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Item Foot and Mouth Disease Circulating and Vaccine-Induced Antibodies and Evaluation of Coconut Water As A Potential Extender on Bull Semen(Kenyatta University, 2024-01) Kavuso, Michael Mutune M.Artificial Insemination (AI) is the single most important technique that employs genetic improvement of cattle for producing quality livestock breeds. Bulls farmed for AI in Kenya are vaccinated against the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD). It is however, not clear if all FMD vaccinated bulls develop immunity against the vaccines. There have been no studies to establish if vaccinated bulls produce semen in parameters within the normal range (as assumed that vaccinated bulls have good semen). In addition, although the FMD in Kenya is known to occur in certain endemic regions while other regions remain nonendemic, there have been no studies carried out to establish if animals in endemic areas develop natural immunity or if animals in the disease- free regions could be seropositive. The present study was aimed at determining the impact of foot and mouth circulating and vaccine-induced antibodies and evaluation of coconut water as a potential extender of bull semen for artificial insemination. The cross-sectional study used bulls specifically farmed for production of semen for AI and therefore, vaccinated against FMD. For a pilot study to establish natural protection against FMD, bulls in both endemic and none endemic regions were used. Antibodies were quantified using virus neutralization test. Semen samples were obtained from FMD vaccinated bulls and analyzed for parameters. Coconut water was evaluated alongside a commercial semen extender to establish its potential for use in semen processing. Data were analyzed using the GraphPad InStat software utilizing one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Kruskal-Wallis test with Tukey and Dunn post-tests respectively. In addition, t-test was used to analyze for intergroup differences while Spearman test was used for correlation analysis. A P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results indicated that in FMD non-endemic region, 23%, 10.3%, 2.6% and 7.7% of the animals had protective levels of antibodies against the FMD virus strains O, A, SAT 1, and SAT 2 respectively with a significantly higher protection conferred by induced by the O strain virus as compared to SAT 1 (P = 0.0124). In the FMD endemic area, all sampled animals showed protection levels at 100%, 100%, 100% and 29% for virus strains O, A, SAT 1, and SAT 2 respectively with the antibody titres showing significant differences (P < 0.05) for all the intergroup analysis except between strains O vs SAT 1 and A vs SAT 1 (P > 0.05). Analysis of semen parameters in FMD vaccinated bulls showed at least two animals from each of the bulls that developed immunity and those that failed to develop immunity to have light creamy or watery semen instead of the normal cream-colored semen. In addition, while most of the semen parameters were within normal values, bulls that failed to develop immunity following vaccination were associated with significantly higher sperm recovery post thawing as compared to animals that seroconverted (P < 0.0001). Comparable sperm recovery rate was obtained from semen processed with coconut water and commercial extender post thawing (P > 0.05). In conclusion, the present findings point to a possible emergence of FMD in disease non-endemic region while most animals in disease prevalent regions have protective levels of virus specific antibodies. In addition, there appears to be some negating effect of FMDV specific antibodies on recovery of sperms post thawing. Furthermore, coconut water appears to perform similarly to commercial semen extender and shows potential as a medium for semen processing. The study recommends surveillance of FMD in disease non-endemic regions and the confirmation of the present findings using large sample sizes in order to make more informed conclusive decisionsItem Physico-Chemical and Microbial Properties of Water from Kiserian Dam and Its Tributaries in Kajiado County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Njiriri, Jaziel KimunyaIn Kenya, water shortages in semi-arid and dry regions, particularly in urban centers, are being reduced by the construction of dams. However, dense populations in such places reduce water quality since there is a greater chance that sources of surface water may be contaminated due to anthropogenic activities. As a result, humans who utilize the water may be exposed to different disease-causing microbial pathogens such as bacteria, protozoans, viruses, and helminthes. Disease outbreaks have been linked to water, particularly in populations living in unhygienic and unsanitary environments. Kiserian water dam is located on the peripheries of Nairobi city in a region with uncontrolled urbanization that exerts pressure on natural resources including the water in the dam. Residents of Kiserian town and the surrounding areas use the water from the Kiserian dam for residential and recreational needs, making it a crucial resource. Despite the importance of the dam as a source of domestic water, the quality of water is not known and whether it is a possible risk for the residents of Kiserian. The objective of this study was to ascertain whether the water complies with global regulatory standards. Samples of water were collected from the dam and the three streams draining into it. At the dam, the samples were collected from the edges of the dam, about 2-3 metres into the dam. This was done all round the dam. Samples from the streams were collected upstream from the dam, at about 10 metres from each collection point. Cumulatively, 60 samples were taken: 30 from the dam and 10 from each of the streams. The samples' physico-chemical characteristics, including temperature, pH, conductivity, and turbidity, were assessed. The results were evaluated in comparison to the WHO and KEBS requirements for drinking water. The microbial quality was determined using the most probable number (MPN) and the presence of E.coli and other pathogenic microbes. To isolate waterborne bacterial pathogens, samples were inoculated in appropriate enrichment and selective media and the recovered bacteria characterized using biochemical tests. The concentration of various heavy metals such as Lead, Cadmium, Chromium Copper and Manganese was determined. Nutrients analyzed in this study included Nitrates, Phosphates and Sulphates. Data was subjected to statistical analysis using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23 and excel computer application packages. The results revealed that water pH in all the sources was within the guidelines stipulated by WHO and KEBS of 6.5 to 8.5 for potable water. Conductivity in stream B with a mean of 2735±27.94 µS/cm exceeded the WHO and KEBS guidelines of 2500µS/cm. Turbidity from all the sources except stream A with a mean of 3.60±1.48 NTU exceeded the WHO and KEBS guidelines of 5 NTU. Microbial analysis gave a high MPN mean of >2400 was recorded in all Stream B and Stream C, while a low mean MPN of 920 was recorded in the dam and stream A. Therefore, basically, none of the water from these sources was safe to drink, as the MPN exceeded the guidelines stipulated by WHO and KEBS of 0 coliforms/100ml of water. Samples were then put in the proper enrichment and selective media for isolating waterborne bacterial pathogens, and the recovered bacteria were then described using the proper biochemical tests. In all the sampling points, lead and cadmium exceeded the WHO and KEBS guidelines of 0.01mg/L and 0.003mg/L respectively. The nutrients levels from all the sources were within the WHO and KEBS guidelines. This study presents baseline information on water quality for Kiserian dam, and can be used in designing appropriate strategies for pollution reduction.Item Effect of Aqueous Tephrosia Purpurea Aerial Extract on Parasite Replication and Inflammatory Response in Plasmodium Berghei Infected Balb/C Mice(Kenyatta University, 2023-04) Wanyaga, Lydia?r::l;::;qu:, [lll‘;c;ll:l‘\::::‘?i“g d‘;slcasclcaus.cd by I’In.v_mozlium [)a.rasilcs to 'pc'nplc living in — >Cadlxt - E,:cng i o wlulwm it causes high mprbldlty and millions of deaths R continue uItem In vitro and in vivo Anti-plasmodial activities of extracts from leucas calostachys and ajuga integrifolia agaist plasmodium falciparum and plasmodium berghei(Kenyatta University, 2019-05) Mubia John MuchiriItem Effects of Grading Frequency on Growth, Intra−Cohort Cannibalism and Economic Benefits of African Catfish (Clarias Gariepinus, Burchell, 1822)(Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Muthoni, Anthony MwangiThe profitability of C. gariepinus still suffers from poor growth performance, low survival and high cases of cannibalism. Attempt that aims at increasing economic benefits must therefore target strategies that decouple link between catfish culture with poor growth survival and cannibalism. This study determined the effects of in pond grading frequency on the growth performance, cannibalism and economic benefits of C. gariepinus in tank culture system. Three treatments designated as G0 (no grading), G2 (grading every 2 weeks) and G4 (grading every four weeks) in a completely randomized design (CRD) was applied in triplicate. The tanks were stocked with 200 fingerlings each. Sampling was conducted weekly to measure length and weight of fish. Mortalities were recorded and dead fish observed under dissecting microscope to ascertain that it is due to cannibalism. An enterprise budget was conducted to determine the economic benefits of grading frequency. The highest weight gain was reported in fish graded every two weeks (50.8 12.42 g), followed by those graded every 4 weeks (41.59 10.27 g), while the lowest weight gain was recorded in fish that were not graded (control) (35.63 10.02 g). Specific growth rate (SGR) was significantly (P < 0.01) highest in fish that were graded every two weeks (8.95 0.08 %day−1) followed by fish graded every four weeks (8.59 0.06 %day−1) while no grading treatment produced the lowest SGR (8.81 0.27b %day−1). There were significant difference in FCR among treatment (F =13.423, df = 2, P < 0.001), where the lowest FCR also occurred in treatment that were graded every two week (1.21 ± 0.13) followed by those graded every four week (1.42 ± 0.24) and lowest in the no grading treatment (1.81 ± 0.23). Changes in fish heterogeneity was observed after day 42 and continued until day 60. The size variation was significantly affected by grading frequency. The mean TL of fish graded every 2 weeks was the highest, followed by grading every four weeks and finally the no grading treatment was the lowest. Fish size heterogeneity (CV% and skewness) was consistently the highest in C. gariepinus in no grading treatment followed by fish where grading was done every four weeks while it was lowest in treatment where grading was done every two weeks. Mortality owing to cannibalism was affected by grading frequency where highest cannibalism mortality occurred in C. gariepinus where there was no grading followed by grading every four weeks and intermediate at grading frequency every four weeks. Meanwhile other mortality by other causes such as such as wounds and suffocation in fish did not differ with grading frequency. Highest total fish yield, net returns above TVC and TC was obtained in treatment where grading was done every 2 weeks. The enterprise budget analysis of grading frequency in the present study indicated that it is economically feasible to culture C. gariepinus when grading was done every four weeks but the best economic returns occur when the grading frequency is done every two weeks.Item Prevalence of Amoebiasis and Associated Risk Factors among Patients Attending Murang’a, Maragua and Githumu Hospitals in Murang’a County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Wekesa, DianaEntamoeba histolytica (EH) is a parasite that causes amoebiasis. It is estimated that worldwide, there are about 50 million cases of amoebiasis out of which between 40,000 and 110,000 deaths occur annually from this infection. In Kenya, amoebiasis is associated with morbidities and mortalities affecting all age categories. Extended studies focusing on disease epidemiology have not been carried out in large parts of the Country despite the public health importance of the disease. The objective of the present study was to establish the prevalence of amoebiasis and disease associated factors in Murang’a County. The study was based on three selected health facilities including Murang’a, Maragua and Githumu hospitals. The study involved both prospective and retrospective approaches in data collection. The retrospective study involved compilation of statistics from medical records for a period from January 2015 to December 2019. The prospective study involved administration of questionnaires to collect data on demographic characteristics and risk factors associated with amoebiasis. In addition, 264 stool samples were collected from study subjects for analysis of prevalence of Entamoeba histolytica cysts and trophozoites through microscopy. Data analysis was carried out using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) utilizing the Chi-Square statistics for association tests. Results indicated that, the average prevalence of amoebiasis in the study was 25.58%. Findings revealed that out of 25143 stool samples that were taken and tested in the three hospitals for five years (2015-2019), 6,349 tested positive giving a prevalence of 25.3%. The use of water from taps by 47.7% of the respondents was thought to be a positive aspect in the efforts to combat E. histolytica. The main risk factors observed were the use of river water by 29.1% of the respondents, and the likely contamination risk of well water used by 6.4% of the respondents. Source of water and water treatment practices were significantly associated with amoebiasis (P = 0.000). Not washing fruits or vegetables before eating them was significantly associated with disease (P = 0.006). In addition, patients experiencing diarrhea, weight loss, nausea or semi-formed stool were significantly associated with amoebiasis (P = 0.000). Based on these findings, the present study concludes that, the prevalence of amoebiasis is high in Murang’a County and that several factors are significantly associated with disease. The study recommends community based health education in order to enlighten the affected population on preventive measures for amoebiasis. Furthermore, provision of safe water to the community by the local government will contribute significantly to disease control.Item Masai Giraffe Population Distribution, Threats, Habitat Suitability and Connectivity in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania(Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Muthiuru, Amos ChegeOver the last three decades, the giraffe population in Africa has experienced a significant decline of nearly 40%, attributed to various threats such as severe poaching for bushmeat, human-wildlife conflicts, diseases, habitat fragmentation, and loss due to the increase in human settlement and associated land use changes and linear infrastructure. To be able to institute and prioritize effective conservation measures for the giraffes, it is necessary to identify population distribution, threat hotspots, suitable habitats, and their connecting corridors especially in multiple use landscapes. This study aimed to characterize Masai giraffe habitat and distribution in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania in the transboundary Tsavo-Mkomazi Landscape: identifying threats, suitable habitats and their linkage zones and population structure distribution under different land uses. Road surveys, ranger patrols, aerial surveys and remotely sensed data were integrated into Google Earth Engine (GEE) to develop species distribution models. The Suitability index obtained from this analysis was used as resistance surface to model landscape connectivity using Circuitscape in Arc GIS 10.5. Threats and location of occurrence were mapped from ranger’s patrol data and road surveys. Group associations were analyzed using SPSS. The results showed that land uses did not influence mean giraffe herd sizes and herd types significantly (p>0.05). However, age composition and herd types were significantly different between conservancies and small-scale farms during the wet season respectively (p<0.05). Poaching was the main threat to Massai giraffes accounting for 49% of total deaths of the identified carcasses in the landscape. Although ranches and conservancies were the most affected by the threats, they remained the least cost paths and corridors of high importance with low resistance to giraffe movement connecting from Mkomazi National Park (Tanzania) to South Kitui National Reserve (Kenya). The potentially suitable giraffe habitat was 15,002 km2 within the landscape with 17% of it being outside protected areas. Capacity building of ranch owners is recommended to address giraffe poaching. Transboundary collaborations, participatory land use planning, spatial planning at County, ranches/conservancy level should be done to ensure corridors and dispersal areas are included in land use planning and integrated with other conservation compatible land use practices to safeguard giraffes in the Tsavo-Mkomazi Landscape. Additionally, equal security measures should be deployed in protected and non protected areas to deter poaching and reclaim South Kitui National reserve. Since climate change mediates Masai giraffe movement and group organization, this study recommends deep understanding of climate impact on the Masai giraffe distribution and future use of the community dominated landscapes and designed underpasses with the major infrastructure in their entire range.Item Effect of Aqueous Tephrosia Purpurea Aerial Extract on Parasite Replication and Inflammatory Response in Plasmodium Berghei Infected Balb/C Mice(Kenyatta University, 2023-04) Wanyaga, Lydia; Michael Muita Gicheru; Faith Apolot OkaleboAbstractItem Prevalence of Endoparasites and Phylogenetics of Ectoparasites Infesting Prawns and Lobsters along the Kenyan Coast(Kenyatta University, 2023-05) Valarie, Silali Nangila; Fredrick Chimoyi Maloba; Thomas Kalama MkareAbstractItem Molecular Detection of Entamoeba Species and Factors Associated with Infection among Diarrhoeal Patients Attending Meru Teaching and Referral Hospital, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-05) Lepore, Caroline Makena; LUCY KAMAU; ESTHER KANDUMAAbstractItem Mangrove Forest Cover and Management Systems in Kilifi County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2023-06) Menza, Khambi Edward; Fredrick Tamooh; Joseph Onyango GweyiAbstractItem Co-Infection of Plasmodium Species with Intestinal Parasites in Children with Fever Aged Ten Years and Below in Kisii County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Gichana, Amwoma Lucas; Joshua Mutiso; Lucy KamauPlasmodium and intestinal parasites are the most prevalent parasites causing diseases in Africa and Asia. These diseases are common among children aged less than 10 years. \(al.ma_and intestinal parasitic infections have an overlapping distributions and nonspecific symptoms. In most cases. fever in children is clinically diagnosed as malaria infection. This diagnosis tends to attract a treatment of malaria alone, and fails w0 treat other possible life threatening diseases like parasitic infections that share common symptoms such as fever with malaria. Thus, the present study was aimed at establishing the prevalence of Plasmodium and intestinal parasites co-infection in children with fever aged 10 years and below in Marzni sub county, Kisii County. A hospital based cross-sectional study was conducted from the month of March to Augus 2018. This study used simple random and systematic sampling method. The sample size was of 389 children drawn from a population who had febrile conditions. secking medication at health facilities and whose parents or guardians had agreed by signing 2 consent form. Data were collected using closed-ended questionnaire. Stool and blood samples were collected for microscopic identification of parasites. Formalin-cther concentration technique was done for stool preparation with saline. iodine and wrichrome stains. Geimsa stain was used for blood slide preparations. Data were analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The present study established that the main complaint by children seeking medication at dispensaries in Marani was fever (89.7%), out of which, 8 1.7% were found to be having fever above 37.5°C. The present study revealed that Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal parasites had a prevalence of 22.8% in children and this co-infection was significantly associated with fever in children (;>=20.78, p=0.000). The study established that the prevalence of Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal protozoa was 21.3% while co-infection between Plasmodium and intestinal helminths was 1.5%. Infections by plasmodium species, intestinal protozoa and intestinal helminth parasites were found to have significant relationship with fever in children (*=100.8, p=0.000), (4?=45.65, p=0.000) and (>=6.418, p=0.017) respectively. The study also revealed that fever was significantly associated with infection by Plasmodium falciparum (£=10.714, p=0.030) or Entamoeba histolytica (57=21.470, p=0.0404). However, according to this study, it was found that neither Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis nor Trichuris trichiura was significantly associated with fever in children (=8.337, p=0.080). Based on these findings, the study concludes that infections by Plasmodium Jalciparum and Entamoeba histolytica are most prevalent at 97.5% and 83.3% respectively in children. Plasmodium specics and intestinal parasites infections are associated with severe fever in children. Therefore, the smdy recommends that clinicians should request both blood and stool samples for laboratory identification of a possible parasitic infection causing fever to a child before treatment to enhance disease management and control.Item Prevalence and Levels of Antibodies to Malaria Vaccine Candidate Antigens in Adult Residents of Western Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Mbayaki, Nelly; Michael Gicheru; Joshua Mutiso; Simon KariukiPlasmodium falciparum remains a leading parasite of great public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa where it is associated with malaria with high morbidity and mortality cases. Communities in malaria endemic regions are frequently exposed to plasmodial infections and gradually develop protective immunity which has been shown in several studies to be mediated in part by antibodies to merozoite antigens. However, poor understanding of the role of these anti-Plasmodium antibodies and their contribution to protective immunity against malaria has hindered the development of an effective vaccine. In addition, few studies have compared antibody levels in immune adults in different regions which have different malaria intensities. The current study aimed at determining anti-malarial [mmunoglobulin gamma (IgG) responses to four P. falciparum merozoite antigens: merozoite-induced surface protein 1 (MSP-1), ‘merozoite-synthesized surface protein 3 (MSP-3), merozoite’s glutamate-rich protein (GLURP) and 2 combination of MSP-3+GLURP in the highland and lowland regions of western Kenya that differ in malaria endemicity. Whole blood samples were collected from 159 immune adults agaed 15 years and above participating in the ongoing blood donation conducted by the Kisumu blood bank. Plasma was separated from whole blood by use of ficoll-paque technique. The prevalence and levels of specific IgG antibodies against the four antigens were established using enzymeimmunoassay (ELISA). Analysis of various data sets was done using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software version 21 software and a P-value less than 0.035 was considered specifically significant. The results showed that the prevalence of IgG antibodies against MSP-1 was significantly higher compared to MSP-3, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP in Western Kenya (p<0.05). The highest antibody levels were against MSP-3 (p<0.001) which was significantly higher compared to MSP-1, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP. There was no significance difference in the prevalence and levels of antibodies between individuals residing in the lowland and highland areas in the four antigen groups (P > 0.05). Based on these findings, this study concludes that there was high prevalence levels of IgG antibodies against the Plasmodium merozoite antigens, MSP-3 and MSP-3 + GLURP, in both Jowland and highland regions in Western Kenya. Future vaccine development therefore, should consider using MSP-3 or MSP-3 + GLURP, as candidate antigens for malaria vaccines development.Item Haematological Profiles and Serum Ige levels AS Tick Resistance Phenotypes upon Tick Infestation in Indicine and Taureen Cattle Breeds(Kenyatta University, 2023-11-15) Ngetich, Collins; Jemimah SimbauniABSTRACT Globally, a population of over 80% of cattle are at risk of tick and tick-borne diseases (TTBDs). In tropical Africa co-infestation with multiple tick species is common leading to mixed infections with tick-borne pathogens and severe clinical outcomes of individual animals and herds. The economic losses from animal mortality and the cost of acaricides and therapeutics demands the incorporation of alternative disease control strategies including the use of tick- resistant cattle breeds. The gold standard method for phenotyping tick resistance in cattle is by counting ticks on the body (partial or whole body). However, tick counting is tedious, require experienced workers and is expensive. Therefore, there is need for alternative methods for phenotyping tick resistance more easily, cheaply, fast and on a large scale. The current study assessed the Immunoglobulin E (IgE) response and haematological cellular profiles as potential phenotypes for tick resistance in Bos indicus (Zebu) and Bos taurus (Friesian and Ayrshire) cattle breeds under experimental infestation with Rhipicephalus decoloratus larvae. Fifty-four taurine and 52 indicine calves were each infested with ~2500 larvae. Replete adult female ticks were counted daily from day 21 to 25 on each animal. Sera blood and whole blood samples were obtained from each animal on day 0 and 23. Serum IgE levels (by ELISA) and total blood counts were measured before and after infestation with pre-infestation IgE levels as baseline. Mean tick count on the two breeds were compared using a paired student t-test. Statistical analysis of the haematological cellular counts, before and after infestation, was tested using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and adjusted with a Tukey post hoc test. Pearson correlation test was used to analyse the relationship between the tick count to haematological cellular count and IgE titers. P≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. The results of tick counts between the two cattle breeds were statistically different (overall mean of 157.3725 ticks on indicine breed and 528.6735 ticks on taurine breed per animal (t=5.424, df=102) (P< 0.0001)). The frequency distribution of tick counts in indicine group showed 91% of the cattle were resistant and 9% moderately resistant, while the taurine breeds, 86% were susceptible whereas 13% were refractory, following artificial application of R. decoloratus. In the parasitized taurine calves, there was significant decrease in white blood cells (P= 0.0045), red blood cells (P=0.0156), haematocrit (P=0.0207), granulocytes (P=0.0139) and lymphocytes (P= 0.0104). The parasitized indicine calves had a significant difference in the mean differential cell count of white blood cells only (P= 0.0012). There was positive correlation between tick count and IgE concentration in taurine breed (P< 0.05). Red blood cells count (and haemoglobin and haematocrit), lymphocytes and IgE profiles. These results underpin the need to deepen the search for a suitable phenotype for cattle host resistance to ticks.Item Evaluation of the Therapeutic Potential of Selected Herbal Plants from Baringo County, Kenya, Against Leishmania Donovani in Balb/C Mice(Kenyatta University, 2023) Mogaka, Maria Divinah; Joshua Mutiso; Micheal GicheruLeishmaniasis is a parasitic infection caused by Leishmania parasites. Conventional chemotherapy remains the primary approach for treating leishmaniasis despite its associated drawbacks, such as high toxicity, frequent relapses, and the need for hospitalization. Conventional drugs are also expensive. Plant-based compounds offer promising alternatives to leishmaniasis treatment because they are effective, affordable, and less associated with toxicity and resistance. This research investigated the therapeutic potential of Warburgia ugandensis, Prunus africana, and Piliostigma thonningii against Leishmania donovani in vitro and in vivo. The anti-promastigote study was done by culturing promastigotes with the test compounds. For the toxicity study, Vero cells were incubated with different concentrations of the test compounds. Serum was obtained from the mice for total immunoglobulin gamma (IgG) quantification. In vivo studies were conducted by infecting the BALB/c mice with virulent Leishmania donovani promastigotes before commencement of treatment with methanolic extracts of Warburgia ugandensis, Prunus africana, and Piliostigma thonningii and control drug, sodium stibogluconate. Treatment with the test compounds significantly reduced the parasite burden. The outcome in the mice treated with plant extracts was comparable to those treated with pentostam (P≥0.05). In the promastigote assay, all the test compounds killed more than half of the promastigotes at the highest concentration (500μg/ml). Warburgia ugandensis, P. thonningii, and P. africana reduced the number of promastigotes from 2.0 x 106 to 7.7 x 103, 72.0 x 103, and 5.0 x 103, respectively. Sodium stibogluconate had the lowest IC50 (210 μg/ml), followed by Warburgia ugandensis (IC50 of 270μg/ml). Piliostigma thonningii and P. africana exhibited lower toxicity, with IC50 values of 720 μg/ml and 500 μg/ml, respectively. Treatment with the plant extracts resulted in low production of IgG antibodies, while the untreated control group showed higher IgG levels. Antileishmanial IgG antibody levels did not differ significantly with body weight changes. However, there was a strong significant correlation between levels of IgG antibodies and parasite numbers, indicating a possibility of the potential use of IgG levels in determining disease severity. Based on these results, the study concludes that Warburgia ugandensis, Prunus africana, and Piliostigma thonningii are safe and have antileishmanial activity against L. donovani. The study recommends the extrapolation of the present results in non-human primate disease model before clinical use of the compounds.Item Prevalence and Levels of Antibodies to Malaria Vaccine Candidate Antigens in Adult Residents of Western Kenya(kenyatta university, 2023) Mbayaki, Nelly; Michael Gicheru; Joshua Mutiso; Simon KariukiPlasmodium falciparum remains a leading parasite of great public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa where it is associated with malaria with high morbidity and mortality cases. Communities in malaria endemic regions are frequently exposed to plasmodial infections and gradually develop protective immunity which has been shown in several studies to be mediated in part by antibodies to merozoite antigens. However, poor understanding of the role of these anti-Plasmodium antibodies and their contribution to protective immunity against malaria has hindered the development of an effective vaccine. In addition, few studies have compared antibody levels in immune adults in different regions which have different malaria intensities. The current study aimed at determining anti-malarial Immunoglobulin gamma (IgG) responses to four P. falciparum merozoite antigens: merozoite-induced surface protein 1 (MSP-1), merozoite-synthesized surface protein 3 (MSP-3), merozoite’s glutamate-rich protein (GLURP) and a combination of MSP-3+GLURP in the highland and lowland regions of western Kenya that differ in malaria endemicity. Whole blood samples were collected from 159 immune adults agaed 15 years and above participating in the ongoing blood donation conducted by the Kisumu blood bank. Plasma was separated from whole blood by use of ficoll-paque technique. The prevalence and levels of specific IgG antibodies against the four antigens were established using enzyme-immunoassay (ELISA). Analysis of various data sets was done using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software version 21 software and a P-value less than 0.05 was considered specifically significant. The results showed that the prevalence of IgG antibodies against MSP-1 was significantly higher compared to MSP-3, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP in Western Kenya (p<0.05). The highest antibody levels were against MSP-3 (p<0.001) which was significantly higher compared to MSP-1, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP. There was no significance difference in the prevalence and levels of antibodies between individuals residing in the lowland and highland areas in the four antigen groups (P > 0.05). Based on these findings, this study concludes that there was high prevalence levels of IgG antibodies against the Plasmodium merozoite antigens, MSP-3 and MSP-3 + GLURP, in both lowland and highland regions in Western Kenya. Future vaccine development therefore, should consider using MSP-3 or MSP-3 + GLURP, as candidate antigens for malaria vaccines development.Item Aflatoxin Detection Rate Using Urine Immunoassay and Compliance Level with Control Strategies among Makueni Residents Attending the County Hospital(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Buuri, Kaburia Martin; Michael Gicheru; Joshua MutisoAflatoxicosis is caused by Aflatoxins. The pathogenic fungi responsible are A. parasiticus and A. flavus that contaminate foods such as maize, rice, groundnuts, sorghum, wheat, millet and cassava among others. Aflatoxins mainly cause health issues that target the liver with fatal consequences. Aflatoxin toxicity range from acute to chronic and disease severity depends on age, diet, nutrition quality, extent of exposure, pre-existing health issues and gender. Preventive strategies are mainly focused on proper pre- and post-harvest food handling especially cereals. Aflatoxicosis is highly prevalent in the eastern region of Kenya despite the existence of preventive measures. The present study was carried out in Makueni County at the County referral hospital, which was selected purposively because it had the highest death rate during the 2004 aflatoxin-poisoning outbreak. The study aimed at establishing the detection level of aflatoxicosis using the Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) urine immunoassay as well as evaluating the level of compliance to the aflatoxin preventive strategies put in place and challenges associated with control of aflatoxicosis by residents of Makueni County. A cross-sectional design was chosen for the study in which one hundred and six volunteers took part. Data were obtained via questionnaires and urine samples were analyzed for presence of Aflatoxin using Aflatoxin M1 immunoassay. Collected data were entered into an excel worksheet and later analyzed using SPSS version 20 with a P value considered significant at < 0.05. Results showed that 99.1% of study participants had AFM1 in the range of 25-2337 pg./ml, with a mean concentration of 637.6 ± 512.7. Notably, majority (n=82; 77.4%) of the residents knew the negative effects of aflatoxin on their health. Additionally, the sampled residents had a compliance rate of 72.6% (n=77) while 26.4 % were not compliant to mitigation measures put in place to minimize aflatoxin contamination. At the baseline, while 67.9% of the residents indicated that handling of cereals hygienically and using proper means to dry and store their farm produce, 1.9% reported that smoking of cereals was the most effective means to prevent aflatoxin contamination. It was concerning that, 29.2% of the residents did not know which method of cereal handling was the most effective in controling aflatoxins. The study concludes that the present prevalence of aflatoxicosis in Makueni County is high despite high rate of compliance with aflatoxins preventive measures. The study recommends further research to be carried out on better aflatoxins preventive methods and the residents to be educated on proper application of mitigation strategies in order to achieve effective control of aflatoxicosis.Item Co-Infection of Plasmodium Species with Intestinal Parasites in Children with Fever Aged Ten Years and Below at Marani Sub County, Kisii County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023) Gichana, Amwoma Lucas; Joshua Mutiso; Lucy KamauABSTRACT Plasmodium and intestinal parasites are the most prevalent parasites causing diseases in Africa and Asia. These diseases are common among children aged less than 10 years. Malaria and intestinal parasitic infections have an overlapping distributions and nonspecific symptoms. In most cases, fever in children is clinically diagnosed as malaria infection. This diagnosis tends to attract a treatment of malaria alone, and fails to treat other possible life threatening diseases like parasitic infections that share common symptoms such as fever with malaria. Thus, the present study was aimed at establishing the prevalence of Plasmodium and intestinal parasites co-infection in children with fever aged 10 years and below in Marani sub county, Kisii County. A hospital based cross-sectional study was conducted from the month of March to August 2018. This study used simple random and systematic sampling method. The sample size was of 389 children drawn from a population who had febrile conditions, seeking medication at health facilities and whose parents or guardians had agreed by signing a consent form. Data were collected using closed-ended questionnaire. Stool and blood samples were collected for microscopic identification of parasites. Formalin-ether concentration technique was done for stool preparation with saline, iodine and trichrome stains. Geimsa stain was used for blood slide preparations. Data were analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The present study established that the main complaint by children seeking medication at dispensaries in Marani was fever (89.7%), out of which, 81.7% were found to be having fever above 37.5oC. The present study revealed that Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal parasites had a prevalence of 22.8% in children and this co-infection was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=20.78, p=0.000). The study established that the prevalence of Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal protozoa was 21.3% while co-infection between Plasmodium and intestinal helminths was 1.5%. Infections by plasmodium species, intestinal protozoa and intestinal helminth parasites were found to have significant relationship with fever in children (χ²=100.8, p=0.000), (χ²=45.65, p=0.000) and (χ²=6.418, p=0.017) respectively. The study also revealed that fever was significantly associated with infection by Plasmodium falciparum (χ²=10.714, p= 0.030) or Entamoeba histolytica (χ²=21.470, p=0.0404). However, according to this study, it was found that neither Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis nor Trichuris trichiura was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=8.337, p=0.080). Based on these findings, the study concludes that infections by Plasmodium falciparum and Entamoeba histolytica are most prevalent at 97.5% and 83.3% respectively in children. Plasmodium species and intestinal parasites infections are associated with severe fever in children. Therefore, the study recommends that clinicians should request both blood and stool samples for laboratory identification of a possible parasitic infection causing fever to a child before treatment to enhance disease management and control.Item Co-Infection of Plasmodium Species with Intestinal Parasites in Children with Fever Aged Ten Years and below at Marani Sub County, Kisii County, Kenya(kenyatta university, 2023-10) Amwoma, Lucas Gichana; Joshua Mutiso; Lucy KamauPlasmodium and intestinal parasites are the most prevalent parasites causing diseases in Africa and Asia. These diseases are common among children aged less than 10 years. Malaria and intestinal parasitic infections have an overlapping distributions and nonspecific symptoms. In most cases, fever in children is clinically diagnosed as malaria infection. This diagnosis tends to attract a treatment of malaria alone, and fails to treat other possible life threatening diseases like parasitic infections that share common symptoms such as fever with malaria. Thus, the present study was aimed at establishing the prevalence of Plasmodium and intestinal parasites co-infection in children with fever aged 10 years and below in Marani sub county, Kisii County. A hospital based cross-sectional study was conducted from the month of March to August 2018. This study used simple random and systematic sampling method. The sample size was of 389 children drawn from a population who had febrile conditions, seeking medication at health facilities and whose parents or guardians had agreed by signing a consent form. Data were collected using closed-ended questionnaire. Stool and blood samples were collected for microscopic identification of parasites. Formalin-ether concentration technique was done for stool preparation with saline, iodine and trichrome stains. Geimsa stain was used for blood slide preparations. Data were analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The present study established that the main complaint by children seeking medication at dispensaries in Marani was fever (89.7%), out of which, 81.7% were found to be having fever above 37.5oC. The present study revealed that Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal parasites had a prevalence of 22.8% in children and this co-infection was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=20.78, p=0.000). The study established that the prevalence of Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal protozoa was 21.3% while co-infection between Plasmodium and intestinal helminths was 1.5%. Infections by plasmodium species, intestinal protozoa and intestinal helminth parasites were found to have significant relationship with fever in children (χ²=100.8, p=0.000), (χ²=45.65, p=0.000) and (χ²=6.418, p=0.017) respectively. The study also revealed that fever was significantly associated with infection by Plasmodium falciparum (χ²=10.714, p= 0.030) or Entamoeba histolytica (χ²=21.470, p=0.0404). However, according to this study, it was found that neither Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis nor Trichuris trichiura was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=8.337, p=0.080). Based on these findings, the study concludes that infections by Plasmodium falciparum and Entamoeba histolytica are most prevalent at 97.5% and 83.3% respectively in children. Plasmodium species and intestinal parasites infections are associated with severe fever in children. Therefore, the study recommends that clinicians should request both blood and stool samples for laboratory identification of a possible parasitic infection causing fever to a child before treatment to enhance disease management and control.Item Efficacy of fabric panels impregnated with metarhizium anisopliae against adult glossina fuscipes fuscipes in Manga and Magare islands, lake Victoria, Kenya(Kenyatta university, 2022-06) Riithi, Naomi Nyambura; Elizabeth D. Kokwaro; Michael N. OkalTsetse flies (Glossina sp.) transmit parasites of the genus Trypanosoma that cause Human African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) in man and Animal African trypanosomiasis in livestock and wildlife. African Trypanosomiasis is a devastating tropical disease that is endemic to 38 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Integrated management of tsetse flies using pyrethroid insecticides has been the mainstay of trypanosomiasis control. Vector control and disease treatment have led to drastic declines in the incidence of sleeping sickness, hence, the World Health Organization set a goal to eliminate the disease by 2030. Despite this progress, African trypanosomiasis still impacts substantial health and economic burden in less fortunate communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is, therefore, a need for supplementary vector control strategies which are cost-effective and easy to maintain to fight this disease. The entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae has been effective in reducing tsetse flies longevity and overall vectorial capacity, while being cost-effective and easy to deploy. This study evaluated the efficacy of fabric panels impregnated with M. anisopliae against adults of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes in Manga and Magare islands of Lake Victoria in Kenya. Baseline studies were conducted to determine the existence of natural M. anisopliae using molecular analysis tools. For eight days, between 9.00 - 12.00 h, tsetse flies were sampled with four biconical traps and four targets with adhesives set 1m from the lakeshore at intervals of 200 m. Tsetse flies trapped were screened for naturally occurring M. anisopliae DNA. To compare the capacity of polyester, cotton and fleece fabrics to retain fungal conidia, panels were made by sewing 25 cm × 25 cm of each on pthalogen blue cotton fabric. Three replicates of each panel were treated with 0.1 g/cm2 of conidia and suspended 10 cm from the ground for fifteen days. Every 24 hours, conidia were sampled on three random points of each fabric and quantified. Electrocuting nets were used to estimate the attraction and landing rate of tsetse flies on panels with conidia doses of 0.25 – 1.00 g. The effectiveness of the fabric panels to disseminate lethal dosages of M. anisopliae to tsetse flies were evaluated by setting five panels treated with conidia dosage of 0.25 g in Manga Island. Five untreated panels in Magare island served as control. Tsetse flies were collected using biconical traps on each island and maintained on rabbit blood in the tsetse fly insectary. Dead flies were placed on petri dishes with dump paper towels and observed for mycosis after 5 days. Counts of tsetse flies and conidia were analysed in R packages using the zero-inflated generalised linear models and mortality rates estimated with Kaplan-Meier models. A total of 2,415 Glossina fuscipes fuscipes were trapped with 3.7 times (95 % Confidence Interval (CI) 2.8 - 4.9 flies, p>0.01) more tsetse flies were trapped in Manga Island than Magare island. There was zero detection of naturally occurring M. anisopliae DNA in the trapped tsetse flies. Fleece fabrics retained seven times (95 % CI: 5.6 - 8.8 times, p<0.01) more conidia than polyester and 1.2 times (95 % CI: 1.0 – 1.5 times, p=0.04) more than cotton fabrics. Incorporation of 1 g of conidia to panels reduced the landing rate of tsetse flies by 60 % (95 % CI: 30 – 70 %, p<0.01). Significantly fewer tsetse flies attempted to land on panels with conidia doses of 0.5 g and 1.0 g (p<0.05). Female tsetse flies were more affected by the colour change on the treated fabric panels. The prevalence of M. anisopliae on tsetse flies increased steadily to 24 % and 16.7 % in Manga and Magare islands respectively over three weeks. This study demonstrates that fabric panels made from fleece fabric and treated with 0.25 g of M. anisopliae conidia can effectively contaminate G. f. fuscipes in the field with the entomopathogen. With further optimization, the prototype can be developed into an effective large scale vector control tool.