MST-Zoological Sciences

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Accidents as an occupational health problem - a case of Babadogo industrial area Nairobi - Kenya
(2012-02-28) Otieno, Samwel Boaz
An investigation of occupational accidents among factory workers was carried out in Babadogo Industrial Area in carried out in Babadogo Industrial Area in Ruaraka -Nairobi, between September 1998 and December 1998. In this cross sectional study a total of 300 workers were interviewed in 18 factories selected randomly. The data was coded and analyzed by Statistical Programme for Social Scientists (SPSS) (1998) program. It was shown that 93% of the factories in Babadogo Industrial Area were in general consumer and service manufacturing category (P < 0.001) with most of the workers (83.33%) being males (P < 0.001) and only 58.4% having post secondary and primary school training. The investigation also revealed that up to 47.2% of respondents have had occupational accidents in the previous twelve months under study. Of the injured workers 45.4% have only had accidents once while 2.8% have had accidents at least 15 times or more (P < 0.001). At least 38% of the injured workers did not report accidents to their employers. It was also shown that there was a strong association between the causes of accidents and occupations (P < 0.001) with handling objects being responsible for 39.6% of all accidents. Accidents rates were also shown to vary with experience (P < 0.025) with most accidents. (51.2%) occurring in those who have worked for 5 years or less. Within each occupation type accident rates were varied with most accidents affecting machine operators. The differences in accident rates of different occupations was found to be significant (P < 0.001). It is also shown that accidents rates vary with time of the day with peaks at 12.00 noon (18.1%) and at 3.00 p.m. (21.0%), however there was no significant differences, in the rates between morning and afternoons (P > 0.05). The investigation also revealed that accident rates varied with day of the week with most accidents, (24.4%) occurring on Wednesday. The variation was also shown to occur by the month with most accidents (22.5%) occurring in the month of August. Investigation also showed significant variation in several aspects of safety standards (P < 0.001) housekeeping standards (P < 0.001) and presence of several physical and chemical hazards within the work environment, details of which are given in the text. This study revealed that handling objects; hand tools and power driven machinery caused most of accidents. Much attention should therefore be focused towards these causes in order to reduce accidents. If further revealed that machine operators had higher rate of injuries compared to other occupations hence much attention should be given focused on training and improvement of production on machinery in order to reduce accidents. It was also shown that a significant number of workers had low level of education hence attention should be given to training of workers, as this could be a contributing factor in accident causation as most of the workers injured were machine operators hence the employees should be involved in ergonomic design were of machine. Much attention in form of education of workers should be given to particular time of machines. Much attention in form of education of workers should be given to particular time of day (12 noon) and (3.00 p.m.) and to Wednesdays, as most accidents tended to occur during that time. Housekeeping standards, safety standards and chemical and physical hazards level were shown to be the significant factors, hence much attention should also be focused in work environment improvement as this could reduce the number of accidents.
Adaptation of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for determination of diminazene aceturate in goat serum and tissue residues of animals
(2011-11-08) Karanja, Wycliff Maina
The importance of food safety through the reduction of residues in our food supply cannot be overemphasized. Food safety remains a major challenge confronting contemporary society. Analytical methods are needed to generate the data on which dietary exposure assessments are based and to enforce statutory maximum residue limits (MRLs) that are set. Diminazene aceturate is one of the few drugs used for animal trypanosomosis. Because of it's wide use in livestock, the risk of unwanted residues in edible products may exist. A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for determination of diminazene residues in edible animal tissues after extraction in 0.1 M borax at pH 9.7 was investigated. The assay used rabbit anti-diminazene polyclonal antibody on the solid phase support. Horseradish peroxidase-labeled diminazene was incubated with sample overnight at 4°C. After five washes with buffer enzyme activity was determined by adding tetramethyl-benzidine and hydrogen peroxide as substrate. The resulting blue colour whose intensity was inversely proportional to the drug concentration changed to yellow when the reaction was stopped by addition of 0.1 M orthophosphoric acid. The assay was optimized and validated for determination of diminazene in tissues. The assay exhibited high specificity (99.997%) for diminazene recognizing only isometamidium at 0.003% and this may be contributed by the amidinophenyl that is common in both drugs. Recoveries from spiked tissues were above 77% while Dilutional parallelism experiments demonstrated a recovery of 96.0% ± 9.5%. The limit of detection (LOD) for the assay was 2.4ng/g for muscle, 2.5ng/g for liver and 2.2ng/g for kidney while limits of quantification (LOQ) were 5.51 ng/g, 4.11 ng/g and 3.74 ng/g respectively. The LODs are 4.4x103 to 3.5xl03 lower than the MRLs that are 500mg/kg, 12,000m/kg and 6,000mg/kg of muscle liver and kidney respectively. Assay precision was characterized by a within assay coefficient of variation (CV) of 2.4% and between assays CV of 15.5%. When diminazene was administered intramuscularly at 3.5mg/kg to five goats that were sacrificed seven days later, the mean diminazene residue levels were 0.75mg/g±0.14mg/g for skeletal muscle, 32.05mg/g±5.7mg/g for liver and 4.29mg/g±0.66mg/g for kidney. The analysis of tissue samples collected from slaughterhouses around Nairobi showed that out of 35 muscle samples, only one was positive and had a diminazene concentration of 0.039 !ig/g. Four out of 32 kidney samples were positive for diminazene with levels of 0.63, 1.66, 2.61 and 3.96mg/g. From ten liver samples two were positive with levels of 1.07 and 1.74pg/g. From this analysis none of the positive samples had levels above the MRL values. This study has demonstrated that competitive ELISA can be employed for the determination of diminazene residues. The results of this study are relevant to food scientists, toxicologists and analysts working in the area of detection and safety assessment of food residues, companies developing veterinary drugs, regulatory bodies involved in safety assessment of veterinary drugs and residue monitoring and to regulatory bodies responsible for veterinary drugs registration.
Aflatoxin Detection Rate Using Urine Immunoassay and Compliance Level with Control Strategies among Makueni Residents Attending the County Hospital
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Buuri, Kaburia Martin; Michael Gicheru; Joshua Mutiso
Aflatoxicosis is caused by Aflatoxins. The pathogenic fungi responsible are A. parasiticus and A. flavus that contaminate foods such as maize, rice, groundnuts, sorghum, wheat, millet and cassava among others. Aflatoxins mainly cause health issues that target the liver with fatal consequences. Aflatoxin toxicity range from acute to chronic and disease severity depends on age, diet, nutrition quality, extent of exposure, pre-existing health issues and gender. Preventive strategies are mainly focused on proper pre- and post-harvest food handling especially cereals. Aflatoxicosis is highly prevalent in the eastern region of Kenya despite the existence of preventive measures. The present study was carried out in Makueni County at the County referral hospital, which was selected purposively because it had the highest death rate during the 2004 aflatoxin-poisoning outbreak. The study aimed at establishing the detection level of aflatoxicosis using the Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) urine immunoassay as well as evaluating the level of compliance to the aflatoxin preventive strategies put in place and challenges associated with control of aflatoxicosis by residents of Makueni County. A cross-sectional design was chosen for the study in which one hundred and six volunteers took part. Data were obtained via questionnaires and urine samples were analyzed for presence of Aflatoxin using Aflatoxin M1 immunoassay. Collected data were entered into an excel worksheet and later analyzed using SPSS version 20 with a P value considered significant at < 0.05. Results showed that 99.1% of study participants had AFM1 in the range of 25-2337 pg./ml, with a mean concentration of 637.6 ± 512.7. Notably, majority (n=82; 77.4%) of the residents knew the negative effects of aflatoxin on their health. Additionally, the sampled residents had a compliance rate of 72.6% (n=77) while 26.4 % were not compliant to mitigation measures put in place to minimize aflatoxin contamination. At the baseline, while 67.9% of the residents indicated that handling of cereals hygienically and using proper means to dry and store their farm produce, 1.9% reported that smoking of cereals was the most effective means to prevent aflatoxin contamination. It was concerning that, 29.2% of the residents did not know which method of cereal handling was the most effective in controling aflatoxins. The study concludes that the present prevalence of aflatoxicosis in Makueni County is high despite high rate of compliance with aflatoxins preventive measures. The study recommends further research to be carried out on better aflatoxins preventive methods and the residents to be educated on proper application of mitigation strategies in order to achieve effective control of aflatoxicosis.
Age related mating behaviour and bioassay of the synthetic sex pheromone of the spotted stem borer, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
(2012-05-04) Njogu, Florence Njeri
The influence of age on the mating behaviour of Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) was investigated. The observations on the behaviour of 0-, 1-, and 3-day-old months were carried out to ascertain if any changes occurred relative to age in attractiveness of the females and in the responsiveness of the males. The results showed that males were more attracted to 0-day old females than to 3-day old ones. No difference in attractiveness was found between 0- and 1-day old females. 0-day old males were found to have a significantly lower responsiveness to the females than both 1- and 3-day old ones. However, although 3-day old males were more responsive than 1-day old ones, this difference was not found to be significant. Observations of the mating behaviour of the moths showed that there were quantitative differences in the behaviour of 0-day old males and 3-day old ones. 0-day old males were found to spend the largest proportion of the time passive and only very few of them copulated by the end of the observation period. On the other hand, 3-day old males spent a relatively smaller proportion of the time passive and most of them had mated by the end of the observation period. No significant differences were detected between the behaviour of the laboratory reared and the field collected insects. The effect of proximity of release points of the two pheromone components (Z)-11-hexadecenal and (Z)-11-hexadecen-1-ol of the female moth were investigated. Separating the dispensers of the two components by a mere 3 cm resulted in a significant change in the male behaviour and a decrease in the bait performance as compared to the dispensers with the two components dispensed close to each other. A study to establish the effect of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) on the response of the male C. partellus to the synthetic blend of the sex pheromone of the female showed that PVC does not inhibit male response to the pheromone. It was found, however, that the PVC dispenser loaded with the alcohol was inferior in its performance to the filter paper dispenser loaded with the same and this could possibly be attributed to a lower release rate of the alcohol by PVC.
Agronomic and Rodent Pests Management by Maize Farmers in Rongai Division, Nakuru County
(2013-03-21) Mutinda, Anna Mukunya
Rodent damage to maize and other cereal crops is a chronic problem to Kenyan farmers and occasional outbreaks are reported. According to a report by the Ministry of Agriculture in the year 2008, damage of between 1 and 5 % are common but damages of 20-100 % have also been recorded. In this study, a survey was carried out in Rongai Division, a cereal growing region in the Kenyan Rift Valley, to identify the general crop husbandry and farm enterprises, knowledge on problem rodents, farmers' perception of the rodent pest problem and their management practices amongst the small-holders. The data was collected using a structured questionnaire administered to 278 farmers in RongaiDivision, Nakuru District. The structured questionnaire was based on three broad areas including agronomic practices, rodent pest problems and their control and farmer background information. Slightly over half (56.6%) of the farming population owned less than 5 acres and only 14 (5.1%) of the interviewed farmers owned more than 20 acres. The age of the respondents ranged between 18 and 90 years and averaged 43 years. Maize was grown by over 91 % of the farmers either for subsistence (48.8%) or for both subsistence and cash (49.~%). Weeding was manually done (92.4%) and 62.2% of the respondents weeded twice before harvesting the crop. The main mode of harvesting maize was cutting and 'stooking' (68.5%). Farmers described the rodent pests problem as a regular (65.7%) or an occasional (30.6%) phenomenon. Maize was damaged at all phenological stages and most damage occurred in the fields 53.6% and stores 39.2%. Control was done individually (94.2%) by use of chemicals (26.6%), cats and dogs (63%) and varying combination of other methods (10.4%). Control measures were undertaken only when rodent signs were seen (41.8%) or when damage was obvious (21.7%). Acute rodenticides were used because of the perceived efficacy (58.1%). Rodent control was considered as a very important (49%) or just important (45.2%) practice, Farmers preferred to continue controlling the rodents individually (46.5%) although some suggested group (21.9%) control. Information on rodent control was largely obtained from the neighbours (44.2%). The agro-vet stockists (20.9%), radio (14.0%) and agricultural extension agents (11.6%), respectively, also contributed to such knowledge. Perceived maize crop losses to rodents was moderate (65.1%) to very severe (22.3%) yet some (12.6%) farmers reported they experienced no loss. However, there was no significant difference in severity of losses with different methods of harvesting maize (X2 = 5.320, P = 0.256). Occurrences of damage of ripened crop were more frequent (66.1%) under cut and 'stook' than other modes of harvest. Rodents were also ranked high (75%) as pests amongst the farmers who were using the cut and stook method. Thus, other modes of harvest (e.g. Cut and curry, direct removal of cobs) should be encouraged. Most farmers expressed need for control to be a continuous process, protecting the crop at all stages. Thus, there is a need to train farmers on an integrated approach to rodent pests control. It is also important to conduct research on some of the control methods identified by the farmers to check for possibility of recommending and up-scaling the same.
Analysis of genetic diversity of schistosoma mansoni in Kenya using microsatellite markers
(2011-12-19) Agola, Lelo Eric
Schistosomes (or bloodflukes) are digenetic trematodes in the family Schistosomatidae that normally parasitize birds and mammals, and utilize aquatic snails as intermediate hosts. Bloodflukes in the genus Schistosoma are responsible for causing human schistosomiasis, a parasitic disease of major public health importance, afflicting over 200 million people worldwide, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. Although three main schistosome species namely, Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, and S. japonicum cause human schistosomiasis, in Africa, S. mansoni is the most widespread, and probably the most important schistosome species afflicting human populations. It has been observed that there is a substantial amount of phenotypic variation in Schistosoma species. Genetic heterogeneity of schistosomes may contribute to the frequently observed phenotypic variations in parasite biological characteristics such as infectivity, virulence or drug response. This work was undertaken in order to help in the development of accurate means of fluke identification at any life-stage. In order to achive this, a thorough knowledge of their population genetic structures is needed to facilitate control/eradication efforts. Being both phenotypically and selectively neutral, microsatellites for developing a genetic analysis assay and studying the genetic structures of a range of schistosome species was investigated. Five microsatellite loci were used to study the level of genetic diversity of 7 populations in S mansoni obtained from 7 different endemic localities in Kenya. Genomic DNA from individuals in the different parasite populations was amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the amplification products sequenced using the ABI 377 sequencer. A total of 416 individual worms were genotyped across the five loci. All the five loci were highly polymorphic, with the mean number of alleles per parasite population ranging from 11 to 43. The expected heterozygosity (HE) ranged from 0.4978 to 0.7944 while the observed heterozygosity (Ho) values ranged from 0.5896 to 0.7874 in all the populations. None of the S. mansoni populations studied were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The pairwise FST values for the seven populations studied were moderately high 0.084 - 0.210 (P < 0.01) indicating genetic differentiation between the populations. The genetic distances, DA and standard genetic distances Ds between the seven populations were high (0.275 - 0.546 for the (DA) distances and 0.334 - 1.075 for the (Ds) distances). Phylogenetic trees constructed using the genetic distance values showed a clustering pattern that did not relate to geographic origin of the populations investigated. This study concludes that populations of S. mansoni in Kenya are remarkably diverse genetically, but geographical location may not be a major factor in the observed diversity.
Analysis of Phytochemicals and Anti-Plasmodial Activities of Extracts from Harrisonia Abyssinica, Leucas Calostachys and Rubia Cordifolia against Plasmodium Falciparum
(Kenyatta University, 2018-12) Magara, Jeremiah
Malaria is the commonest parasitic disease that continues to cause considerable number of deaths despite the fact that it is treatable and preventable. In 2016, nearly 3.2 billion persons were at risk of malaria and a total of 216 million cases occurred occasioning deaths of approximately 445 thousand people worldwide with majority of the affected being children below five years of age. These numbers are high for a disease which is treatable and preventable. Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest human malaria parasite has become resistant to nearly all antimalarials previously used and its drug resistant strains have shown rapid extension thus complicating the fight against malaria. As such there is need for continuous search for new medicines. Studies on plants traditionally used for the treatment of malaria presents one of the most viable strategies of developing new and effective antimalarial drugs. This study evaluated the in vitro effects of crude extracts obtained from Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv., Leucas calostachys Oliv. and Rubia cordifolia L. frequently used in the herbal management of malaria and other infections among the Maasai community in Transmara West sub-county. Aqueous, methanol and hexane extracts were assessed against two Plasmodium falciparum strains namely, Plasmodium falciparum W2, (Chloroquine resistant) and Plasmodium falciparum 3D7, Chloroquine sensitive. The parasite strains were cultured in malaria laboratory at the Institute of Primate Research (IPR). The in vitro effects of the extracts on the parasite strains were evaluated in 12x8 flat bottom wells and sterile microtitre plates. All bioassays were performed in triplicate at eight concentrations ranging between 50μg/ml and 0.4μg/ml. The set-up were then kept in an incubator maintained at 37ºC for 48 hours before harvesting and parasitaemia determined microscopically from thin Giemsa-stained slides. IC50 values for the crude plant extracts were graphically determined from dose-response curves. Data was analyzed by ANOVA, student t-test and correlation analysis using Graph pad prism version 5.0. All p < 0.05 values were considered significant. All the three plants were shown to have antimalarial activity with Rubia cordifolia L. Hexane extract being the most active (IC50 =0.5517 μg/ml) against chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum, W2. This same extract was effective against CQ-sensitive strain with IC50 value of 2.747μg/ml. Qualitative phytochemistry on the extracts revealed bioactive compounds being present including Alkaloids, Terpenoids and Flavonoids among others. These results indicate that the plant extracts possess antiplasmodial activity. It therefore confirms the antimalarial properties of the three medicinal plants. The study recommended isolation, identification and characterization of compounds and toxicity studies on extracts from the plants to act as lead molecules in the manufacture of effective antimalarial drugs.
Analysis of the utilization of food resources by the african wood mouse hylomyscus denniae endorobae (rodentia: muridae) from Ihururu forest, Kenya
(2014) Ombongi, Joyce
Hylomyscus denniae endorobae is a rodent important in ecosystems as predator, prey, seed disperser, determinant of forest tree growth and structure as well as a contributor to biodiversity which subsequently plays a role in natural livelihood and national development. Fragmentation of tropical rain forest continues to pose a serious threat to species diversity, which leads to decreased natural income, primary production and general breakdown of an ecosystem. This in turn influences food resources and energy available to animals such as H. d. endorobae. With habitat destruction, H. d. endorobae will get to human habitat, destroy stored seed crops and transmit diseases. Evaluating gut morphology changes in response to different diets gives an insight into how animals can survive with changes in the natural habitat. The study was done to evaluate how H. d. endorobae adapts to different diets in the face of food scarcity in order to make informed decisions on conservation of the species. The purpose of this study was to analyze utilization of food resources by H. d. endorobae. Thirty male rodents (H. d. endorobae) weighing between 35-50g were trapped from Ihururu forest in Nyeri, Kenya, one of the natural habitats of the rodent species experiencing a lot of anthropogenic activities. Microscopic examinations of faeces collected from the trapped animals were done to establish the diet of the animal species in its natural habitat. The individuals were dissected and morphological measurements taken to establish gut size. Slides of different gut sections were microscopically examined to establish the number and length of villi. Nine other adult male rodents were randomly grouped into threes, caged individually and fed on 80g of different diets for six months to determine the influence of diet on gut morphology, digestibility and absorption efficiency. Results showed that H. d. endorobae consumes 70.7% seed, 22.6% plant leaf and 6.8% animal matter. There was no correlation between the mean body weight (40.1 ± 3.9g) and the mean total gut length (62.6 ±1.3cm) of field collected animals. The mean gut lengths were 62.6 ± 1.3cm, 58.5 ± 4.5cm, 55.7 ± 1cm, and 57.1 ± 2.3cm for field collected animals, wheat, kale and omnivore diets, respectively. Also, gut length did not show any significant differences (p = 0.889) between H. d. endorobae fed on different diets. Regression analysis showed no significant difference between diet and stomach volume (P = 0.205). There was significant correlation (p < 0.05) between diet and number of villi in the duodenum and caecum of field collected animals and those fed on wheat and large intestine and caecum of those fed on kale. Also, there was significant correlation (p < 0.05) between diet and length of villi in all regions of the gut except in the caecum (P = 0.232) of animals fed on omnivore diet. Diet influenced digestive efficiency (p = 0.007) with kale diet having the lowest efficiency (77.69%) compared to wheat diet (95.12%) or omnivore (94.29%). These results suggest that H. d. endorobae meets its energy demands with minimal gastrointestinal changes and probably increased food intake. It is recommended that the natural habitats of H. d. endorobae should be maintained and conserved to prevent its migration to human habitats and probable species erosion
Anthelmintic Effectiveness of Selected Medicinal Plants used in Treating Sheep Helminthiases in Koibatek and Mogotio Sub Counties, Baringo County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2016) Kipsang, Job Kibet; Gicheru, M. M.; Mburu, Jane
Helminthiasis is one of the most important diseases worldwide that cause heavy production losses in livestock. The disease is prevalent all over the world especially in developing countries and associated with poor management practices, lack of access to conventional anthelmintic drugs as a control or curative strategy and also greatly hampered by drug resistance exhibited by parasites. Farmers therefore resort to traditional medicinal plants for helminthiases treatment which lack information on their effectiveness, toxicity levels, dosages and safety. The current study aimed to determine anthelmintic effectiveness of six selected medicinal plants used in the traditional management and treatment of sheep helminthiases in Koibatek and Mogotio sub counties, Baringo County, Kenya. Field work was conducted in nine administrative units of Koibatek and Mogotio sub-counties. Demographic information on age and sex of informants was collected to check the existing knowledge and attitude on the use of medicinal plants. Further, field work was conducted to assess the prevalence of helminths in the two sub counties. Anthelmintic activities of six selected medicinal plants were tested at KALRO - Muguga North Laboratories in-vitro system using eggs and larvae of Haemonchus contortus. Five concentrations (6.25 mg/ul, 12.5 mg/ul, 25 mg/ul, 50 mg/ul and 100 mg/ul) of methanolic extract were tested, which involved determination of egg hatching and larval development. Levamisole (lOmg/ml) was included as positive control and distilled water as negative control. The results indicated that out of 130 respondents interviewed, 49 out of 83 men and 23 out of 47 female had knowledge on the use of medicinal plants but there was no significant association in the knowledge of medicinal plant with the gender (X2=63.33, d.f=48; P=0.068). Methanolic and water extracts from the six medicinal plants under investigation, showed biological activities in egg hatching and larval development in varying concentrations as compared to positive and negative controls. The findings indicated a significant difference in mean of eggs hatched (F = 65.31; P = 0.0001) in varying methanolic concentrations with the lowest concentration being significantly different from negative controls. Olea capensis displayed the least mean of eggs hatched (mean 1.00±1.00 larvae); followed by Leucas calostachys (mean 5.67±2.31 larvae). Jasminum floribundum had the highest mean of eggs hatched (mean 25.33±3.51) followed by Vepris simplicifolia (mean 24.33±2.52) and Olinia rochetiana (mean 22.00±1.73) at concentration of 50 mg/ul. In larval development, there was no " significant difference (F=2.613; P=0.080) in tire mean number of larvae killed by the various methanolic plant extracts at 100. mg/ul. Plant extract from 0. capensis had the highest number of dead larvae (mean of 9.33±0.577 larvae) followed by extracts from V. simplicifolia (mean of 9.0±1.0 larvae) and 0. rochetiana (9.0±1.0). A. aethiopicum had the least mean larvae killed (7.0±1.0). Prevalence of helminthes was higher in the year 2006 (mean 28.13± 1.73 animals) than all the years under consideration' (2006-20 12). Lowest prevalence rate was recorded in 20 12 with a mean of 19.70±1.50 animals infested with worms. Sheep had the highest percentage of infestation with helminths (mean 27.31±1.34) followed by goats (24.01±1.59) and least was cattle with mean of 18.21± 1.54 animals. There was significant difference (F=9.55; P=O.OOl) in helminth infestation among livestock. The findings of this study provide evidence on the potential use of medicinal plants for anthelmintic drug development from the plants in the study area. It is recommended that livestock farmers use the six medicinal plants to manage and treat sheep helminthiases and drug development. Bioactive substances from these plants should be identified.
Anti-Plasmodial Activity of Astemizole-Methylene Blue Combination Therapy Against Chloroquine Sensitive and Resistant Plasmodium Falciparum and Their Safety in Balb/C Mice
(Kenyatta University, 2020-01) Nyirongo, Joyce
Plasmodium is protozoa from the Apicomplexa phylum which causes malaria. In the tropics and sub-tropics, approximately 3.3 billion people are at risk. Artemisinin Combination Therapy (ACT), the current prime treatment, has been reported to have a possible emergence of resistance. This is a major obstacle that contributes to high mortality. Drug repurposing offers an appealing alternative to de novo drug development. Although astemizole and methylene blue have been reported to have anti-malarial properties, their safety when used in combination has not been explored. This study aimed at evaluating the optimum growth of Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 and W2, efficacy of astemizole-methylene blue combination therapy these strains and the safety of the combination therapy.To establish this, the growth potential of Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 and W2 was assessed by maintaining a continuous culture. Afterwhich, eight concentrations of astemizole-methyelene (1:1,3:1 and 3:1) using drug concentrations of range 7.81 μg/ml to 1 mg/ml, were assessed in triplicate against the Plasmodium strains. The parasites were cultured in complete media containing human erythrocytes in 96 well plates at 36.80C. Parasitemia was determined by microscopy and non-linear regression was used to determine the interactions of the drugs. Combinations that had high efficacy AST-MB 3:1 and 1:3 were administered in Balb/c mice (N=25) intraperitoneally. Clinical symptoms, hematology, biochemistry, and gross pathology were assessed and results presented as mean ± standard error of mean. ANOVA was used to analyze the results. Differences were considered significant if P values were less than 0.05(p< 0.05), F values were more than 2.78. Astemizole-methylene blue 3:1 (31.25 μg/ml and IC50 of 22.28±0.24 μg/ml) was the most efficacious drug combinations against P. falciparum 3D7 (F= 8.439, p=0.017). Whereas astemizole-methylene blue 1:3 (31.25 μg/ml and IC50 of 15.07±0.60 μg/ml was the most efficacious drug combinations against P. falciparum W2 (F= 5.428, p=0.0035). In spite of this, all astemizole-methylene blue drug combinations showed antagonism (FIC˃2). Also, astemizole was found to be less efficacious against both parasite strains in comparison to methylene blue. Frome the toxicity study, astemizole-methylene blue 3:1 drug combinations was associated with lower weight of the heart (F= 8.967, df=4, p=0.007) and liver (F= 4.339, p=0.0001) compared to the negative controls. This indicates abnormalities in these organs. Astemizole-methylene blue 3:1 reduced the platelet levels to undetectable amounts (F= 27.40, df=4, p=0.005). Both Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 and W2 had good and similar growth potentials, astemizole-methylene blue combinations were efficacious against both parasite strains and astemizole-methyelene blue 3:1 adversely affected Balb/c mice. This study recommends evaluating methylene blue and astemizole combinations with lower concentrations of astemizole to counter the effects.
Antibiotic susceptibility profile of escherichia coli isolated from food-handlers in Nairobi, Kenya
(2011-11-21) Hussein, Ahmed Abdulrahman
Antibiotic resistance represents a serious problem for clinicians, veterinarians, community and government at large. This involves cost implications as far as treatment is concerned. Multiple drug resistance as a result of empirical treatment have rendered most drugs ineffective.. In view of the above, this descriptive cross-sectional study, aimed at isolating resistant entero-bacteria E. coli from food-handlers working in both high and low budget hotels. Specimens in the form of stool were collected from 297 food-handlers in their respective hotels were considered and analyzed for resistant E. coli bacteria at KEMRI-Centre for Microbiological Research (CMR), in Nairobi. Besides, questionnaires were administered in order to assess health-seeking behaviour of the study subjects prior to medical examination. Antibiotics used in this study were amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, co-trimoxazole, ampicillin tetracycline, kanamycin, gentamycin, cefuroxime and chloramphenicol. These antibiotics were chosen on the basis of their use in the management of enteric bacterial nfections. The results from high budget hotels (i.e. three, four hotels ( i. e two stars and below) indicates high frequency of resistance in both hotel categories was seen in co-trimoxazole.and five stars) and low budget resistance. The highest level of 66.3% in high budget hotels and 66.4% in low budget hotels. Resistance difference between high budget hotels and low budget hotels was not statistically significant (P=0.56681). This was followed by ampicillin showing resistance of 55% in high budget hotels and 46% in low budget hotels, (P=0.8235). Tetracycline showed a resistance level of 34% in high budget hotels and 58% in low budget hotels, (P=0.2835) and co-amoxyclav showed resistance of 37% in high budget hotels and 38% in low budget hotels, (P=0.5074). The P-value results clearly indicate no significant relationship between taking medication by food-handlers prior to medical examination and the pattern of antibiotic resistance. Comparatively, the resistance pattern for the antibiotics tested is somehow the same for low and high budget hotels, indicating that, irrespective of the hotel category, if those working in hotels are potential carriers of drug resistant E. coli, then the category of hotel is irrelevant and either has a potential of transmitting resistant E. coli
Antibody prevalence and levels to plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein and schizont extract in individuals living in Kipsamoite, Nandi County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2016-10) Walukhu, Michael Kisongochi
Malaria continues to be a major public health concern despite the concerted efforts to eliminate it. The quest for a vaccine remains a top priority. Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum antigens are involved in prevention of infection and disease in animal models. The role of these antibodies has also been demonstrated in human with some of the antigens being targeted as lead candidates in vaccine development. However, the association of age and gender with antibody responses to these antigens is not clearly understood. Moreover, most of the studies have been done in endemic areas with little emphasis in areas of low and unstable malaria transmission. This study sought to determine whether age and gender affect antibody responses to P. falciparum antigens by measuring antibody levels and prevalences to recombinant circumsporozoite protein (CSP) and crude schizont extract (SE) in individuals of all ages living in an area where malaria transmission is low and unstable in western highlands of Kenya. Both male and female of all ages were recruited, blood samples collected and plasma obtained. Sixty samples were randomly selected and categorized into three age groups; <8years (n=25), 8-18years (n=21) and >18years (n=14). The participants were also categorized into males (n=30) and females (n=30) to determine the effect of gender on antibody responses. Seven samples from malaria narve individuals from North America were used as negative controls while 30 pooled plasma samples from individuals in areas of stable malaria transmission were used as positive controls. Measurement of parasitaemia in all samples was done by light microscopy using both thin and thick blood smear. Haemoglobin levels were measured by photometry while IgG antibodies levels in plasma were measured by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Data analysis was done by Graphpad Prism 6 using non-parametric Wilcoxon rank sum, Mann Whitney 1), Kruskall- Wallis and Spearman rank correlation tests. The prevalence of antibodies was generally low across all age groups ranging from 0% to 14.29% at arbitrary units (AU»2 for the two antigens. The antibody prevalence however increased with age. Males had significantly higher antibody prevalence than females with males having 10% while females 3.33% at AU>2 for both antigens P<0.05." The levels of IgG antibodies were generally low and there were no significant differences among the age groups and between male and females (P>0.05). There was a correlation between antibody levels to CSP and SE (r=0.5977; P<0.05). The study "provides preliminary findings associating antibody responses with the exposure to malaria infection. It therefore recommends a longitudinal study on more antigens to inform exploration of multi-antigen vaccines and also adopt several control measures including Epidemic Preparedness and Response (EPR). It further recommends profiling immune responses of individuals living in epidemic prone areas.
Antibody Responses Induced in Balb/C Mice Vaccinated with Malaria Dna Vaccine Candidate, Psebcgtt, Co-Expressing Ccl5 or Ccl20 s Adjuvants
(Kenyatta University, 2019-04) Ogise, Josiah
Malaria is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Parasite resistance to current antimalarials and resistance of Anopheline mosquitoes to insecticides have hampered control and elimination of malaria. Over the past twenty years, many vaccine candidates have been under development but none has advanced to clinical trials due to lack of appropriate adjuvant for human use. A vaccine inducing high levels of Immunoglobulin M (IgM), total IgG (or IgG1, IgG2, and or IgG3) would be important for effective control of malaria. DNA vaccines are safer and easy to mass produce and store, but they are less immunogenic and require an adjuvant to boost their immunogenicity. Although the adjuvants CCL5 and CCL20 have chemotactic properties and can immunopotentiate DNA vaccines, no previous study had evaluated their potential use as effective strain transcending blood-stage malaria DNA-adjuvant antibody-inducing vaccine. The present study sought to determine antibody immunity induced in mice vaccinated with malaria DNA vaccine candidate, pSeBCGTT, expressing CCL5 or CCL20 as an adjuvant. Mice in groups of 18 animals each were treated as follows: Group I was vaccinated with pSeBCG/TT/CCL5; Group II was immunized with pSeBCG/TT/CCL20; Group III was injected with pSe/BCG/TT alone while Group IV was inoculated with pIRES plasmid and Group V was a non-vaccinated control. All vaccinations were done intramuscularly with 100 μg of the inoculants per dose on days 0, 21, and 42. Blood samples for sera preparation were collected at day 0, 21, 42 and 63 post-vaccination for determination of antibody levels including IgM, total IgG, and IgG sub-classes. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and where applicable, Bonferroni test was used as a post hoc. A P value ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results indicated that the mice group vaccinated with pSeBCGTT/CCL20 induced significantly higher IgM antibody levels as compared to pSeBCGTT/CCL5 or pSeBCGTT alone (P < 0.01). Similarly, vaccination with pSeBCGTT/CCL20 produced significantly higher IgG levels as opposed to pSeBCGTT/CCL5 or pSeBCGTT alone (P < 0.01). Further analysis indicated a significant difference in IgG subclasses in vaccinated mice groups with the pSeBCGTT/CCL20 inducing the highest levels of IgG1, IgG2b and IgG3 compared to vaccination with either pSeBCGTT/CCL5 or pSeBCGTT (P < 0.05) while pSeBCGTT/CCL5 induced the highest IgG2a antibody levels as compared to either pSeBCGTT/CCL20 or pSeBCGTT alone (P < 0.05). Comparison between antibody isotype levels showed that IgG levels were significantly higher than IgM (P<0.01). In conclusion, these findings indicate that vaccination with pSeBCGTT/CCL20 induces high antibody levels that may be important in preventing malaria in vaccinated subjects. However, it is recommended that an efficacy experiment of this vaccine be carried out in a relevant animal model of malaria before clinical application.
The antigenic relationships between foot-and-mouth disease virus isolates from some susceptible wild and domestic animal species in Kenya
(2012-06-08) Sangula, Abraham Kiprotich; Ng'ang'a, Z. W.; Wamwayi, H. M.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is a highly contagious infectious viral disease of livestock, which exhibits antigenic variation and is of great economic importance worldwide. Wildlife particularly the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is important maintenance hosts for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The determination of prevalent antigenic types in domestic animals and wildlife; their relationship with vaccine strains is important in vaccine selection and success of vaccination programs. Serological methods, such as virus neutralization test (VNT) and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) have been used to subtype FMDV strains for epidemiological and vaccine suitability determination. In this study, sixty-eight FMDV isolates held at the FMD Laboratory, Embakasi, from some susceptible wild and domestic animal species were compared serologically with seven vaccine strains produced by the Kenya Veterinary Vaccines Production Institute (KEVEVAPI) and currently in use for FMD control in Kenya in order to determine vaccine suitability in cross-protection. Isolates were passaged in baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) mono-layer cells and sero-typed by ELISA. Rabbit and guinea pig anti-sera for use in the ELISA tests were produced locally using purified antigens of the seven vaccine virus strains grown in BHK-21 mono-layer cells. Bovine vaccinal sera (BVS), against the seven vaccine strains were selected from those obtained during routine potency assay experiments. Liquid-phase-blocking ELISA (LPBE), and VNT were used to antigenically compare eleven serotype A, twenty-four serotype O, eleven SAT 1 and twenty-nine SAT 2 isolates. The simple one-way relationship ratio (r1) values (measure of the antigenic disparity of the isolates) were determined by comparing the ratio of the BVS titre against the isolate to the titre against the vaccine strain. All the four serotypes were identified among the sixty-four cattle isolates as follows; O (21), A (11), SAT 1(8) and SAT 2(24). Serotypes O (1), SAT 1(2) and SAT 2(6) were found among the wildlife isolates but not serotype A. Five isolates (6.7%) from wildlife (1) and livestock (4) had mixed infections of two virus serotypes each. The antigenic relationships established by the two tests were similar (correlation of 0.88-0.95). The antigenic comparisons indicated that the isolates from the same species and which were isolated from the same ecological zone during the same chronological period wee antigenically closely related to vaccine strains (r1 values ³ 0.6). Six wildlife strains were antigenically unrelated to the vaccine strains (r1 values £ 0.2). Vaccine strains OK77/78, SAT1T155/71 and SAT2K183/74 that were more than 20 years old showed low antigenic closeness (r1 values <0.6) to current outbreak isolates and were unlikely to offer protection. The findings of this study suggest that it is necessary to constantly establish the antigenic relationships of any FMD outbreak strain to vaccine strains in order to select appropriate vaccine strains.
Antiplasmodial Activity, Cytotoxicity and Phytochemical Composition of Juticia Betonica, Vernonia Dumicola and Rotheca Myricoides and Their Combinations
(Kenyatta University, 2019-05) Nyachwaya, Lazarus Matini
Malaria, a disease caused by Plasmodium species is currently the main cause of human sickness and death in the world, more so in the tropics. It mostly affects pregnant mothers and children below five years of age. The parasites develop resistance to antiplasmodial drugs and this has been a challenge in control and treatment of the disease through chemotherapy, something that necessitates the continuous search for alternative antiplasmodial agents. The use of plants to treat malaria and other ailments has been there since time immemorial. The plants: J. betonica, V. dumicola and R. myricoides are among the many that are used traditionally to treat malaria. In spite of this use, their antiplasmodial activity and toxicity has neither been scientifically confirmed nor evaluated. The World Health Organization suggests scientific evaluation of the safety of medicinal plants though they are generally regarded as safe. There are no reports on the scientific evaluation of the safe and effective concentraton of these extracts.This study aimed at determining the antiplasmodial activity, cytotoxicity and qualitative phytochemical composition of aqueous extracts of J. betonica aerial parts, and leaves of V. dumicola and R. myricoides. The plant materials were collected from Gucha region, Kisii County and transported to Kenyatta University. In vivo antiplasmodial activity of the aqueous extracts of the plants was tested in a four day suppressive assay using Plasmodium berghei in mice. In vitro antiplasmodial activity was done using the D6 strain of Plasmodium falciparum. Cytotoxic evaluation was doneusing the vero cell-line in vitro using the MTT assay. Qualitative phytochemical screening was done according to standard protocols. The aqueous extract of R. myricoides leaves had the highest chemosuppression with an IC50 value of 1.32±0.03μg/ml while lowest chemosuppression was in the combined aqueous extract of J. betonica aerial parts and leaves of V. dumicola. This recorded an IC50 value of 11.03±1.18μg/ml. For cytotoxicity studies, aqueous extract of J. betonica aerial parts recorded the lowest cytotoxic activity with IC50 value of 690±11.00μg/ml whereas aqueous extract of R. myricoides leaves recorded highest cytotoxic activity with IC50 value of 106.00±8.00μg/ml. According to the selectivity index (SI) criteria, all the extracts showed SI value above 3 indicating the plant extracts were selective. All the plant extracts tested contained anthraquinones, phenols and tannins. They all showed antiplasmodial activity which could be attributed to the phytochemicals observed. The three plants analysed in this study are recommended for development of antimalarial agents.
The Antiretroviral drugs toxicity and immune status of HIV patients attending Runyenjes comprehensive care centre, Embu, Kenya
(2012-04-20) Namu, John Samuel; Gicheru, M. M.; Zipporah Ng'ang'a
Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) has become a global problem which has reduced the quality and lifespan of many people allover the world The World Health Organization (WHO) has established that ARVs reduce the suffering of mv patients. Currently, there are various AR V regimes in use, and they are taken for a long period of time. This could lead to emergence of ARV associated toxicity. The objective of this study was to determine toxicity and immune status of mv patients under ARVs (Zidovudine, Stavudine and Nevirapine) which comprises first line ARV regime currently being used in this country. The study design was longitudinal, a case study involving mv patients attending Runyenjes comprehensive care centre (CCC) during the months of May to November 2009. A total of sixty mv patients participated in the study after consenting to undergo comprehensive care. A control group of 40 HIV patients on only contrimoxale (septrin), an antibiotic used to control opportunistic infections was also monitored for six months to exclude the compounding effects of accompanying antibiotics. Baseline values of creatinine and haemograms were determined and compared with immunological parameters for different levels of treatment monthly over a period of six months. CD3 and CD4 cell counts were determined in a Fluorescence Activated Cell sorter (F ACs) using cross reactive antibodies while mean corpuscular volumes. (MCV), platelets and Haemoglobin (Hb) were determined using a blood cell analyser, Using a serum analyser serum creatinine was determined and used as an indicator of toxicity of the ARV drugs. AnalYSIS of Variance (ANOVA), t-test and correlation coeficient were used to analyse the data. The results showed that out of sixty mv patients sampled twenty (33.3%) had baseline CD4 counts less than 50 cells ltd of blood, 9 (15%) between 50-100 cells/ul of blood, 8 (13.3%) between 101-150 cells/ul of blood and 23 (38.4%) above 150 cellslJllofblood. Correlation analysis showed that creatinine was weakly positively correlated with MCV (p
The apparent involvement of an immune response in the induction of anaemia in schistosoma mansoni BALB/c mice
(2012-06-11) Macheneri, G.I.
The results presented herein demonstrate development of anaemia in 4 groups of Balb/c mice exposed to varying numbers of cercariae of the Kenyan strain of Schistoma mansoni. Haemoglobin, micro-haematocrit and erythrocyte levels were determined at one-month intervals during this study. Coomb's test, complement fixation test and Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) were carried out to determine the possible involvement of an immune response in this pathophysiological condition. Four weeks post infection; the haematological indices in infected and control mice were not different. But by 8 weeks post infection there were significant reductions in erythrocytes counts, haemoglobin concentrations and micro-haematcrit values in infected mice. These decreases were dose dependent and continued upto the 12th week. However, corpuscular indices (MCHC) and MCV) were not significantly depressed in all the four infected groups. Anaemia was normocytic normochromic in all infected mice by 8 weeks post infection. Twelve weeks post infection; a microcytic hypochromic anaemia was evident in heavily infected mice particularly in-group five. Coomb's test failed to detect immunoglobulin or complement on the surface of red blood cells from anaemic mice complement fixation test demonstrated an agglutinating antibody which lysed normal erythrocytes in sera from immune animals. ELISA test showed significant elevation of erythrocyte- associated antibody in sera of infected mice. It suggested that schistosome eggs may be activating erythrocytes and their antigenic determinants exposing them to binding anti-erythrocyte antibody. Such a phenomenon may be suggestive of the involvement of an immune response in the induction of anaemia in murine schistosomiasis.
Assesment of Knowledge on Factors Contributing to Highland Malaria Outbreaks in Gucha District and Available Preventive and Control Measures
(2013-03-20) Ondari, Peter Nyabuto
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by protists' of the genus Plasmodium. Malaria is responsible for high morbidity and mortality rates among children under five years and pregnant women. Recent climatic changes leading to global warming has resulted in the emergence of malaria in highlands in Africa where malaria never existedbefore. In Kenya, highland malaria is very rampant in Nyanza, Gucha District and some parts of Rift Valley province where it occurs as epidemics. Annually Malaria in Kenya claims thelives of 26,000 children aged less than five years old with an average death of 72 children per day.In order to curb these epidemics, prevention and control measures should be intensified. The strengthening of malaria surveillance and monitoring needs to be given priority in parallel with effortsto control the malaria vector. This will involve a combination of environmental, physical and chemical control measures, through joint efforts of both governmental and nongovernmental agencies. A/cross sectional descriptive study was carried out aimed at collecting bothqualitative and quantitative data on knowledge on factors contributing to highland malaria outbreak and available control and preventive factors in Gucha District, Kenya. Data were collectedusing structured open-ended questionnaires, focus group discussions and desk reviews of health records and data at Gucha District hospital and some rural health facilities in Gucha District.The sample size was four hundred respondents. The study population consisted of adult patientsand patient attendants aged 18 years and above who sought health care in Gucha district hospital and some rural facilities in Gucha District. Fifteen study sites were selected for representative coverage of the district. Data analysis was carried out by use of GraphPad InStat softwareand utilized one-way analysis of variance and Tukey-Kramer test. The study revealed that over 90% of Gucha District residents had completed secondary level education and over 78%of the respondents did not live in modern houses. Fever and feeling chilly were the most common symptoms of malaria infection reported by 51% and 20% of the respondents respectively.Plasmodium was cited by 55% while a combination of bites by mosquitoes and existenceof stagnant waters were cited by 20% of the respondents as the main causes of malaria. Twentynine percent of the respondents bought drugs from local sources while only 15.75% visitedhospital for treatment against malaria. Forty four percent and 31% of the respondents reporteda combination of bush clearing and drainage of stagnant waters and use of mosquito netsrespectively as the most important mosquito control methods. Twenty eight percent of the respondentsate goats offal while the rest burnt various herbal plants as traditional methods for controlof malaria. Hospital records data .did not show any significant difference in malaria morbiditycases for the period from 1998-2006 (P = 0.0546) while higher number of children of 5 years or below were significantly infected with malaria compared to other age groups (P = 0.0001).There was no difference in mean monthly temperatures (0.8659), rainfall (0.6124) or humidity(0.5322) recorded between 2002 and 2006. The study concludes that although Gucha District residents are educated and do not use improved methods for control of malaria. Furthermore, majority of the people only go to hospital for malaria treatment following failure of selfmedication. The findings of this study are of high value to the ministry of health and other stakeholdersin the fight against highland malaria in Kenya. Local people should be educated on properenvironmental management to create unfavorable conditions for mosquito breeding. They shouldbe educated on: bush clearing, draining of stagnant waters, planting food crops away from houses,proper construction of houses to eliminate cracks on walls and open eaves and filling up depressionscreated during brick making among other methods.
Assessment of damage and yield losses on maize by the lepidopterans Chilo partellus (Crambidae), Busseola fusca (Noctuidae) and Sesamia calamistis (Noctuidae).
(2011-12-07) Akhusama, Edwin Etabale
Lepidopteran stemborers are among field insect pests responsible for the low maize production in sub-Saharan Africa. In Kenya, Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Pyralidae), Busseola fusca Fuller (Noctuidae) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Noctuidae) constitute the major proportion of stemborer community. Concerted efforts to reduce stemborer populations in maize fields have been emphasized without a good understanding of potential losses associated with damage by respective stemborer species. This study aimed at assessing larval effects of the three stemborers on maize growth and how these relate to yield losses. A field experiment was initiated with both stemborer species (B. fusca, S. calamistis and C. partellus) and densities (0, 10, 15 and 30) as the treatment factors. H513 maize variety was planted and artificially infested with the first larvae 21 days after emergence (DAE). Plants were caged immediately after infestation to restrict movement of the introduced larvae within the cage and eliminate external infestations. Effects of the treatment factors on the growth parameters were taken until the maize was harvested. Results indicated that larval survival for each stemborer species decreased with increasing larval infestations for all the stemborers regardless of the initial infestations. Not more than four larvae of each stemborer managed to survive in each stem of maize. It was observed that, C. partellus and B. fusca had comparatively higher percentage survival than S. calamistis larvae. There were no significant differences between the low infestation density of 10 larvae/plant and medium infestation density of 15 for all the stemborers (p> 0.05). However at higher infestation density of 30 larvae/plant, low survival of larvae was realized which was statistically lower as compared to the densities to 10 and 15 for all the stemborers. Proportionate larval effect of each species was observed and it was reported that, C. partellus and B. fusca larval reductions did not produce any difference on the plant height (p> 0.05). However, S. calamistis larva produced significantly lower effect on the height of maize (p< 0.05). There was evidence of variation in the lengths of stem tunnelling associated with the different stemborer species (p< 0.05). Busseola fusca larva caused the highest length of stem tunnelling, followed by C. partellus and S. calamistis larva produced the least. Chilo partellus and B. fusca larva produced significantly higher reductions in cob weights in comparison to S. calamistis (p< 0.05). Busseola fusca larva produced higher effect on gain weight reduction as compared to C. partellus and S. calamistis. Relationships between stemborer larva and their effect on maize growth showed a strong link between stem tunnelling and yield reduction. C. part ellus and B. fusca were observed to be major stemborers of maize while S. calamistis was least important.
Assessment of knowledge knowledge and practices of health workers on management of the pentavalent vaccine in Nairobi, kenya
(2012-02-27) Otieno, Susan Agunda
In order to ensure a smooth change over in all operational and technical aspects in line with the international standards, training of health workers is one of the areas, which is very crucial for its success. The training on Pentavalent Vaccine in Kenya started three days before its launch. The preliminary evaluation indicated that this was inadequate time for training all the health workers who provide childhood immunization in the country. The aim of the study reported in this thesis was to establish the level of knowledge of the health workers on the Pentavalent Vaccine management after its introduction into the national programme. In a cross- sectional study, 297 health workers from both public and private health facilities in Nairobi were interviewed using a structured questionnaire to assess their knowledge on Pentavalent Vaccine management. The respondents included 277 nurses, 13 doctors, 3 Clinical Officers, and 4 Public Health Officers, out of which 16 were key members of the health management teams at provincial and district levels. Among the cadre of health workers, the doctors had the highest proportion (92%) of those who new both the vaccines and the diseases related to Pentavalent Vaccine. The Kenya Enrolled Nurses (KEN) had the lowest proportion (5%) in knowledge of vaccines and the Public health officers/Registered Clinical Officers (RCO/PHO) had the lowest proportion (14%) in knowledge of diseases. In storage and administration of Pentavalent Vaccine, the nurses had higher proportions (Kenya registered Nurse (KRN) 48% and KEN 42%) than other cadre where the doctors had the lowest proportion of 23%. The health workers from the hospital facilities had the highest proportion (13%) of respondents with knowledge of all the five vaccines in Pentavalent Vaccine, and also of the five diseases (49%). The dispensary staff had the lowest proportion of both in knowledge of vaccines (9%) and in diseases (18%), an indication of inadequate flow of information to the grass root level. The respondents from the private health facilities had higher proportions both in knowledge of vaccines (11%) and diseases (36%) compared to those from the public facilities who had proportion of 9% in knowledge of vaccines and 20% in diseases. Due to lack of standardized training tools and proper organization, the trained health workers had minimal difference in level of knowledge of both the five vaccines and the five diseases with the untrained respondents. The trained health workers had a low proportion of 19.7% in knowledge of vaccines and 43.3% in diseases, as compared to the untrained health workers who had equally low proportion of 8.2% in vaccines and 22.4% in diseases. There was a significantly higher proportion (60%) of trained respondents with knowledge of storage and administration of Pentavalent Vaccine than in untrained staff who had 29% (x2 = 28.296, df =1, P < 0.000). The outcome of this study will benefit the children who are under five years old who will receive potent vaccines though improved cold chain maintenance of Pentavalent Vaccine. On the other hand, there will be more health workers with knowledge on Pentavalent Vaccine through improved additional updates.

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