MST-Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies

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Inter-Ethnic Conflicts In Turbo Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya (1895-2010).
(Kenyatta University, 2024-09) Were, Emmanuel Mbogo
Kenya is a multi-ethnic society whose people have overtime co-existed, traded and intermarried. These cordial inter-ethnic relations have resulted in the country’s social development, economic growth as well as political stability. However, efforts to promote perpetual peaceful co-existence remains a mirage despite decades of restructuring. This is partly because of the failure by the political elite to de-ethnicize politics, a development that is frequently connected with intermittent conflicts experienced in various parts of the country. Such conflicts have threatened the very bases of social order and cohesion, caused hatred, death, destruction of property and collapse of thriving economy. Against this bedrock, and guided by Dahrendorf’s Conflict theory, this study investigated Inter-ethnic Conflicts in Turbo sub-county, Uasin Gishu County Kenya between 1895 to 2010.It explored the localized processes of identity production and negotiation in the area. The following objectives guided the study; tracing the evolution of the multi-ethnic community in the study area, analyzing the nexus between politicized ethnicity and inter-ethnic conflicts and examining the heightened inter-ethnic conflicts and intervention measures to mitigate the conflicts in Turbo Sub-county. The study targeted a population of people who had knowledge of the history and surrounding terrain plus those conversant with early inter-ethnic contacts and conflicts in the study area. In its methodology purposive and snowballing sampling method were employed and the data collected and analyzed qualitatively. Primary data was gathered by conducting questionnaires, interviews and by examining government official reports and archival documents whereas secondary data was sourced from theses, books, articles in newspapers and journals from libraries. The study’s findings indicate that the demands of the colonial economy resulted in the formation of a multi-ethnic community in Turbo area. The settled people had a peaceful and harmonious co-existence as they mutually engaged in economic and social activities. However, since politics in the country falls short of the best practices and ideals of a democratic political system, politicization of ethnicity through balkanization of the residents into rigid ethnic enclaves and poor governance through resource mal-distribution heightens perceptions of exclusion which consequently provokes conflicts. These conflicts have amplified ethnic differences making citizens to consciously identify more with their ethnic groups than being Kenyan citizens. Even though various stakeholders such as the religious community and non-governmental organizations have taken measures to mitigate such conflicts, the approach has not been integrated. The study faults government efforts for its top down approach to peace building and recommends bottom up approaches including resourcing the institution of elderhood and granting it authority to manage conflicts. The recommendations are aimed to inform the policy makers and other stakeholders on how to resolve inter-ethnic conflicts and thus promote peaceful coexistence among different ethnic groups.
Ethnic Land Issues and Electoral Politics in Kuresoi, Nakuru County, Kenya, 1939-2017
(Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Koech, Stephen Kiprotich
The relationship between land, ethnic conflict and electoral politics has been widely documented. The role played by land and ethnic conflict on electoral politics has been deeply captured in Africa in general and Kenya in particular. Electoral related violence revolving around land in the Rift-Valley province of Kenya has been addressed. Kuresoi, one of the Sub counties in the larger Nakuru County in the former Rift-Valley province was one of the areas that were affected by electoral related violence revolving around land and negative ethnicity after the reintroduction of multiparty politics in 1991. Kuresoi division later became a Sub-County in 2013 following the adoption of the 2010 constitution in Kenya. The study researched on the influence of ethnic land issues and electoral politics on the parliamentary electoral contests in Kuresoi, Nakuru County, Kenya 1939-2017. It examined how the peopling of Kuresoi and ethnic land issues shaped ethnic relations from 1939 to 1991. The study also interrogated the extent to which land issues and electoral politics have played out in parliamentary elections in Kuresoi, Nakuru County, Kenya. The influence of ethnic land issues, political formations and lobby groups on the parliamentary electoral outcomes was also examined. To achieve its objectives the study administered oral interviews and questionnaires to to a sample size of 260 informants from the former four divisions of Kuresoi namely Kamara and Kuresoi in Kuresoi North and Olenguruone and Keringet in Kuresoi South. Purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were used to identify respondents. The target population included the members of the local administration, security agencies, activists, elders, the clergy, politicians, women leaders and business persons. Focus group discussions were used to back up oral interviews and questionnaires. This study applied both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis and interpretation. Anchored on the ancient hatred theory, theory of indivisible territory, the systematic replacement theory and elite manipulation theory, this study argued that the political elites have at election periods invoked the land historical injustices to win the hearts of ethnic loyalties and aligned themselves in the social formations to secure the ballots. The findings from the study will inform the functions of the security agencies in its attempt to contain the wanting security issues around the election periods and policy formations and implementations both at the national and at County levels in the development initiatives.
Political Party Alliance Building in Kenya, 1945-2013
(Kenyatta University, 2024-10) Nduu, Bernice Kalimi
This study undertook a historical analysis on political party alliance building in Kenya 1945-2013.The study objectives were to trace the historical background on the political party formations in Kenya. Secondly, it sought to interrogate the nature of political party alliances before Multipartism was entrenched in Kenya in the 1990s. Finally, it analysed the changing trends in political party alliance building and how they have influenced politics in general. Elite bargain theory aided the study in scrutinizing the bases on which alliances are structured. In achieving the objectives, a descriptive research design was used. Qualitative techniques were used to collect, analyse and present data. Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources included key informant interviews, oral interviews, focus group discussions and archival sources. Secondary sources included books, articles in journals, newspapers, reports, theses, dissertations and internet sources. The research findings indicate that the political party alliances trace their origin to the colonial period when Africans united to react against colonial rule. In search for political independence, airing the grievances of the locals and desire to outdo each other informed political associations formation during the colonial period. The findings further indicate that independent Kenya witnessed a diverse context in political party formation and alliances; different regimes had different approaches in addressing political matters. It was revealed that the individual power interests influenced political party and alliance formation between 1963 to 1991. Nevertheless, due to oppression from the ruling party, there was no solid alliance formed at the time apart from the KANU- KADU merger that broke in 1966. Finally, the findings established that elite interests, ethnicity, leadership desires and political mileage informed alliance formation between 1993 to 2013 in Kenya. As a result when such interests were not met, splits and degeneration were witnessed in alliances leading to new formations. Hence, the period had been marked with elites shifting from one alliance to another. The study is vital in that it adds knowledge to the existing literature on alliance building in Kenya and will provide a new methodology and theoretical framework to examine the challenges in Kenya’s political sphere when it comes to party alignments.
Change and Continuity in Land Tenure System and Gender Relations in Nyeri County, Kenya (1895-2013)
(Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Mwangi, Grace
In many human societies, rights to ownership of land, control and use determine the bargaining power of women in the society and the household, as well as determining their economic condition. Control of land and its efficient use are determined by the availability of land resources and existing social and institutional structures. This study examines changes in land tenure systems and gender relations in Mukurweini, Nyeri County, between 1895 and 2013. Land alienation among the Kikuyu, the subsequent consolidation of land and the individual registration greatly impacted the land tenure systems among men and women. The women were greatly affected due to the existing patriarchal system that undermined/dictated the right of women to land ownership. Being a historical study, this thesis highlights how the patriarchal land control of land in pre-colonial Kikuyu land determined the immensity of land access and use by the women and investigates land policies initiated by the colonial government in respect to ownership, access and control of land by Kikuyu women. It interrogates land policies in Kenya between 1963 and 2013 and their impact on Mukurweini women’s access to and ownership of land. The study further examines the ramifications struggle for and institutionalization of the new constitutional order in Kenya between 1992 and 2013. The study is based on the assumption that the pre colonial patriarchal land tenure system heavily determined the limited land access, use and control by the women of Mukurweini and that, the colonial land policies introduced in Kenya only served to perpetuate the existing patriarchal control of land among the Kikuyu. These policies were continued under the Kenyatta regime which remained basically patriarchal in regard to access, control and ownership of land by women. The third premise argues that the Moi regime initiated significant changes in respect to women and land matters, which in turn became a springboard for the thorough reforms realized in the new constitutional order in Kenya. Gender analysis was used as a tool of analysis to explain the land tenure system and gender relations in Mukurweini. The study adopted the historical design as well as the descriptive research design. The instruments of data collection included questionnaires, interviews, and materials from secondary sources and government records which include archival documents from the Kenya National Archives. It is argued that the establishment of colonial rule engendered new socio- economic trends that culminated in the partial abandonment of the Kikuyu pre-colonial land tenure system. This thesis concludes that the socio- economic relations between females and males in terms of access to and control over land as a resource has changed over time and decision making has also been influenced by the metamorphosis within the period of study
Trends in Women Participation in Political Affairs in Mandera County, Kenya 1890 -2017
(Kenyatta University, 2022-11) Hothan, Ibrahim Hussein
Politics is central to human interactions. Human beings as social and political animals cannot do without society and politics. In modern liberal democracy representation remains the yard stick for participation in political affairs. Participation of men and women in political affairs has dominated contemporary intellectual debates worldwide in general, and Africa specifically. Concerns have been raised on gender parity in participation in political affairs. Men have an advantage over women when it comes to participating in political issues in patriarchal African societies. Women are underrepresented and are absent in decision making positions which ultimately affects their participation in policy formulation. This picture is replicated in Kenya where men tend to dominate in political representation. Women make up barely 0.03% of elected leaders in Madera County and 9.8% of the total representation in parliament in the country. This situation persists in spite of the promulgation of the Kenya constitution 2010 that aimed at bringing about gender parity in political representation. This study examined the participation of women in political affairs of Mandera County, Kenya from 1890 to 2017. This study was guided by three objectives. The study began by interrogating the nature of gender relations in the Somali society in the pre-colonial and colonial periods. Secondly this study assessed the level of women participation in political affairs in Mandera County between 1963 and 2010. Lastly the extent to which the promulgation of the 2010 Constitution impacted on the participation of women in the political affairs in Mandera County from 2010 to 2017 was evaluated. To achieve its objectives, the study relied on both primary and secondary data collection methods. Stratified purposive sampling and snow balling was used to select 75 respondents. These included women and men voters from Mandera County, women political leaders, leaders from selected women groups and male elders. Collected data was analyzed and interpreted qualitatively. Anchored on the social relations gender theoretical approach this study argued that patriarchy and the social construction of gender in African societies have apportioned men and women in Mandera County sex specific roles. Women have been socialized into the domestic sphere while men to the public sphere, leadership included. This social construction of gender roles it is argued militates against women participation in political affairs in Mandera County.
Perspectives on Security Agencies’ Counter-Terrorism Strategies and Human Rights Safeguards in Kenya (1998-2020)
(Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Sandra Makayoto
This study aims to explore perspectives on security agencies’ counter-terrorism strategies and human rights safeguards in Kenya (1998-2020). Specifically, the study sought to: evaluate the effectiveness of various security agencies counterterrorism strategies in Kenya between 1998 and 2020, assess effects of security agencies counter- terrorism strategies on human rights violations in Kenya between 1998 and 2020 and investigate the challenges faced by security agencies counterterrorism strategies in combating threat of terrorism and protection of human rights in Kenya. The study draws on both Deterrence and Liberalism Theory to inform its analysis. The research utilized a descriptive research design, and the target population consisted of 420 civil society groups, human rights organizations, security agencies, and counter-terrorism agencies (CSOs). A sample of 150 respondents who were given a questionnaire and an interview schedule was obtained through the use of two-stage purposive sampling technique. The collected numeric data were analyzed with the assistance of SPSS software version 26.0, while the collected qualitative data were processed thematically through the utilization of content analysis. The analyzed data was reported in the form of narrative and displayed on tables, charts and bars. The study findings revealed that government of Kenya has deployed a number of security agencies counterterrorism strategies between 1998 and 2020 among them being, arrests, prosecutions, detentions, multiagency approach, using security forces, educating the public, fighting terrorism through creation of income generating activities, enactment of the anti-terrorism act, monitoring and interception of money transactions and regulating the media. According to the findings of the study, the majority of the counterterrorism strategies implemented by Kenya's various security agencies have been ineffective in accomplishing the country's overarching objective of eradicating terrorism. In addition, the study discovered that the most common challenges faced by security agencies counterterrorism strategies in combating the threat of terrorism and protecting human rights in Kenya include insufficient funds, inadequate training, increased youth radicalization, and a lack of support from the general public. The study comes to the conclusion that government security agencies and international entities have a responsibility to take all necessary steps to protect human rights both within and outside of the jurisdiction of the country against extremism.
Regional Integration and Free Movement of Persons and Labour in the East African Community.
(Kenyatta University, 2024-05) Ole-Sein, Nairimas
The Protocol on the EAC common market in 2010 provides for unrestricted flow of persons within the region. According to this protocol nationals of member states have the right to travel, reside, work and trade freely within the region. This is expected to happen under the full protection of the domestic laws of the host country without any discrimination or restrictions based on nationality. However there appears to be a discrepancy between what has been agreed on by member states, and the actual practice in some of these countries. This study examined how regional integration within the EAC has effected the free movement of persons and workers. This study set three objectives. To begin with, this study examined how the East African Community through the Common Market, has affected the free movement of persons and workers within the member states. Second, the extent to which East African integration has affected the access of Business licences for citizens of the member states was analysed. Finally, the challenges faced by citizens of the East African Community member states in accessing work permits were evaluated. Anchored on Andrew Moravcsik’s theory of liberal intergovernmentalism and Kenneth Waltz’s neorealist theory, this study argued that the state, being the most important actor in global politics, influences the foreign policy of states, in pursuit of its strategic interests. In this study, the target population was made up of businesspersons within the EAC and involved in cross-border trade, government officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the State Department of Immigration and Citizen Services, State Department for East African Community, and the East African Community Secretariat. Descriptive research design was used for the study. The researcher purposively selected 110 cross border traders and an additional 50 Government officials from the above-mentioned Government Departments and the East African Community. The respondents were selected based on their experience in the movement of persons across the borders of EAC member states, either as policy makers, policy implementers or individuals affected by the policies. Data from government officials was collected through oral interviews using an interview guide, while data from traders was collected through structured questionnaires. Qualitative data was analysed using content analysis, while quantitative data was analysed through tabulation of the mean and standard deviation. The study established that the East Africa Community through the Common Market has made it easier for citizens of EAC member states to travel to other member states as indicated by 70.9% of the respondents. Most of the respondents, 51.6% identified the abolition of visas and visa fees, had the greatest effect in making the free movement of people easier. The study also found that because of the EAC integration, business licences are easily accessible to citizens of EAC member states. The study found that the acquisition of Work Permits by citizens of EAC member states remains a challenge with 34.9% citing the high cost of documents, and 30.2% citing long tedious processes. The study recommends continued implementation of the visa-free regime for citizens of the East African Community as a way of encouraging the free movement of persons, the set-up of simplified and standardised procedures for application of business licenses and the full adherence by all member states to Article 10 of the East African Common Market Protocol on the Freedom of movement of Labour. The study suggests further research to examine how the movement of persons and workers has affected the growth of cross-border trade between the EAC member states.
Efforts by the Government of Kenya in Combating the Trafficking of Karamoja Women and Girls from Northeastern Uganda into Nairobi
(Kenyatta University, 2023-11-01) Susan, Gachoki Beth; Oduor Isaiah Otieno
Abstract
Symbolism in the Manufacture, Use, Change and Continuity of Tiriki Circumcision Material Culture (Idumi), 1850 – 2014.
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Sandula, Benjamin; Henry Mwanzi; Lazarus K.Ngari
Every society manufactures cultural material for both practical and ideological utility. In this study, I examined the symbolism in the manufacture, use, continuity and change in Idumi material culture among the Tiriki of Hamisi sub - county, Vihiga County. This thesis also investigated the origin of the circumcision (Idumi) material culture. Idumi designates the whole series of ceremonies performed to initiate adolescent boys into an age group (likhula) Sangree (1966:20).This research was guided by the premise that the Tiriki have unique symbols used in idumi .The study was based on functionalism theory. I used Bascom and Herskovits ‘change and continuity’ concept to stress that Idumi material culture is subject to change in the process of use as culture is dynamic.The study adopted descriptive design which involves interviews, question guielines, participant observation, and focus group discussion.The research utilized qualitative methodology that involved description of what I went to find out in the field. Snow ball type of purposive sampling was used since renowned custodians of idumi material culture are few. Midrash approach was used to infer meaning in idumi symbols. The study found out that, idumi and its material culture owes its origin on the Terik. Some of the material culture in idumi still undergo the manufacturing process while some have been discarded.The cultural material integrated in idumi reinforce the desired traits the Tiriki ascribe to manhood. Though Change has caught up with material culture used in idumi, certain aspects persist. I recommend that circumcisers’ should use disposable gloves as well as sterilize their hands after every operation to protect initiates. Future scholars should examine how circumcision material symbols of other ethnic groups transform the initiates into the men society desires.Further, scholars should explore the evolution of idumi as an education institution in the transmutation of adolescent boys among the Tiriki.Lastly, since HIV/AIDS is still a pandemic, there is need to study on how circumcision or lack of it inhibits or contribute to the spread of HIV/AIDS.
The Kenya Red Cross Society and Peacebuilding Initiatives amongst Pokot and Tugen Communities in Baringo County, Kenya, 1978-2013
(Kenyatta University, 2023-07) Mueni, Wambua Grace; Gordon Onyango Omenya
The study focused on the peacebuilding initiatives of the Kenya Red Cross Society (KRCS) among the Pokot and Tugen communities in Baringo County, Kenya, from 1978 to 2013. Despite the efforts made by various stakeholders, conflicts in the region have persisted. The specific objectives of the study were to examine the social, economic, and political factors contributing to conflicts between the Tugen and Pokot communities, assess the effectiveness of the KRCS peacebuilding initiatives, and analyze the challenges faced by the KRCS in their peacebuilding efforts. The study adopted a transformative approach to peacebuilding, which emphasizes the importance of reflecting the interests, identities, and needs of local actors. The research was anchored within the structural violence theory, which explores how social, economic, and political structures can perpetuate harm and inequality. A qualitative descriptive survey design was employed for this study. The target population included KRCS officials, government officials (Chiefs and Assistant Chiefs), community leaders, religious leaders, and local community members who were beneficiaries of the peacebuilding initiatives. Purposive sampling was used to select key informants, while simple random sampling was employed to select specific respondents from the local community. Both questionnaires and interview guides were used as research instruments, and focus group discussions were utilized to gather data from secondary sources. Quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques were employed for data analysis. The study found that conflicts between the Tugen and Pokot communities escalated during dry seasons when there was competition for grazing land and water resources. Additionally, the proliferation of small arms contributed to the conflict in the study area. Although the KRCS has made efforts towards peacebuilding, it has faced significant challenges from both the county and national governments, as well as infrastructural and logistical limitations. Based on these findings, the study concludes that there is a need for equal distribution of food and non-food items, as well as the establishment of boreholes, dams, and irrigation schemes within the areas occupied by the two warring communities. These measures would contribute to long-term peacebuilding efforts and address the underlying causes of the conflicts.
The Transformation of Sports Culture among the Keiyo and Marakwet of Elgeyo-Marakwet County, Kenya, C. 1850-1964
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Kimaiyo, Lorna Jepkoech; peter wafula; Vincent ownywera
Sport is an integral part of human culture that is deeply embedded in the social values of societies across the world. As an aspect of social life, sport is entrenched within the matrix of culture and shares in the general trends of cultural change. Since time immemorial, Africa's indigenous populations have incorporated different forms of sporting activities into many facets of their daily lives. These included running, wrestling, climbing trees, high jumping and shooting range. The Keiyo and Marakwet, just like other communities, had developed elaborate indigenous forms of sports which not only promoted the physical and mental growth of the youth but served as worthwhile pastime activities. With the establishment of British colonial rule, however, these indigenous sporting activities were significantly transformed. This change is what concerns this study. It examines the historical development of the sports culture among the Keiyo and Marakwet in the period between 1850 and 1964. This study is based on three objectives; that is, to describe the indigenous sporting activities of the Keiyo and Marakwet from 1850 to 1894, to examine the colonial transformation of the indigenous sporting culture of the Keiyo and Marakwet from 1895 to 1945 and lastly to demonstrate how the adoption of modern sports between 1945 to1964 marked a watershed in the transformation of the Keiyo and Marakwet sporting history. The study is premised on the view that the indigenous sporting culture of the Keiyo and Marakwet was significantly changed by Western cultural intrusion. The indigenous Kalenjin warrior spirit embodied in African sporting activities was harnessed by the British and channeled into Western sports, mainly athletics. This study was guided by two theoretical frameworks; functionalism and antidialogical action theory. The former was used to analyze how sports were an integral part of the cultural structure of the Keiyo and Marakwet during the pre-colonial period. While the theory of antidialogical action was used to analyze the contact between Western sports culture among the Keiyo and Marakwet during the British colonial rule. In terms of methodology, this study utilized primary sources of data, mainly archival material and oral sources, and secondary sources to construct the history of sports in Elgeyo Marakwet County. In short, this study was an attempt to tell the story of the encounter and interaction between the Keiyo and Marakwet and European sporting culture. Our findings indicated that during the colonial period the Keiyo and Marakwet warrior spirit was channeled to the field and track which led to the emergence of modern athletics. This study is significant as it makes a case for the important contributions the topic of sport can make to understanding of history of colonialism in Africa.
Ethnic Relations and Peacebuilding Amongst Communities in Nakuru County, 1992 – 2017
(kenyatta university, 2023) Wamae, Samwel Macharia; Felistus Kinyanjui
The political dynamics brought political realignments heightening tensions that culminated in ethnic violence within the area in the period 1992, 1997, 2007/8. The Post-Election Violence (PEV) of 2008 was the deadliest resulting to over 1,200 deaths and 350,000 displacements in the entire country. The study was guided by the following objectives; to review the ethnic relations among communities living in Njoro Sub County of Nakuru County; to examine the ethnic violence among communities living in area; and to evaluate the initiatives in peace building and social cohesion among communities. The study is anchored on the Protracted Social Conflict (PSC) theory by Azar. Literature was thematically reviewed in the study. The researcher used descriptive survey targeting members of the community, elders, County administrators, religious leaders and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) that were selected using multi-stage sampling techniques to attain a sample of 185 respondents. Questionnaires were used to collect data from the household heads in the communities while interview schedules gathered information from the Key Informant (KIs). Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics while qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis. The study findings revealed that communities living in Njoro are highly ethnic as in terms of use of different languages, interests and associations, ethnic geographic boundaries, cultural heritage and practices as well as ethnic political regrouping. Njoro was found to have frequent conflicts due to land, livestock and political differences leading to organized gangs destroying property, killing and maiming subjecting victims to psychological trauma, interrupting the education for children and mass displacement from the ethnic animosity. Various peace building and social cohesion initiatives in Njoro namely the constitution reviews, peace accords as well as the involvement of NGOs and establishment of commissions were considered to be effective. The study recommends that political leaders should stop dividing communities based on their ethnic orientation and community members should be sensitized on the benefits of peaceful coexistence with each other regardless of their ethnic background. All agencies of peace building should be encouraged to spear head effective peace building activities. Local administrators have the capability to enforce the law and retain normalcy in case of ethnic conflict before it can result in violence that can lead to destruction of property or loss of life.
Implications of Xenophobia on Relations between Kenya and South Africa; 2008-2018
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Ruto, Philip Kipngeno; Susan Waiyego Mwangi
The impact of the various social ills breaks the bonds that anchor bilateral engagements between nations. With the countries involved in the engagement having a set of diverse social ills that would be deemed dangerous to their bilateral relationship, there has never been an adequate focus on how xenophobia has influenced bilateral dealings between South Africa and Kenya. Although it is not a new phenomenon, xenophobia has proved to be one area that determines the standing of bilateral dealing between other African countries and South Africa. The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of South African xenophobia on its relationship with Kenya between the years 2008 and 2018. Specifically, the study examined the causes of xenophobia in South Africa, analysed effects of xenophobia on citizens from countries neighbouring South Africa between 2008 to 2018, assessed the effects of xenophobia on the Kenya nationals wishing to work or study in South Africa and examined xenophobia effects on political and economic relations between Kenya and South Africa. The research used descriptive research design. Primary data and secondary data were used. The secondary data included the information extracted from existing written sources. Raw data were gathered by scheduling interview with officials in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Embassies. The gathered data were analysed qualitatively as well as quantitative by examining the interrelationships among factors and the obtained data. As per the research findings, it was clear that xenophobia is a matter that affects bilateral relations between countries. Despite the existence of minimal instances of xenophobia in Kenya, there is a growing feeling about it in South Africa due to increased influx of foreigners into South Africa and subsequently taking up jobs that would ordinarily be done by the locals. The study recommended that the message of African unity should be spread across African states to include Kenya and South Africa. The civil society and the media should pursue this agenda so that citizens of the two countries can realise the importance of unity and benefit from the same by way of achieving cohesion and economic integration and development. South Africa government should deal decisively with the perpetrators of violence in their country to deter the youth from engaging in killings and disruption of business and tarnishing the image of one of Africa’s economic giants. This will be achieved through the development of domestic laws and strengthening of police and justice response to xenophobic violence.
The Contribution of Traditional Elders in Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding in Banadir Region, Somalia 1991 - 2016
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Abukar, Abukar Sayid Ali; Julius Simiyu Nabende
In Somalia, the phenomenon of conflicts has been persistent since the collapse of Siad Barre regime in 1991. Peace building initiatives by international, national and local actors have intervened at different levels to address these conflicts. Existing research into peace building and reconciliation has marginally discussed roles of traditional elders in the Banadir region of Somalia. This study examined the contribution of traditional elders in conflict resolution and peace building in the Banadir region, Somalia, 1991 - 2016. The main objectives of the study were to examine the role of elders in the reconciliation and mediation process in the Banadir region of Somalia, 1991 - to 2004, to discuss peace-building initiatives led by elders in the Banadir region, Somalia, 2005 - 2016, and finally, to assess the challenges faced by elders in conflict resolution and peace building in Banadir region of Somalia, 1991 - 2016. Mediation theory and conflict transformation theory were used to analyze and present data. The study used a descriptive research design. The target population of this research were; traditional elders, religious leaders, civil society leaders, youth and government officers. In this study, the respondents were chosen based on non-probability sampling procedure, notably purposive sampling. The study established that since 1991 traditional elders immensely contributed to peace building in Banadir region, Somalia. The study established that the greatest challenge traditional elders experience in peace building was the inability of the elders to enforce agreements reached during conflict reconciliation among groups who were in conflict. This study recommends that the federal government of Somalia develop and enact a policy and or legislative framework that provide enforcement mechanisms for peace building processes enacted by Traditional elders
Multi-Agency Approach and International Boundaries Security in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kirimi, Joel Mugambi; F. K. Kinyanjui; L. Ngari
The international boundaries in Kenya are generally porous and they have their fair share of challenges and disputes. With regards to this, Kenya recognizes the centrality of international boundaries as a means to securing sovereignty and has therefore appointed different security agencies to achieve this. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between multiagency approach and international boundary security in Kenya. The study was guided by the following specific objectives: To examine the structure of multiagency approach in international boundary security in Kenya; To assess the effectiveness of the multiagency approach in international boundary security in Kenya; To analyze the challenges faced using multiagency approach in international boundary security in Kenya. The study was anchored on two theories namely; the systems theory and the realism theory. A descriptive study was applied. The target population was composed of officers from; the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF), the National Intelligence Service (NIS) and the National Police Service (NPS). The study used convenience and stratified sampling techniques. Primary data for the study was collected using both key informant interviews and a survey questionnaire. The collected quantitative data was analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Both descriptive and inferential analyses was used to analyze quantitative data. These statistical results were presented in form of tables. The qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis. The qualitative data analyzed was presented in narration form. The study found that a multiagency approach was essential in securing international boundaries of Kenya. The findings indicated that the multiagency approach was effective in securing Kenya’s international boundaries by promoting inclusivity, cooperation, coordination, training and support among the security agencies in the efforts of securing the international boundaries. The challenges of multiagency approach included; unstructured reporting lines, lack of integration of the civilians, decentralized expenditure of resources that is not responsive to operational needs, turf wars among the security agencies and budgetary constraints to undertake daily operations. The study recommends enhancement of multiagency approach initiatives by the government aiming at securing Kenya’s international boundaries. The study suggests that further studies be conducted focusing on the use of a multiagency approach in solving other problems in Kenya such as internal administrative boundary disputes in various counties.
Somali Diaspora and Post-Conflict Reconstruction Process: A Case of Wadajir, District, Mogadishu, Somalia, From 2004 -2016
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Ibrahim, Ahmed Mohamed; Gordon Onyango Omenya
This study sets out to interrogate Somali diaspora and post-conflict reconstruction process a case of Wadajir, district in Somalia, from 2004 -2016. It was guided by three objectives, one to examine the emergence of Somalis’ in the diaspora; to evaluate the contributions of diasporic Somalis’ on the economic reconstruction of Wadajir district in Mogadishu; and lastly to examine the involvement of Somali diaspora in the reconstruction of political processes in Wadajir district of Somalia. This study was undertaken using both qualitative and quantitative research methods and its findings presented in terms of pie charts and tables. The research instruments used were questionnaires and interview schedules where key informants were interviewed. These informants were chosen through both random and purposive sampling procedures. Theoretically, the analysis of the data was done using the postcolonial theoretical framework and the post-conflict reconstruction theory. The major outcome of the study is that the Somali diaspora have contributed immensely to the reconstruction process of Wadajir district in Somali and their contribution should not be overlooked. The study has also revealed that apart from clan conflicts, other factors that led to the emergence and creation of Somali diaspora included, the need for western passport because of the non-recognition of Somali passport, desire for western education, Islamic awakening and consciousness, and the need to have foreign education and more so higher education. This is because, certificates from institutions of higher learning out of Somali are highly recognized by employers and international agencies working not only within Wadajir as our study area but also within entire Somalia. This study also found out that, Somali diaspora have also contributed in the political processes in Wadajir district and most of the representatives at the legislative level and administrators in government bodies are mostly Somalis from the diaspora. However, it was also evident that relationship between the locals and some of the Somali returnees from the diaspora in Wadajir was both conflictual, indifferent and mutually beneficial. This study therefore recommends that there is need to enhance policy framework on the integration of Somali diaspora and returnee into the society for purposes of ensuring mutual cooperation with the locals for the economic, political and social reconstruction and development of Wadajir district. The study also recommends that equal employment opportunities should be provided for both locals and Somali returnees. Further, the study recommends that comparative study should be done on the role of Somali diasporic community in the reconstruction process in other regions and districts of Somalia.
Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons on Security of Hodan District in Banadir Region, Somalia 2006-2017
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Khalif, Hassan Bedel; Gordon Onyango Omenya
Over many years and decades, Somalia has been in the limelight and has experienced civil strife internally. These actions have been attributed to the easy access to small arms and their proliferation within Somalia. This study revolves around three objectives: It examines the sources of illicit small arms in Hodan district of Somalia; examine the impact of the spread of light weapons in Hodan district of Somalia and lastly, it assesses the mitigation measures against the spread of small arms and light weapons in Hodan district. In terms of methodology, this study uses a descriptive research design. Similarly, in order to collect data, research instruments such as questionnaires, interview schedule as well as observation schedule were used. The study also relied on purposive sampling technique in order to get key informants. Nevertheless, random sampling method was also used in order to ascertain the extent to which light weapons and small arms have proliferated in Hodan district region. The study uses small arms demand theory and conflict theory as theoretical tools for analysis of the data. The study has demonstrated that the fragile nature of Somalia state, clan conflicts, existence of militia and terrorist group, the porous borders closer to Hodan district as well as illegal arms markets within and outside Somalia are the main sources of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) in Hodan district. This has led to insecurity, violation of people’s rights and more so women and the rights of children. Additionally, the proliferation of SALW has impacted negatively on the security and has also undermined sustainable economic development of Hodan district. Consequently, the study is of the view that there is need for multi-sectoral approach towards solving the problem of the proliferation of SALW in Hodan district. This study expects to inform policy on how states can monitor and control accessibility of firearms by unauthorized personnel for purposes of ensuring the security of citizens not only in Hodan district but also across Somalia as a state with a view to stabilizing the wider state of Somalia politically. In conclusion, therefore, the study recommends that there is need for interventions in capacity building in the security sector as well as sensitization and awareness creation among the civilians on the need to disarm. Moreover, the study further recommends that there is need to engage technology for purposes of keeping electronic records of arms while at the same time destroying obsolete stock of arms belonging to the government so that these arms do not get into the hands of civilians and militia groups.
Women in Peace Building Initiatives in Mogadishu City, Somalia 2006-2018
(2022) Hared, H. Osman; Julius Simiyu Nabende
Mogadishu City in Benadir region of Somalia has been adversely affected by inter clan conflicts and warfare since the collapse of the state in 1991.Elders, Youth, women, international agencies and foreign governments have played significant roles in conflict resolution and peace building in Mogadishu City. This research specifically confined itself to interrogating the role of women in peace building in Mogadishu City,Benadir region,Somalia,2006-2018. The study was guided by the following objectives:to discuss the activities carried out by women that enhanced conflict resolution and peace building in Mogadishu city, 2006-2018, to examine the methods used by women in peace building in Mogadishu City, Somalia, 2006-2018 and to assess challenges women faced in peace building processes in Mogadishu City, Somalia, 2006-2018.The study used the social feminist theory to analyze the findings .The study employed a descriptive research design. It used purposive sampling technique and confined itself to oral interview guide as main research instrument. The findings of the study were analyzed qualitatively using simple graphs and pie charts.The study observed all the necessary norms of ethics. The study established that women in Mogadishu participated actively in conflict resolution and peace building. The findings of the study were presented in sub themes of women peace building activities, women peace building strategies and challenges women encountered in their pursuit for resolving conflicts and peace making. The study recommended that policy and legislative instruments be enacted by the regional government of Benadir, Somalia to sustain the activities of peace building conducted by women.
Politics and Nationalism in Colonial Kenya: The Case of Babukusu of Bungoma District, C. 1894-1963
(Kenyatta University, 2010) WEKESA, PETER WAFULA
This study focuses on politics and nationalism in Kenya with special reference to Babukusu of Bungoma District in the period between 1894 and 1963. It examines the place of Babukusu in Kenya's politics of decolonisation by demonstrating their contribution to the emergence and development of nationalism. Using an integrated approach, the study examines the growth of political consciousness among the Babukusu in the light of the changes in their material conditions posed by the colonial political economy. It has been deduced herein that since the inception of colonialism, Babukusu like other Kenyans elsewpere, offered a concerted political challenge to its existence. This challenge, as we have shown, can only be adequately explained by taking into account the fundamental social, economic and political changes, which were introduced during the colonial period. It was out of their sense of self-realization that a political consciousness grew, which in essence was a reaction to the unfavourable structures of the colonial political economy. This political consciousness created a new necessity, namely, decolonisation that finally led to the liquidation (?f colonial~sm in 1963. For a clear insight into the theme of politics and nationalism, aspects of the Bukusu pre-colonial history that are important for understanding their participation in Kenya's nationalist politics during the colonial period are discussed. It has been demonstrated ' that the people's social, political and economic structures on the eve of the colonial rule laid an important basis for understanding the phenomenon of colonial politics and the nationalist struggle. In discussing the method and. nature of the establishment of the colonial administration among the Babuktisu, their initial reactions between 1894 and 1918 to the setting up ~f colonialism are noted. It is obser~ed that' the' initial wars of resistance . impacted heavily qn the development of the Bukusu nationalism within this period. The wars together with the social, economic and political changes introduced by the colonialists' impacted greatly, on the people's traditional values and institutions. The Bukusu response, therefore, towards this potent new political force is highlighted. ' During the . inter-war period, Babukusu continued to participate in Kenya's nationalist politics. Here, the central role the unfair colonial policies continued to play in I increasing the people's · political activity is emphasized. Other factors like their experiences in .the First World War, the ~conomic hardships arising from it and the world depression are highlighted as equally important in unleashing all sorts of hardships within the period.· As such, both official and non-official avenues adopted by Babukusu in challenging' the colonial· state and the latter's response to such initiatives are demonstrated. Unlike the inter-war period, it is indicated that during and after the Second World I War the Bukusu nationalist politics intensified both in strength and purpose. The period became a critical one not only in the Bukusu history but the whole of Kenya in general. It was within this period that the seeds of African nationalism that were sown before and during the inter-war years matured with rapid speed into the decolonisation drama and eventually independence. It is demonstrated that just like the First World War, the Second World War became an important precipitate in fuelling nationalist unrest among the Bukusu. The war and post-war time circumstances specifically created the conditions favourable in shaping local, national and international politics. It was with the convergence of the foregoing actors that the reality of independence became feasible in Kenya in 1963.
Evolution in the Religious Beliefs and Practices of the Abamarama of Kakamega County, Kenya, C. 1850–1960
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Otswondo, Wilberforce William; Gimode A. Edwin; Enock Akattu
This study is a historical analysis of the evolution of religious beliefs and practices among the Abamarama of Kakamega County who belong to the larger Abaluyia ethnic group. The study traced the evolution and development of religious beliefs and practices of this community as occasioned by decades of encounter and interaction with Christianity. This study makes a contribution to our knowledge from a historical perspective of the Abamarama culture and the Christian missionary enterprise. Among the objectives addressed in this study were, to: analyse the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of the Abamarama from c. 1850-1885; examine the response of the Abamarama to mission Christianity, 1885-1930; establish the extent of adoption of western Christian beliefs and practices by the Abamarama 1930 to 1960. Literature on the cultural history of the Abamarama and other related studies were reviewed for purposes of establishing gaps of knowledge in this study. The research was informed in the Symbolic Interactionism theory and the Conflict theory of religion. The study employed qualitative research design in gathering data for this theses. The study used purposive-stratified and snowballing sampling techniques to select the informants. The study used both primary and secondary sources to gather information. Primary sources included oral interviews and archival sources from the Kenya National Archives and the Christian mission archives in Butere. Focus Group Discussions (hereafter FGD) and oral questionnaire for the interviews were employed as research instruments that assisted in gathering primary data. The data was analysed qualitatively because of the qualitative nature of this study. Data from the archives, oral interviews and library was analysed in corroboration with that from secondary sources. The research begun upon receiving authorization letter from Kenyatta University. Research permit was issued by the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation. The study acknowledged all the authors that were cited in this research. Names of informants were not shown on the interview guide sheets for purposes of confidentiality. From the study findings; Abamarama had developed social, economic and political organization in the pre-colonial period. They had well-established religious beliefs and practices based on ancestor veneration and the belief in the Supreme Being. The interaction between Abamarama and Christianity caused resistance from Abamarama who later accepted and blended Christian values with their indigenous culture and formed a new hybrid religion. The Christian community that was formed among the Abamarama by 1960 was not pure Christianity but a syncretic religion. The findings of the study may be used by other scholars to conduct studies on transformation of culture among other ethnic groups within Kenya.

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