0.009 mg/1, 1.51 mg/1, 0.02 mg/1; 0.09 mg/1 and 0.22 m g/l for Zn, C u, M n, C d, C r and Pb r espectively. For Ngong Forest D am the mean values for temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, DO, BOD, Nitrates and Total Phosphorus were 22.8°C, 7.16, 25.2 NTU, 226.2 ~LS/cm, 4.36 mg/1, 22.7 mg/l, 1.56 mg/1 and 0.24 mg/1 respectively. For Racecourse Dam, the values were 23.6°C, 7.0, 25.15 NTU, 242.4 q6/cm, 5.52 mg/l, 31.1 mg/l, 2.06 mg/1 and 0.26 mg/1 respectively. The mean heavy metals values for Racecourse Dam were 0.09 mg/l, 0.003 mg/l, 1.51 mg/1, 0.004 mg/l, 0.08 mg/1, and 0.35 mg/1 for Zn; Cu, Mn, Cd, Cr, and Pb respectively. The conclusions made in the study are based solely on water analysis. The study shows that the Motoine River dams are experiencing pollution caused by anthropogenic activities in the catchment. Agricultural and municipal run-offs, geo-chemical sources, domestic effluents and leaching of nutrients and sewage are some of the possible sources of pollution in the dams.The findings indicated that the concentrations of copper, cadmium, zinc, total phosphorus and nitrates were generally lower than the KEBS specifications. However, turbidity, Pb, Mn, Cr and BOD were found to pose a health risk since their levels were found to be above KEBS specifications. It is recommended that the use of inorganic fertilizer should be minimized and deforestation be discouraged. There is need t o change the land use practices and apply conservation techniques such as mulching and timely fertilizer applications. There is need to also analyze the sediments so as to make alternative recommendations on how to use the water for domestic chores without posing any risk to human health.
Utillization and Conservation of below-ground Biodiversity in Gatunduri and Kibugu Divisions of Embu District:Analysis of Policy Framework
(Kenyatta University, 2011-10-27) Oduor, C. A.; Samuel C. J.; Ayub M. N.; Okoth P.
Below-ground biodiversity (BGBD) in respect to soil organisms has not been given a specific schedule in the policy and legal framework of Kenya. This omission was mainly due to lack of awareness and appreciation among stakeholders. Soil organisms are useful in the broader aspect of environment and natural resources. In this regard, there is need to safeguard them with a clearly defined and comprehensive policy. Currently, there is no specific policy and legislation in the country that governs the use and conservation of BGBD. The sectoral laws that are supposed to outline the use of BGBD have no such provisions. Such laws are the Agriculture Act, the Plant protection Act, the Forest Act, the Pesticides Control Act, and even the most recently enacted umbrella environmental Act, namely, the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA).This study, therefore, reviewed these pieces of legislation in relation to BGBD. The goal of the study was to contribute to the enhancement of soil biodiversity and sustained utilization of its components in Kenya through an improved policy framework. Two main themes addressed by the study include land use change and intensities and appropriate policy framework for utilization and conservation of soil organisms. Three groups of stakeholders (120 farmers, 30 scientists and 12 research and private institutions dealing with BGBD) were issued with questionnaires to obtain information about their experiences with BGBD. The study with farmers was done in Gatunduri and Kibugu divisions in Embu District while the one with scientists and institutions was done in Nairobi and Embu. Farmers were selected through systematic random sampling so as to obtain diverse views across the two divisions. Scientists and institutions were selected through purposive sampling. Interviews with key informants on specific issues resulted in data analyzed using a Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). Lack of awareness and appreciation of the importance of BGBD among farmers was found to be a dominant factor. It is therefore, important that such farmers are first of all educated before drawing their attention to policy implementation. Scientists and institutions dealing with soil organisms worked without strictly adhering to any guidelines especially in regard to Material Transfer Agreements and Material Acquisition Agreements. This was particularly when they felt that the numbers of BGBD involved in transfers, acquisitions and exchanges were small. BGBD was mainly valued for its use in research rather than for commercial purposes hence BGBD is not appreciated for its values in other aspects of the environment. Most institutions had various articles of the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) to adhere to but were not implementing such guidelines due to lack of clear directives on how to implement the same at national and sectoral levels. This calls for the need for proper domestication of international conventions and treaties to an implementable status. It was also found that some of the relevant Acts of Parliament were formulated without policy documents hence the need to formulate policies first. In this regard, most Acts were reviewed in this study rather than policies. In a nutshell, there is limited knowledge on below-ground biodiversity and its functions among diverse stakeholders. It is therefore, important that such stakeholders are educated first for them to participate in the formulation of a policy that will guard below-ground bioversity.
An evaluation of indigenous knowledge and sustainable pastoral production in arid and semi arid lands:a case of Laikipia district, Kenya
(2011-10-27) Muiruri, Patrick Ngwiri
Whereas Indigenous knowledge Systems (IKS) is a relatively well studied topic in many parts of the world, including Africa, very little research has been undertaken to address its role in human development in East Africa. Furthermore, virtually no research has been conducted on the role of IKS in pastoral production in the Ea,t Africa's Arid and Semi Arid Lands (ASALs). In addition, while pastoral production is increasingly becoming unsustainable in many parts of ASAI,s, the role that IKS can play in mitigating this challenge is not well understood. The purpose of the study w,-Is to investigate the use of Indigenous Knowledge in the communal and commercial ranches in Laikipia District, North Central Kenya, and how it affects food security and livestock production. Specific objectives of the study were: to identify and explain the various indigenous knowledge approaches used by the traditional Maasai pastoralists in anirrtal husbandry, to establish the indigenous knowledge strategies that the commercial private ranches have adopted in resource use and conservation, and to explore productivity and Interchange of strategy and technology between commercial and communal ranches. The overall methodology to the study was qualitative. Case studies and scenario analysis were the main techniques used in the study. These were supplemented by use of semi-structured interviews; life histories, participant observation, specified transect walks, and digitzd photography. Purposive sampling and snowballing was used to identify those who are familiar with specific indigenous knowledge. Community members of three communal ranches and Lolldaiga Commercial Ranch were interviewed. Five key informants gave detailed ethnographic interviews in each case. Descriptive analysis was used to present the results. The various production practices in the communal and commercial ranches were documented. Transhumance based on the availability of fodder and water was seen to be practised in both types of ranches. Ethnoveterinary practices were noted to be strongly evident and practiced in the communal ranches. The communal ranches have adopted use of improved bulls, provision of water and use of modern medicine. The commercial ranches rely on the indigenous knowledge of the herders in disease detection and animal restraining techniques. They rely on the local indigenous herders to carry out cattle and camel herding and milking. They further utilize the traditional Maasai culture of the Boma system in securing the pastoral animals. Both communal and commercial ranches acknowledge that wildlife is part of the ecosystem and is important in maintaining ecological balance. Indigenous knowledge is relevant and can be used to secure food security and be used for environmental conservation. This is seen in the pastoral production systems in both communal and commercial of ranches. Key recommendations include: the need to `retool" indigenous knowledge towards food security and sustaimable pastoral production in communal ranches; diversification of economic opportunities for pastoralists; and boosting of institutions at the local level to help communities maintain access to resources.
Residents' role and perception on solid waste generation and impact on environmental quality in Machakos town, Kenya
(2011-10-27) Masaku, Margaret Kavenge
Improper solid waste disposal associated with high rates of solid waste generation in urban areas in Kenya is alarming. The relative lack of adequate management is associated with rapid urbanization and industrialization without commensurate solid waste disposal facilities. This has resulted in solid waste being dumped in open spaces causing blockage of drainage channels, posing health hazards and damaging aesthetic values of the environment, yet relatively few mitigation measures are in place. Population growth rate in Nairobi has been increasing, on average by about 6 percent per annum, exerting pressure on all facilities planned initially. Consequently, people work i n Nairobi while residing i n nearby towns such as Machakos which is near Athi-River town, an industrial area. This results in population increase in the Municipality. The question is, is the Council aware that, some people seek residence in Machakos town while working elsewhere and is it prepared for the ensuing pressure on its solid waste disposal facilities? To close this gap, this study focuses on solid waste management practices in Machakos town. Specifically, the study sought to classify and determine quantities of solid waste generated; and to explore and assess solid waste disposal methods. Further, solid waste management systems in place were assessed against environmental safety requirements. In the study, 198 respondents were sampled from commercial, service, industrial and residential sectors. Data were also gathered from interviews and discussions with key informants dealing with waste management. Public perception on aspects of waste management was measured by use of Likert type test. Quantities of solid waste from each sector were also assessed. Resulting data were then analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). The study identified 20 types of solid waste, which was be further grouped into 4 categories depending on nature, size and mass. Results indicate that solid waste generated from the urban sectors varied significantly by type (p<0.05, F-test). The extent of solid waste minimization was significant, (p<0.05) that is, in terms of re-use, resell, donation and as feed to domestic animals. The perception of Machakos town residents towards aspects of safe disposal and other management options of solid waste were significant (p<0.05) in influencing its generation and management. The study concluded that the commercial sector generates the highest quantities, 56.83 percent of total solid waste with residential sector generating the least, 7.62 percent, the per capita solid waste being 1.265kgs compared to an average of 1.203kgs in other world studies and that solid waste management practices in Machakos town compliance level with environmental safety requirements of NEMA is at 60 percent. From the study, it is recommended that Machakos town residents be trained on solid waste composting and recycling in order to benefit economically by increasing crop productivity through using the compost manure and selling the recycled products; Machakos Municipality Council to increase trucks for ferrying solid waste from 1 to 3 and personnel from 11 to 20 in order to safely dispose all the SW generated in Machakos town; and that the government of Kenya should further enforce its regulations on waste from plastic materials.

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