MST-Zoological Sciences

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Prevalence of Amoebiasis and Associated Risk Factors among Patients Attending Murang’a, Maragua and Githumu Hospitals in Murang’a County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Wekesa, Diana
Entamoeba histolytica (EH) is a parasite that causes amoebiasis. It is estimated that worldwide, there are about 50 million cases of amoebiasis out of which between 40,000 and 110,000 deaths occur annually from this infection. In Kenya, amoebiasis is associated with morbidities and mortalities affecting all age categories. Extended studies focusing on disease epidemiology have not been carried out in large parts of the Country despite the public health importance of the disease. The objective of the present study was to establish the prevalence of amoebiasis and disease associated factors in Murang’a County. The study was based on three selected health facilities including Murang’a, Maragua and Githumu hospitals. The study involved both prospective and retrospective approaches in data collection. The retrospective study involved compilation of statistics from medical records for a period from January 2015 to December 2019. The prospective study involved administration of questionnaires to collect data on demographic characteristics and risk factors associated with amoebiasis. In addition, 264 stool samples were collected from study subjects for analysis of prevalence of Entamoeba histolytica cysts and trophozoites through microscopy. Data analysis was carried out using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) utilizing the Chi-Square statistics for association tests. Results indicated that, the average prevalence of amoebiasis in the study was 25.58%. Findings revealed that out of 25143 stool samples that were taken and tested in the three hospitals for five years (2015-2019), 6,349 tested positive giving a prevalence of 25.3%. The use of water from taps by 47.7% of the respondents was thought to be a positive aspect in the efforts to combat E. histolytica. The main risk factors observed were the use of river water by 29.1% of the respondents, and the likely contamination risk of well water used by 6.4% of the respondents. Source of water and water treatment practices were significantly associated with amoebiasis (P = 0.000). Not washing fruits or vegetables before eating them was significantly associated with disease (P = 0.006). In addition, patients experiencing diarrhea, weight loss, nausea or semi-formed stool were significantly associated with amoebiasis (P = 0.000). Based on these findings, the present study concludes that, the prevalence of amoebiasis is high in Murang’a County and that several factors are significantly associated with disease. The study recommends community based health education in order to enlighten the affected population on preventive measures for amoebiasis. Furthermore, provision of safe water to the community by the local government will contribute significantly to disease control.
Masai Giraffe Population Distribution, Threats, Habitat Suitability and Connectivity in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania
(Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Muthiuru, Amos Chege
Over the last three decades, the giraffe population in Africa has experienced a significant decline of nearly 40%, attributed to various threats such as severe poaching for bushmeat, human-wildlife conflicts, diseases, habitat fragmentation, and loss due to the increase in human settlement and associated land use changes and linear infrastructure. To be able to institute and prioritize effective conservation measures for the giraffes, it is necessary to identify population distribution, threat hotspots, suitable habitats, and their connecting corridors especially in multiple use landscapes. This study aimed to characterize Masai giraffe habitat and distribution in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania in the transboundary Tsavo-Mkomazi Landscape: identifying threats, suitable habitats and their linkage zones and population structure distribution under different land uses. Road surveys, ranger patrols, aerial surveys and remotely sensed data were integrated into Google Earth Engine (GEE) to develop species distribution models. The Suitability index obtained from this analysis was used as resistance surface to model landscape connectivity using Circuitscape in Arc GIS 10.5. Threats and location of occurrence were mapped from ranger’s patrol data and road surveys. Group associations were analyzed using SPSS. The results showed that land uses did not influence mean giraffe herd sizes and herd types significantly (p>0.05). However, age composition and herd types were significantly different between conservancies and small-scale farms during the wet season respectively (p<0.05). Poaching was the main threat to Massai giraffes accounting for 49% of total deaths of the identified carcasses in the landscape. Although ranches and conservancies were the most affected by the threats, they remained the least cost paths and corridors of high importance with low resistance to giraffe movement connecting from Mkomazi National Park (Tanzania) to South Kitui National Reserve (Kenya). The potentially suitable giraffe habitat was 15,002 km2 within the landscape with 17% of it being outside protected areas. Capacity building of ranch owners is recommended to address giraffe poaching. Transboundary collaborations, participatory land use planning, spatial planning at County, ranches/conservancy level should be done to ensure corridors and dispersal areas are included in land use planning and integrated with other conservation compatible land use practices to safeguard giraffes in the Tsavo-Mkomazi Landscape. Additionally, equal security measures should be deployed in protected and non protected areas to deter poaching and reclaim South Kitui National reserve. Since climate change mediates Masai giraffe movement and group organization, this study recommends deep understanding of climate impact on the Masai giraffe distribution and future use of the community dominated landscapes and designed underpasses with the major infrastructure in their entire range.
Effect of Aqueous Tephrosia Purpurea Aerial Extract on Parasite Replication and Inflammatory Response in Plasmodium Berghei Infected Balb/C Mice
(Kenyatta University, 2023-04) Wanyaga, Lydia; Michael Muita Gicheru; Faith Apolot Okalebo
Abstract
Prevalence of Endoparasites and Phylogenetics of Ectoparasites Infesting Prawns and Lobsters along the Kenyan Coast
(Kenyatta University, 2023-05) Valarie, Silali Nangila; Fredrick Chimoyi Maloba; Thomas Kalama Mkare
Abstract
Molecular Detection of Entamoeba Species and Factors Associated with Infection among Diarrhoeal Patients Attending Meru Teaching and Referral Hospital, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-05) Lepore, Caroline Makena; LUCY KAMAU; ESTHER KANDUMA
Abstract
Mangrove Forest Cover and Management Systems in Kilifi County, Kenya.
(Kenyatta University, 2023-06) Menza, Khambi Edward; Fredrick Tamooh; Joseph Onyango Gweyi
Abstract
Seroprevalence and antimicrobial resistance of non- typhoidal salmonella disease and associated factors in children in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta university, 2023-05) Kamwethya, Peter Schola; Joshua mutiso; Samuel kariuki
Co-Infection of Plasmodium Species with Intestinal Parasites in Children with Fever Aged Ten Years and Below in Kisii County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Gichana, Amwoma Lucas; Joshua Mutiso; Lucy Kamau
Plasmodium and intestinal parasites are the most prevalent parasites causing diseases in Africa and Asia. These diseases are common among children aged less than 10 years. \(al.ma_and intestinal parasitic infections have an overlapping distributions and nonspecific symptoms. In most cases. fever in children is clinically diagnosed as malaria infection. This diagnosis tends to attract a treatment of malaria alone, and fails w0 treat other possible life threatening diseases like parasitic infections that share common symptoms such as fever with malaria. Thus, the present study was aimed at establishing the prevalence of Plasmodium and intestinal parasites co-infection in children with fever aged 10 years and below in Marzni sub county, Kisii County. A hospital based cross-sectional study was conducted from the month of March to Augus 2018. This study used simple random and systematic sampling method. The sample size was of 389 children drawn from a population who had febrile conditions. secking medication at health facilities and whose parents or guardians had agreed by signing 2 consent form. Data were collected using closed-ended questionnaire. Stool and blood samples were collected for microscopic identification of parasites. Formalin-cther concentration technique was done for stool preparation with saline. iodine and wrichrome stains. Geimsa stain was used for blood slide preparations. Data were analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The present study established that the main complaint by children seeking medication at dispensaries in Marani was fever (89.7%), out of which, 8 1.7% were found to be having fever above 37.5°C. The present study revealed that Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal parasites had a prevalence of 22.8% in children and this co-infection was significantly associated with fever in children (;>=20.78, p=0.000). The study established that the prevalence of Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal protozoa was 21.3% while co-infection between Plasmodium and intestinal helminths was 1.5%. Infections by plasmodium species, intestinal protozoa and intestinal helminth parasites were found to have significant relationship with fever in children (*=100.8, p=0.000), (4?=45.65, p=0.000) and (>=6.418, p=0.017) respectively. The study also revealed that fever was significantly associated with infection by Plasmodium falciparum (£=10.714, p=0.030) or Entamoeba histolytica (57=21.470, p=0.0404). However, according to this study, it was found that neither Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis nor Trichuris trichiura was significantly associated with fever in children (=8.337, p=0.080). Based on these findings, the study concludes that infections by Plasmodium Jalciparum and Entamoeba histolytica are most prevalent at 97.5% and 83.3% respectively in children. Plasmodium specics and intestinal parasites infections are associated with severe fever in children. Therefore, the smdy recommends that clinicians should request both blood and stool samples for laboratory identification of a possible parasitic infection causing fever to a child before treatment to enhance disease management and control.
Prevalence and Levels of Antibodies to Malaria Vaccine Candidate Antigens in Adult Residents of Western Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Mbayaki, Nelly; Michael Gicheru; Joshua Mutiso; Simon Kariuki
Plasmodium falciparum remains a leading parasite of great public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa where it is associated with malaria with high morbidity and mortality cases. Communities in malaria endemic regions are frequently exposed to plasmodial infections and gradually develop protective immunity which has been shown in several studies to be mediated in part by antibodies to merozoite antigens. However, poor understanding of the role of these anti-Plasmodium antibodies and their contribution to protective immunity against malaria has hindered the development of an effective vaccine. In addition, few studies have compared antibody levels in immune adults in different regions which have different malaria intensities. The current study aimed at determining anti-malarial [mmunoglobulin gamma (IgG) responses to four P. falciparum merozoite antigens: merozoite-induced surface protein 1 (MSP-1), ‘merozoite-synthesized surface protein 3 (MSP-3), merozoite’s glutamate-rich protein (GLURP) and 2 combination of MSP-3+GLURP in the highland and lowland regions of western Kenya that differ in malaria endemicity. Whole blood samples were collected from 159 immune adults agaed 15 years and above participating in the ongoing blood donation conducted by the Kisumu blood bank. Plasma was separated from whole blood by use of ficoll-paque technique. The prevalence and levels of specific IgG antibodies against the four antigens were established using enzymeimmunoassay (ELISA). Analysis of various data sets was done using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software version 21 software and a P-value less than 0.035 was considered specifically significant. The results showed that the prevalence of IgG antibodies against MSP-1 was significantly higher compared to MSP-3, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP in Western Kenya (p<0.05). The highest antibody levels were against MSP-3 (p<0.001) which was significantly higher compared to MSP-1, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP. There was no significance difference in the prevalence and levels of antibodies between individuals residing in the lowland and highland areas in the four antigen groups (P > 0.05). Based on these findings, this study concludes that there was high prevalence levels of IgG antibodies against the Plasmodium merozoite antigens, MSP-3 and MSP-3 + GLURP, in both Jowland and highland regions in Western Kenya. Future vaccine development therefore, should consider using MSP-3 or MSP-3 + GLURP, as candidate antigens for malaria vaccines development.
Haematological Profiles and Serum Ige levels AS Tick Resistance Phenotypes upon Tick Infestation in Indicine and Taureen Cattle Breeds
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11-15) Ngetich, Collins; Jemimah Simbauni
ABSTRACT Globally, a population of over 80% of cattle are at risk of tick and tick-borne diseases (TTBDs). In tropical Africa co-infestation with multiple tick species is common leading to mixed infections with tick-borne pathogens and severe clinical outcomes of individual animals and herds. The economic losses from animal mortality and the cost of acaricides and therapeutics demands the incorporation of alternative disease control strategies including the use of tick- resistant cattle breeds. The gold standard method for phenotyping tick resistance in cattle is by counting ticks on the body (partial or whole body). However, tick counting is tedious, require experienced workers and is expensive. Therefore, there is need for alternative methods for phenotyping tick resistance more easily, cheaply, fast and on a large scale. The current study assessed the Immunoglobulin E (IgE) response and haematological cellular profiles as potential phenotypes for tick resistance in Bos indicus (Zebu) and Bos taurus (Friesian and Ayrshire) cattle breeds under experimental infestation with Rhipicephalus decoloratus larvae. Fifty-four taurine and 52 indicine calves were each infested with ~2500 larvae. Replete adult female ticks were counted daily from day 21 to 25 on each animal. Sera blood and whole blood samples were obtained from each animal on day 0 and 23. Serum IgE levels (by ELISA) and total blood counts were measured before and after infestation with pre-infestation IgE levels as baseline. Mean tick count on the two breeds were compared using a paired student t-test. Statistical analysis of the haematological cellular counts, before and after infestation, was tested using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and adjusted with a Tukey post hoc test. Pearson correlation test was used to analyse the relationship between the tick count to haematological cellular count and IgE titers. P≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. The results of tick counts between the two cattle breeds were statistically different (overall mean of 157.3725 ticks on indicine breed and 528.6735 ticks on taurine breed per animal (t=5.424, df=102) (P< 0.0001)). The frequency distribution of tick counts in indicine group showed 91% of the cattle were resistant and 9% moderately resistant, while the taurine breeds, 86% were susceptible whereas 13% were refractory, following artificial application of R. decoloratus. In the parasitized taurine calves, there was significant decrease in white blood cells (P= 0.0045), red blood cells (P=0.0156), haematocrit (P=0.0207), granulocytes (P=0.0139) and lymphocytes (P= 0.0104). The parasitized indicine calves had a significant difference in the mean differential cell count of white blood cells only (P= 0.0012). There was positive correlation between tick count and IgE concentration in taurine breed (P< 0.05). Red blood cells count (and haemoglobin and haematocrit), lymphocytes and IgE profiles. These results underpin the need to deepen the search for a suitable phenotype for cattle host resistance to ticks.
Evaluation of the Therapeutic Potential of Selected Herbal Plants from Baringo County, Kenya, Against Leishmania Donovani in Balb/C Mice
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Mogaka, Maria Divinah; Joshua Mutiso; Micheal Gicheru
Leishmaniasis is a parasitic infection caused by Leishmania parasites. Conventional chemotherapy remains the primary approach for treating leishmaniasis despite its associated drawbacks, such as high toxicity, frequent relapses, and the need for hospitalization. Conventional drugs are also expensive. Plant-based compounds offer promising alternatives to leishmaniasis treatment because they are effective, affordable, and less associated with toxicity and resistance. This research investigated the therapeutic potential of Warburgia ugandensis, Prunus africana, and Piliostigma thonningii against Leishmania donovani in vitro and in vivo. The anti-promastigote study was done by culturing promastigotes with the test compounds. For the toxicity study, Vero cells were incubated with different concentrations of the test compounds. Serum was obtained from the mice for total immunoglobulin gamma (IgG) quantification. In vivo studies were conducted by infecting the BALB/c mice with virulent Leishmania donovani promastigotes before commencement of treatment with methanolic extracts of Warburgia ugandensis, Prunus africana, and Piliostigma thonningii and control drug, sodium stibogluconate. Treatment with the test compounds significantly reduced the parasite burden. The outcome in the mice treated with plant extracts was comparable to those treated with pentostam (P≥0.05). In the promastigote assay, all the test compounds killed more than half of the promastigotes at the highest concentration (500μg/ml). Warburgia ugandensis, P. thonningii, and P. africana reduced the number of promastigotes from 2.0 x 106 to 7.7 x 103, 72.0 x 103, and 5.0 x 103, respectively. Sodium stibogluconate had the lowest IC50 (210 μg/ml), followed by Warburgia ugandensis (IC50 of 270μg/ml). Piliostigma thonningii and P. africana exhibited lower toxicity, with IC50 values of 720 μg/ml and 500 μg/ml, respectively. Treatment with the plant extracts resulted in low production of IgG antibodies, while the untreated control group showed higher IgG levels. Antileishmanial IgG antibody levels did not differ significantly with body weight changes. However, there was a strong significant correlation between levels of IgG antibodies and parasite numbers, indicating a possibility of the potential use of IgG levels in determining disease severity. Based on these results, the study concludes that Warburgia ugandensis, Prunus africana, and Piliostigma thonningii are safe and have antileishmanial activity against L. donovani. The study recommends the extrapolation of the present results in non-human primate disease model before clinical use of the compounds.
Prevalence and Levels of Antibodies to Malaria Vaccine Candidate Antigens in Adult Residents of Western Kenya
(kenyatta university, 2023) Mbayaki, Nelly; Michael Gicheru; Joshua Mutiso; Simon Kariuki
Plasmodium falciparum remains a leading parasite of great public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa where it is associated with malaria with high morbidity and mortality cases. Communities in malaria endemic regions are frequently exposed to plasmodial infections and gradually develop protective immunity which has been shown in several studies to be mediated in part by antibodies to merozoite antigens. However, poor understanding of the role of these anti-Plasmodium antibodies and their contribution to protective immunity against malaria has hindered the development of an effective vaccine. In addition, few studies have compared antibody levels in immune adults in different regions which have different malaria intensities. The current study aimed at determining anti-malarial Immunoglobulin gamma (IgG) responses to four P. falciparum merozoite antigens: merozoite-induced surface protein 1 (MSP-1), merozoite-synthesized surface protein 3 (MSP-3), merozoite’s glutamate-rich protein (GLURP) and a combination of MSP-3+GLURP in the highland and lowland regions of western Kenya that differ in malaria endemicity. Whole blood samples were collected from 159 immune adults agaed 15 years and above participating in the ongoing blood donation conducted by the Kisumu blood bank. Plasma was separated from whole blood by use of ficoll-paque technique. The prevalence and levels of specific IgG antibodies against the four antigens were established using enzyme-immunoassay (ELISA). Analysis of various data sets was done using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software version 21 software and a P-value less than 0.05 was considered specifically significant. The results showed that the prevalence of IgG antibodies against MSP-1 was significantly higher compared to MSP-3, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP in Western Kenya (p<0.05). The highest antibody levels were against MSP-3 (p<0.001) which was significantly higher compared to MSP-1, GLURP or MSP-3+GLURP. There was no significance difference in the prevalence and levels of antibodies between individuals residing in the lowland and highland areas in the four antigen groups (P > 0.05). Based on these findings, this study concludes that there was high prevalence levels of IgG antibodies against the Plasmodium merozoite antigens, MSP-3 and MSP-3 + GLURP, in both lowland and highland regions in Western Kenya. Future vaccine development therefore, should consider using MSP-3 or MSP-3 + GLURP, as candidate antigens for malaria vaccines development.
Aflatoxin Detection Rate Using Urine Immunoassay and Compliance Level with Control Strategies among Makueni Residents Attending the County Hospital
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11) Buuri, Kaburia Martin; Michael Gicheru; Joshua Mutiso
Aflatoxicosis is caused by Aflatoxins. The pathogenic fungi responsible are A. parasiticus and A. flavus that contaminate foods such as maize, rice, groundnuts, sorghum, wheat, millet and cassava among others. Aflatoxins mainly cause health issues that target the liver with fatal consequences. Aflatoxin toxicity range from acute to chronic and disease severity depends on age, diet, nutrition quality, extent of exposure, pre-existing health issues and gender. Preventive strategies are mainly focused on proper pre- and post-harvest food handling especially cereals. Aflatoxicosis is highly prevalent in the eastern region of Kenya despite the existence of preventive measures. The present study was carried out in Makueni County at the County referral hospital, which was selected purposively because it had the highest death rate during the 2004 aflatoxin-poisoning outbreak. The study aimed at establishing the detection level of aflatoxicosis using the Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) urine immunoassay as well as evaluating the level of compliance to the aflatoxin preventive strategies put in place and challenges associated with control of aflatoxicosis by residents of Makueni County. A cross-sectional design was chosen for the study in which one hundred and six volunteers took part. Data were obtained via questionnaires and urine samples were analyzed for presence of Aflatoxin using Aflatoxin M1 immunoassay. Collected data were entered into an excel worksheet and later analyzed using SPSS version 20 with a P value considered significant at < 0.05. Results showed that 99.1% of study participants had AFM1 in the range of 25-2337 pg./ml, with a mean concentration of 637.6 ± 512.7. Notably, majority (n=82; 77.4%) of the residents knew the negative effects of aflatoxin on their health. Additionally, the sampled residents had a compliance rate of 72.6% (n=77) while 26.4 % were not compliant to mitigation measures put in place to minimize aflatoxin contamination. At the baseline, while 67.9% of the residents indicated that handling of cereals hygienically and using proper means to dry and store their farm produce, 1.9% reported that smoking of cereals was the most effective means to prevent aflatoxin contamination. It was concerning that, 29.2% of the residents did not know which method of cereal handling was the most effective in controling aflatoxins. The study concludes that the present prevalence of aflatoxicosis in Makueni County is high despite high rate of compliance with aflatoxins preventive measures. The study recommends further research to be carried out on better aflatoxins preventive methods and the residents to be educated on proper application of mitigation strategies in order to achieve effective control of aflatoxicosis.
Co-Infection of Plasmodium Species with Intestinal Parasites in Children with Fever Aged Ten Years and Below at Marani Sub County, Kisii County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Gichana, Amwoma Lucas; Joshua Mutiso; Lucy Kamau
ABSTRACT Plasmodium and intestinal parasites are the most prevalent parasites causing diseases in Africa and Asia. These diseases are common among children aged less than 10 years. Malaria and intestinal parasitic infections have an overlapping distributions and nonspecific symptoms. In most cases, fever in children is clinically diagnosed as malaria infection. This diagnosis tends to attract a treatment of malaria alone, and fails to treat other possible life threatening diseases like parasitic infections that share common symptoms such as fever with malaria. Thus, the present study was aimed at establishing the prevalence of Plasmodium and intestinal parasites co-infection in children with fever aged 10 years and below in Marani sub county, Kisii County. A hospital based cross-sectional study was conducted from the month of March to August 2018. This study used simple random and systematic sampling method. The sample size was of 389 children drawn from a population who had febrile conditions, seeking medication at health facilities and whose parents or guardians had agreed by signing a consent form. Data were collected using closed-ended questionnaire. Stool and blood samples were collected for microscopic identification of parasites. Formalin-ether concentration technique was done for stool preparation with saline, iodine and trichrome stains. Geimsa stain was used for blood slide preparations. Data were analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The present study established that the main complaint by children seeking medication at dispensaries in Marani was fever (89.7%), out of which, 81.7% were found to be having fever above 37.5oC. The present study revealed that Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal parasites had a prevalence of 22.8% in children and this co-infection was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=20.78, p=0.000). The study established that the prevalence of Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal protozoa was 21.3% while co-infection between Plasmodium and intestinal helminths was 1.5%. Infections by plasmodium species, intestinal protozoa and intestinal helminth parasites were found to have significant relationship with fever in children (χ²=100.8, p=0.000), (χ²=45.65, p=0.000) and (χ²=6.418, p=0.017) respectively. The study also revealed that fever was significantly associated with infection by Plasmodium falciparum (χ²=10.714, p= 0.030) or Entamoeba histolytica (χ²=21.470, p=0.0404). However, according to this study, it was found that neither Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis nor Trichuris trichiura was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=8.337, p=0.080). Based on these findings, the study concludes that infections by Plasmodium falciparum and Entamoeba histolytica are most prevalent at 97.5% and 83.3% respectively in children. Plasmodium species and intestinal parasites infections are associated with severe fever in children. Therefore, the study recommends that clinicians should request both blood and stool samples for laboratory identification of a possible parasitic infection causing fever to a child before treatment to enhance disease management and control.
Co-Infection of Plasmodium Species with Intestinal Parasites in Children with Fever Aged Ten Years and below at Marani Sub County, Kisii County, Kenya
(kenyatta university, 2023-10) Amwoma, Lucas Gichana; Joshua Mutiso; Lucy Kamau
Plasmodium and intestinal parasites are the most prevalent parasites causing diseases in Africa and Asia. These diseases are common among children aged less than 10 years. Malaria and intestinal parasitic infections have an overlapping distributions and nonspecific symptoms. In most cases, fever in children is clinically diagnosed as malaria infection. This diagnosis tends to attract a treatment of malaria alone, and fails to treat other possible life threatening diseases like parasitic infections that share common symptoms such as fever with malaria. Thus, the present study was aimed at establishing the prevalence of Plasmodium and intestinal parasites co-infection in children with fever aged 10 years and below in Marani sub county, Kisii County. A hospital based cross-sectional study was conducted from the month of March to August 2018. This study used simple random and systematic sampling method. The sample size was of 389 children drawn from a population who had febrile conditions, seeking medication at health facilities and whose parents or guardians had agreed by signing a consent form. Data were collected using closed-ended questionnaire. Stool and blood samples were collected for microscopic identification of parasites. Formalin-ether concentration technique was done for stool preparation with saline, iodine and trichrome stains. Geimsa stain was used for blood slide preparations. Data were analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software version 20. The present study established that the main complaint by children seeking medication at dispensaries in Marani was fever (89.7%), out of which, 81.7% were found to be having fever above 37.5oC. The present study revealed that Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal parasites had a prevalence of 22.8% in children and this co-infection was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=20.78, p=0.000). The study established that the prevalence of Plasmodium co-infection with intestinal protozoa was 21.3% while co-infection between Plasmodium and intestinal helminths was 1.5%. Infections by plasmodium species, intestinal protozoa and intestinal helminth parasites were found to have significant relationship with fever in children (χ²=100.8, p=0.000), (χ²=45.65, p=0.000) and (χ²=6.418, p=0.017) respectively. The study also revealed that fever was significantly associated with infection by Plasmodium falciparum (χ²=10.714, p= 0.030) or Entamoeba histolytica (χ²=21.470, p=0.0404). However, according to this study, it was found that neither Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis nor Trichuris trichiura was significantly associated with fever in children (χ²=8.337, p=0.080). Based on these findings, the study concludes that infections by Plasmodium falciparum and Entamoeba histolytica are most prevalent at 97.5% and 83.3% respectively in children. Plasmodium species and intestinal parasites infections are associated with severe fever in children. Therefore, the study recommends that clinicians should request both blood and stool samples for laboratory identification of a possible parasitic infection causing fever to a child before treatment to enhance disease management and control.
Efficacy of fabric panels impregnated with metarhizium anisopliae against adult glossina fuscipes fuscipes in Manga and Magare islands, lake Victoria, Kenya
(Kenyatta university, 2022-06) Riithi, Naomi Nyambura; Elizabeth D. Kokwaro; Michael N. Okal
Tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) transmit parasites of the genus Trypanosoma that cause Human African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) in man and Animal African trypanosomiasis in livestock and wildlife. African Trypanosomiasis is a devastating tropical disease that is endemic to 38 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Integrated management of tsetse flies using pyrethroid insecticides has been the mainstay of trypanosomiasis control. Vector control and disease treatment have led to drastic declines in the incidence of sleeping sickness, hence, the World Health Organization set a goal to eliminate the disease by 2030. Despite this progress, African trypanosomiasis still impacts substantial health and economic burden in less fortunate communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is, therefore, a need for supplementary vector control strategies which are cost-effective and easy to maintain to fight this disease. The entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae has been effective in reducing tsetse flies longevity and overall vectorial capacity, while being cost-effective and easy to deploy. This study evaluated the efficacy of fabric panels impregnated with M. anisopliae against adults of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes in Manga and Magare islands of Lake Victoria in Kenya. Baseline studies were conducted to determine the existence of natural M. anisopliae using molecular analysis tools. For eight days, between 9.00 - 12.00 h, tsetse flies were sampled with four biconical traps and four targets with adhesives set 1m from the lakeshore at intervals of 200 m. Tsetse flies trapped were screened for naturally occurring M. anisopliae DNA. To compare the capacity of polyester, cotton and fleece fabrics to retain fungal conidia, panels were made by sewing 25 cm × 25 cm of each on pthalogen blue cotton fabric. Three replicates of each panel were treated with 0.1 g/cm2 of conidia and suspended 10 cm from the ground for fifteen days. Every 24 hours, conidia were sampled on three random points of each fabric and quantified. Electrocuting nets were used to estimate the attraction and landing rate of tsetse flies on panels with conidia doses of 0.25 – 1.00 g. The effectiveness of the fabric panels to disseminate lethal dosages of M. anisopliae to tsetse flies were evaluated by setting five panels treated with conidia dosage of 0.25 g in Manga Island. Five untreated panels in Magare island served as control. Tsetse flies were collected using biconical traps on each island and maintained on rabbit blood in the tsetse fly insectary. Dead flies were placed on petri dishes with dump paper towels and observed for mycosis after 5 days. Counts of tsetse flies and conidia were analysed in R packages using the zero-inflated generalised linear models and mortality rates estimated with Kaplan-Meier models. A total of 2,415 Glossina fuscipes fuscipes were trapped with 3.7 times (95 % Confidence Interval (CI) 2.8 - 4.9 flies, p>0.01) more tsetse flies were trapped in Manga Island than Magare island. There was zero detection of naturally occurring M. anisopliae DNA in the trapped tsetse flies. Fleece fabrics retained seven times (95 % CI: 5.6 - 8.8 times, p<0.01) more conidia than polyester and 1.2 times (95 % CI: 1.0 – 1.5 times, p=0.04) more than cotton fabrics. Incorporation of 1 g of conidia to panels reduced the landing rate of tsetse flies by 60 % (95 % CI: 30 – 70 %, p<0.01). Significantly fewer tsetse flies attempted to land on panels with conidia doses of 0.5 g and 1.0 g (p<0.05). Female tsetse flies were more affected by the colour change on the treated fabric panels. The prevalence of M. anisopliae on tsetse flies increased steadily to 24 % and 16.7 % in Manga and Magare islands respectively over three weeks. This study demonstrates that fabric panels made from fleece fabric and treated with 0.25 g of M. anisopliae conidia can effectively contaminate G. f. fuscipes in the field with the entomopathogen. With further optimization, the prototype can be developed into an effective large scale vector control tool.
Efficacy of Fabric Panels Impregnated with Metarhizium Anisopliae against Adult Glossina Fuscipes Fuscipes in Manga and Magare Islands, Lake Victoria, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Riithi, Naomi Nyambura; Elizabeth D.Kokwaro; Micheal N. Okal
Tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) transmit parasites of the genus Trypanosoma that cause Human African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) in man and Animal African trypanosomiasis in livestock and wildlife. African Trypanosomiasis is a devastating tropical disease that is endemic to 38 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Integrated management of tsetse flies using pyrethroid insecticides has been the mainstay of trypanosomiasis control. Vector control and disease treatment have led to drastic declines in the incidence of sleeping sickness, hence, the World Health Organization set a goal to eliminate the disease by 2030. Despite this progress, African trypanosomiasis still impacts substantial health and economic burden in less fortunate communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is, therefore, a need for supplementary vector control strategies which are cost-effective and easy to maintain to fight this disease. The entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae has been effective in reducing tsetse flies longevity and overall vectorial capacity, while being cost-effective and easy to deploy. This study evaluated the efficacy of fabric panels impregnated with M. anisopliae against adults of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes in Manga and Magare islands of Lake Victoria in Kenya. Baseline studies were conducted to determine the existence of natural M. anisopliae using molecular analysis tools. For eight days, between 9.00 - 12.00 h, tsetse flies were sampled with four biconical traps and four targets with adhesives set 1m from the lakeshore at intervals of 200 m. Tsetse flies trapped were screened for naturally occurring M. anisopliae DNA. To compare the capacity of polyester, cotton and fleece fabrics to retain fungal conidia, panels were made by sewing 25 cm × 25 cm of each on pthalogen blue cotton fabric. Three replicates of each panel were treated with 0.1 g/cm2 of conidia and suspended 10 cm from the ground for fifteen days. Every 24 hours, conidia were sampled on three random points of each fabric and quantified. Electrocuting nets were used to estimate the attraction and landing rate of tsetse flies on panels with conidia doses of 0.25 – 1.00 g. The effectiveness of the fabric panels to disseminate lethal dosages of M. anisopliae to tsetse flies were evaluated by setting five panels treated with conidia dosage of 0.25 g in Manga Island. Five untreated panels in Magare island served as control. Tsetse flies were collected using biconical traps on each island and maintained on rabbit blood in the tsetse fly insectary. Dead flies were placed on petri dishes with dump paper towels and observed for mycosis after 5 days. Counts of tsetse flies and conidia were analysed in R packages using the zero-inflated generalised linear models and mortality rates estimated with Kaplan-Meier models. A total of 2,415 Glossina fuscipes fuscipes were trapped with 3.7 times (95 % Confidence Interval (CI) 2.8 - 4.9 flies, p>0.01) more tsetse flies were trapped in Manga Island than Magare island. There was zero detection of naturally occurring M. anisopliae DNA in the trapped tsetse flies. Fleece fabrics retained seven times (95 % CI: 5.6 - 8.8 times, p<0.01) more conidia than polyester and 1.2 times (95 % CI: 1.0 – 1.5 times, p=0.04) more than cotton fabrics. Incorporation of 1 g of conidia to panels reduced the landing rate of tsetse flies by 60 % (95 % CI: 30 – 70 %, p<0.01). Significantly fewer tsetse flies attempted to land on panels with conidia doses of 0.5 g and 1.0 g (p<0.05). Female tsetse flies were more affected by the colour change on the treated fabric panels. The prevalence of M. anisopliae on tsetse flies increased steadily to 24 % and 16.7 % in Manga and Magare islands respectively over three weeks. This study demonstrates that fabric panels made from fleece fabric and treated with 0.25 g of M. anisopliae conidia can effectively contaminate G. f. fuscipes in the field with the entomopathogen. With further optimization, the prototype can be developed into an effective large scale vector control tool.
Distribution of Raptors in the City Metropolitan, Nairobi, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Wachira, Washington; James Jumbe; Jemimah Simbauni
Diurnal raptors are a great group of birds to use for environmental monitoring. Being at the top of the food chain, raptor populations indicate the health of an ecosystem in general and show gradual trends as occasioned by environmental changes. Nairobi is a fast-developing urban metropolis and its development has led to reduction of green spaces in most places where there were forests and woodlands. This study was developed to help quantify the importance of urban forests by using diurnal raptors as indicators of forest value. Line transects were conducted in three large forest blocks within the greater Nairobi metropolitan; namely Karura Forest, Ngong Road Forest and Thogoto Forest. A metropolitan road transect was also developed to overlap the three study forests and then incorporate all the major development zones around the city. These transects were used to count all diurnal raptors seen or heard and then comparisons were computed to quantify the differences between the three forests individually. Secondly, the three forests as one single block, were compared against the city metropolitan. The study identified 15 diurnal raptor species in the three urban forests. The Shannon diversity index results showed that Thogoto Forest had the highest raptor diversity index (Shannon) at 1.08, followed by Ngong Road Forest Sanctuary at 1.05 and the lowest was Karura Forest at 1.03. However, the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) results queried on the diversity indices showed that the indices were not statistically significant. Therefore, despite each forest having some species that did not occur in the other two forests; the three urban forests did not differ significantly in the numbers of species represented. Species encounter rates were computed per 100 kilometres to check for differences in species abundances across the three forests. A chi-square test of independence was done to examine the relation between species encounter rates across the three urban forests. The results showed that; species that were more abundant in one forest, were not as abundant in the other forests. When the three forests were compared against the metropolitan area; the urban forests had a significantly higher diversity mean score than the metropolitan area. This meant that the urban forests had more raptor species represented than the general metropolitan. Diurnal raptor abundances were also compared between the urban forests and the metropolitan area; and it turned out that those species that were more likely to be encountered in the forests were not as likely to be encountered in the greater metropolitan region. The months of March and April recorded the highest raptor numbers in the three forests with June recording the lowest numbers. In the metropolitan the months of March, April and May recorded the highest raptor numbers while December recorded the lowest numbers. This study showed that the existence of urban forests has an effect on diurnal raptor species diversity and abundance in the greater Nairobi area.
Risk Factors for Parasite Infestation and Efficacy of Commonly Used Anthelmintics among Dorper Sheep in Kajiado County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Morinket, Keshura Richard; Joshua Mutiso; Joseph Nginyi
Cases of ineffective anthelmintics have been contributing to reduced productivity in livestock due to worm burdens in supposedly treated animals. Effective anthelmintics serve as the main control measure in the management of worm infestations in small ruminants. However, there have been rising cases of helminth infestations in de-wormed animals as reported by farmers. The unresponsive infestations become a serious health and productivity constraint. Effective management of infestations relies solely on the use of very effective anthelmintics. Nonetheless, widespread resistance towards available anthelmintics is threatening the potential utilization of this strategic plan. The present study sought to assess efficacy levels of the most frequently used anthelmintics (Ivermectin, Nilzan super and Valbazen) in sheep and goats in Kajiado and identify factors associated with the rising cases of these infestations. Questionnaire surveys were used to assess the community’s knowledge and attitudes on these infestations. Animals not treated within the last three months and with faecal egg counts of ≥ 150 egg per gram (epg) were identified and included in the study. The identified animals were allocated to 4 groups of 18 animals each using a complete randomized design. Group A was treated with Valbazen orally, Group B with Nilzan super orally, Group C with Supermec injection subcutaneously while Group D was used as the untreated control group. Faecal egg counts and larval cultures were done before treatment (day zero) and after treatment (day fourteen). Faecal cultures were used to identify the principal nematode genera present in the pre- and post-treatment phases. Efficacy levels of the used drugs established using the faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) method. Results indicated that the mean faecal egg counts of the different groups including treated and the control was not significantly different during the pre-treatment phase. However, on day fourteen, the faecal egg counts of Group C were significantly different (P < 0.05) from the rest of the treated groups. The different anthelmintic drugs used displayed a significant reduction effect (P < 0.05) on the parasite levels after treatment. Results of the FECRT revealed 86%, 76% and 17% in worm reduction for Nilzan super, Valbazen and Supermec respectively. In the case of pre-treatment cultures, Haemonchus, Oesophagostomum, Cooperia, Trichostrongilus and Strongiloides were present indicating multiple parasitic infections. Post-treatment faecal cultures showed that Haemonchus, Oesophagostomum and Trichostrongilus had escaped the treatments with Haemonchus being the predominant genera present. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that multiple drug resistance has been confirmed in Kajiado County and this has negative effects on the productivity of these animals. However, the level of resistance observed was apparently very high in ivermectin. It is therefore, recommended that animal health extension services in the County should be deployed to create awareness on the emerging threat of anthelmintic resistance and how to manage it.
Status and Mechanisms of Insecticide Resistance in Vectors of Malaria within Kilifi County along Coastal Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Munywoki, Nzioka Daniel; Charles M. Mbogo; Joseph M. Mwangangi
Vector control is key to reduction of malaria transmission. In sub-Saharan Africa, vector control programmes are mainly dependent on insecticide treated nets (ITNs) or indoor residual spraying (IRS). However, the progress, as a result of these methods, is currently under threat due to the fast and continuing evolution of insecticide resistance by malaria vectors. Knowledge on the resistance status of mosquito populations and the mechanisms involved form the basis for the development of sound plan for resistance control and management. This study investigated the resistance status of selected insecticides recommended by World Health Organization Pesticides Evaluation Scheme for control of mosquitoes. Anopheles gambiae s.l. larvae collected from eight study sites (Burangi, Jaribuni, Kidutani, Mangororo, Mapawa, Mbogolo, Ng’ombeni and Shibe) in Kilifi county were reared up to adulthood in the insectary. From this colony, 3-5 day old non-blood fed females were obtained and tested following the World Health Organization (WHO) procedures for susceptibility to fenitrothion (1%), bendiocarb (0.1%), permethrin (0.75%), deltamethrin (0.05%) and DDT (4%). The knockdown time (KDT) for each insecticide was recorded up to 60 minutes while final mortality was noted after 24 hours post-exposure. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of rDNA intergenic spacers was used for identification of the sibling species of the Anopheles gambiae complex. In addition, 192 Anopheles gambiae s.l mosquitoes were used to determine the genotype constitution at amino acid 1014 of the voltage-gated sodium channel using real time polymerase chain reaction. The data for resistance was classified following World Health Organization criteria with, mortality rates of 98-100% indicating susceptibility, 90-97% possible resistance that requires further confirmation and ≤90% indicating resistance. The knockdown times at 50% and 95% of the mosquitoes were estimated using probit analysis. Final data were entered into Microsoft excel 2010 and analyzed using the R statistical software version 3.2.2. The results indicated that, Anopheles arabiensis was the dominant species representing 95.2% of the total collections followed by Anopheles gambiae s.s. at 4.8%. The percentage mortality rates indicated resistance to pyrethroids (deltamethrin and permethrin) in Burangi and organophosphate (fenitrothion) in Jaribuni villages. The L1014F knockdown (kdr) mutation was not found in both An. gambiae s.s and An. arabiensis. However, L1014S kdr mutation was discovered in An. gambiae s.s at an allele frequency of 3.33%. The findings from this study provide essential information to the Ministry of Health and public health stakeholders necessary for monitoring the establishment of insecticide resistance and development of management strategies to delay or mitigate its impact on vector control.

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