MST-Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies

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Relations Between Kamba and Somali Communities of Kitui County-Tana River County in Kenya 1850-1963
(Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Maluki, Kyavoa
This study examines the relations between the Kamba and Somali communities in Kenya from around 1850 to 1963. An analysis of these relations in the precolonial period was taken in an attempt to lay a foundation for assessing the relations in the colonial period. Colonial policies and their impact on the Kamba-Somali relations up to 1938 were investigated. Effects of the Second World War and decolonization process on the relations between Kamba and Somali up to 1963 were assessed too. The study argues that the initial settlement of both the Kamba and Somali communities in the area of study was majorly determined by environmental factors which in turn shaped the demand and supply of products and therefore relation between the two communities. With the onset of colonialism, relations between the two communities were heavily influenced by the policy of pacification which endeavored to create a rigid boundary between the two communities and so affected free interactions and trade. Later, during the Second World War and the period after the war, the relations between these two communities were characterized by tension, division, and suspicion. The trends of interaction were interpreted using constructivism and social interdependence theories. The study was justified in that it examined two communities instead of one and demonstrated trends that come from such dynamic interactions as contrasted with relations within one group. Literature on inter-ethnic relations was reviewed for sharper conceptualization of the study. Two research designs were used. These two included descriptive and historical research designs. Methodologically, a purposive sampling technique was employed. Snowball sampling technique was also used where knowledgeable informants referred the researcher to others who also had information about the study. Data for the study was collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was verified against secondary information. Secondary data was obtained from books, journals, archives and newspapers
Change in Early Marriages among the East Pokot of Baringo County, Kenya, 1930–2014
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Kipchumba, Jonah Kipyegen
This study focused on change in early marriages among the members of East Pokot community living in Tiaty area of Baringo County in the period 1930-2014. The research analysed the socio-economic and political significance of early marriages among the Pokot people of Tiaty up to 1930. The study interrogated missionary concern with social activities among the Pokot with the aim of curbing early marriages and community improvement 1930-1975. Finally, the study interpreted the changing relationship between the East Pokot of Baringo County and the state of early marriages in post-independence period 1975-2014. In order to understand the current area of study well, relevant literature was reviewed in line with the main objectives of the study. The study was guided by the theories of social change and social conservatism as tools of analysis. Descriptive research design was employed and both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used but the study relied more on qualitative approach. The locality of the study was restricted to Tiaty Sub County. Sixty participants drawn from all the seven wards of Tiaty were targeted. Purposive and snow balling sampling techniques were used to collect data. Research data was collected using one on one interview and focus group discussions. In order to establish validity and reliability of data collected, a pilot study was carried out in Chemoling’ot Township using 20 participants. Content validity was determined by the accuracy in which research instruments measured the objectives of the current topic of study. Internal reliability was adopted in order to establish the ability of research instruments to produce consistent results when adopted more than once during data collection. Data collected was analysed and interpreted using thematic analysis in line with the objectives of this research. Throughout the period the study maintained high moral standards and integrity and the researcher sought the consent of all participants in the study. The findings of this study show that early marriages had both social and economic significance among the East Pokot people. In addition, the findings reveal that missionaries did a lot to curb early marriages and to improve the welfare of the people of Tiaty. The missionaries introduced Christianity, western education, western medicine and provided relief food. Further, the findings show that a lot of effort has been made to end early marriages in post-colonial Kenya. This study reveals that legislation, religion, education, media and cultural interaction are key reasons behind the decline in rates of early marriages among the East Pokot people of Tiaty. These findings are useful to the leadership of Baringo County and policy makers in Kenya
Change and Continuity in the Marriage Practices among the Bukusu of Bungoma County, Kenya, c. 1900–1963
(Kenyatta University, 2025-12) Wanyama, Wanyonyi Reuben
This study examines the organization of marriage practices among the Bukusu of Bungoma County to investigate the encounter between Western civilization and the traditional Bukusu marriage practices of Bungoma County in the period between 1900-1945 and to evaluate the influence of British Colonial rule on the marriage practices of the Bukusu of Bungoma County in the period between 1945-1965. The patriarchy theory looks at how different cultures’ influences adapt to, and change one another through contact, exchange and confrontation. The study adopted a descriptive research design. Purposive sampling was used to select respondents for the study. The research instrument used was an oral interview guide and data was qualitatively analysed through thematic analysis. The study found out that the Bukusu marriage practices underwent a transformative process during the colonial era. The marriage system of polygamy was the most affected because of the influence of European Christian missionary activities and teachings on one hand and the British colonial policies on taxation, labour and migration on the other hand. The study also found out that monogamous marriages gained traction towards the 1960s as Bukusu men and women embraced western civilization and capitalist consumerism culture. The study also found out that traditionally, polygamous marriages were sustained by surplus economic resources in the Bukusu society, however, British colonialism ushered in a process of economic underdevelopment in Kenya which undermined the values of Bukusu marriage practices
Continuity and Transformation of Pastoralism among the Maasai of Narok County, Kenya (1850–2002)
(Kenyatta University, 2025-05) Keter, Caren Chepkirui
The Maasai pastoralism economy in Narok, (present day Narok County) has experienced continuity and transformation accounting for changes in pastoralists' livelihoods influenced by economic adaptation and outside influences on the Maasai from 1850 to 2002.This study as an analytical product of archival, oral and library research sought to investigate the pre-colonial traditional practices and the socio-economic, cultural and leadership frameworks that facilitated pastoralism as a major livelihood in Narok County (1850-1899), analyzes the effects of land alienation and settlement policies on Maasai pastoral nomadism and grazing patterns in Narok County, during the colonial period (1900-1963) and lastly examines how the reforms in land tenure, adjudication of land, expansion of agriculture, and policies of sedentariness during the Kenyatta and Moi regimes affected Maasai access to pastoral lands and viability of traditional pastoralism in Narok county, Kenya (1964-2002). The research relied on the resilience theory, which explains how the Maasai have in the past coped with challenges like loss of land and policy shifts while attempting to sustain their pastoral identity and the articulation of modes of production theory, which explains how Maasai pastoralism came to be articulated with and subordinated to capitalism which did not suppress pastoralism but reorganized it in a manner that made it unsustainable. The research took an exploratory approach and applied purposive sampling technique. Oral interviews, archival research, and a review of primary and secondary documents were used for data collection which was analyzed through inferences, comparisons, logical historical explanations, and narrative synthesis. Evidence indicates that between 1850 and 1899, the Maasai pastoralist economy was characterized by extensive livestock keeping, a strong communal land tenure system, and an extensive trade network. Between 1900 and 1963, colonial policies, alienation of land, and economic change caused tremendous dislocations, which reformed pastoralist customary ways. Between 1964 and 2002, the Maasai pastoralist economy declined due to increased land fragmentation, government-initiated decentralization and market-driven economic changes. The study discovers that while pastoralism remains a significant economic activity for the Maasai, historical and current forces have undermined its historical foundation. The study adds to the overall discourse on African pastoralist economies and provides insights into pastoralist communities' adaptive strategies to contemporary socio-economic challenges.
National Government Administration and the Implementation of Illicit Alcohol Control Policies in Mombasa County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Thiong’o, Monicah M.
Illicit alcohol remains a persistent public health and governance challenge in Kenya, particularly in densely populated urban areas where informal settlements, weak regulatory oversight, and economic vulnerability create fertile environments for illegal production and distribution. Changamwe Sub-County has experienced repeated incidents of illicit alcohol-related harm despite the presence of a strong legal framework. This study examined how the National Government Administration tackles the sources of illicit alcohol, regulates venues used for its consumption, and the challenges they encounter in Changamwe Sub-County.The study was guided by Agency Theory and Street-Level Bureaucracy Theory, which explain the role of frontline administrators and the structural constraints affecting enforcement. A descriptive research design was adopted. The target population comprised 379 enforcement actors drawn from NGAOs, Village Elders, Ward Administrators, Nyumba Kumi members, NACADA officers, and county enforcement personnel. A sample of 191 respondents was selected using stratified, simple random, and purposive sampling. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaires, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests, while qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The findings show that the National Government Administration primarily tackles illicit alcohol sources through the application of the Alcoholic Drinks Control Act and community sensitization efforts. Regarding illicit alcohol venues, they were mostly tackled through raids by National Government Administrative Officers. The study further found that Enforcement challenges—particularly conflict of interest and conflicting roles of the actors significantly undermined effective implementation of alcohol control activities. The study concludes that while NGAOs employ multiple strategies to curb illicit alcohol, their effectiveness is constrained by resource limitations, interference, and community resistance. It recommends strengthening inter-agency coordination, increasing logistical support, enhancing community engagement, and protecting enforcement officers from political influence to improve alcohol control outcomes.
A History of the Mozambican Makonde People of Kwale County in Kenya since Precolonial Times upto 2016
(Kenyatta University, 2025-04) Omwoa, Khakori Peris
The history of labour migrant communities in Africa is conceived in the context of the social, economic and political evolution of African societies. Across the globe, communities always experience various progressions from one another and also as time progresses, different changes occur in both societal aspects of a community. This study examined the history of the Makonde people of Kenya from 1936-2016 who came to Kenya as labour migrants. The Makonde people are an ethnic community who live in Kwale County. The objectives of the study were to analyse the social, economic and political history of the Makonde people from pre-colonial times up to 1936, to examine the extent in which the colonial labour policies and ordinances affected the Makonde labour migrants between 1936 and 1962, and to assess the changing relationship between the Makonde and the State in post-independent Kenya from 1963-2016. The study utilized Karl Marx’s Labour Theory of Value and Exploitation. Also, Cultural identity theory was used. The study was carried out in Kwale County. Snowballing and purposive sampling techniques were applied to come up with a population sample. This research utilized both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was gathered from the Kenya National Archives in Nairobi while oral sources were collected through interviews and open-ended questionnaires. Primary data were collected from Kenya National Archives and also through oral interviews and open-ended questionnaires that were administered to identify respondents in the field. Secondary data was procured from Kenyatta University Library among other universities repository documentary centres. The primary oral data was analysed by first translating oral interviews from Swahili to English language, grouping data based on objectives, and verification of any possible contradicting information. This data was later corroborated with archival and secondary data and then presented in a descriptive narrative. From the findings of this study, the Makonde people who are found in Kenya today came from Mozambique in 1936 as labour migrants to work in European plantations in the coastal region. The study also found out that the Makonde people had proper social, economic, and political systems which guided their day-to-day activities; On the other hand, their social, economic, and political systems have experienced some transformation since migrating to Kenya. However, they have retained some of their old social, economic and political aspects which they practiced while in Mozambique. The study also found out that the Makonde people of Kenya have contributed to the economy of post-colonial Kenya in the tourism sectors through their sculpting activities. The study recommended that since the Makonde have been recognized as one of the Kenyan ethnic groups, further studies should be conducted to ascertain how the new citizenship status bestowed upon them has affected their relationship with their neighbours. It further recommended that studies should be conducted to ascertain how the Makonde have benefited from their new citizenship since lack of citizenship status had denied them the opportunities to acquire/buy land, access education, and health care as well as vote and seek elective positions.
The Transformation of African Workers in Kisumu County 1895-1963
(Kenyatta University, 2025-07) Ogola, Margaret
This study discussed the evolution of African workers in Kisumu County from 1895-1963. The population transformed from native systems of production to new forms of production with new aspects of labour provision, which included wage labour, forced labour and compulsory communal labour. This new labour system restructured labour relations which disengaged many Africans living in Kisumu County, from their traditional production. This led to a fundamental transformation in the lives of African workers that the study has analyzed. The objectives traced the pre-colonial labour relations among the Luo of Kisumu County up to 1895, examined the various colonial labour policies that led to establishment of colonial economy and transformation of African workers in Kisumu County from 1901-1945 and assessed the changing nature of colonial labour policies and practices on African workers in Kisumu County during the decolonization period 1946-1963. The study employed both Articulations of modes of production and modernization theories to examine how the colonial government used the colonial policies to exploit indigenous modes of production that changed the traditional practices and life of the African labourers in Kisumu County. Consequently, Kisumu County transited into a modern entity with profound colonial labour challenges. Methodologically, the research design that was employed included a descriptive survey with interview schedules that were administered to Kisumu County residents who were willing to give information. The target population included pioneer labourers, civil servants, Asians who worked in the railway line construction sites and those who engaged in trade,c hildren and grandchildren of former government representatives Purposive and snowballing sampling methods were employed and a total of 50 respondents who reside in the town were sampled based on age, experience and expertise. Data collection methods include primary and secondary, where government reports and archival data were sought. The results of this research work indicates that the colonial government used discriminative labour policies to exploit Kisumu county’s natural resources using African labour. Africans’ modes of production were transformed from traditional to new modes of articulation. This change in the mode of production, left the African peasant economy unattended. By the mid-1950s African workers of Kisumu had embraced capitalist work ethics however throughout the colonial period labour challenges became a menace that overlapped into the post-colony. Despite the challenges that African went through, the study has revealed that Africans contributed to capitalist economy by providing wage labour and land.
Dynamics of Global Terrorism and Implications on National Security: The Case of Kenya, 2006-2016
(Kenyatta University, 2025-06) Lorot, Christopher Kerio
The aim of this study is to explore how global terrorism changes and the effect it has on Kenya’s security, mainly focusing Al-Shabab’s actions from 2006-2016. The research investigates the movement’s background, its influence in areas of Kenya, and the reasons for its terrorist deeds. We try to learn how Al-Shabaab attracts the youth and children in Kenya by convincing them with religious beliefs, offering money, and exploiting their grievances in the community. The research also assesses the effect of Al-Shabaab’s activities on Kenyan society and government in terms of politics, the economy, and religion. Using a mixed-methods approach with a strong qualitative emphasis, the study draws on interviews with, the security personnel, leaders in the community, former recruits, and civil society agents and studies government reports, academic books, and media news items. Discoveries prove that Al-Shabaab supports its recruitment in Kenya using local connections, faith leaders, and gaps along its borders. Experts discovered that acts of terror have negatively affected the country’s economy, increased disagreements between religious communities, and affected Kenya’s political situation. As a result, the study proposes working more closely with the community, increasing cooperation between regions, and developing important reforms in the national security policy. What has been discovered adds knowledge about how terrorism outside and within East Africa impacts the region’s security and prepares for better approaches to deal with terrorism.
Land Ownership and Conflicts in Laikipia North Sub-County, (1895-2020)
(Kenyatta University, 2025-02) Karanja, James Gachara
Land conflicts in Laikipia County have been covered by local media for years and have been a subject under scrutiny by various agencies, including the Kenya Government and Non- Governmental Organizations. Land conflicts have hindered the socioeconomic activities of the residents of Laikipia County. The objectives of the study were to: analyze the status of the Maasai-British settler land conflicts (1880-1963); demonstrate the escalation of land conflict in Laikipia County following the in-migration of Agikuyu into the area during Kenyatta‘s reign (1963-1978); investigate the nature of land conflict in Laikipia during the reign of President Moi (1978-2002), assess the changing nature of land conflict and its impact in Laikipia during the reign of President Kibaki (2002-2010) and analyze the Land Conflict in Laikipia after the Promulgation of 2010 Constitution in Kenya. The study was conducted in Laikipia County, Kenya, and was narrowed down to Laikipia North sub-County due to the fact that it is the home to the three main players involved in the conflict, namely the Maasai who are pastoralists, Agikuyu who are farmers and the European settlers who are ranchers. The study adopted a survey research design. Primary data was collected using Key Informant Interviews, Focus Group Discussions, and archival sources. Secondary data was collected from Government reports, journal articles, print media, and the thesis. Descriptive data analysis methods, verbatim and documentary analysis, were utilized during data analysis. The study adopted the protracted social conflict theory by Edward Azar‘s (1990). According to Azar, the denial of human needs to a large population initiates cases of protracted social violence, as witnessed in Laikipia, where the conflict is highly blamed on resource struggle between farmers, pastoralists, and white settlers who own ranches. A significant concern of the study was to identify the possible triggers of conflict and the role played by each category of players. The study's findings are that land leases, beliefs and traditions, sand harvesting, and environmental extremes are Laikipia's main sources of conflict. The study recommends peace resolution strategies for utilizing resources in Laikipia that can be applied in other regions facing land conflicts in Kenya.
Land Ownership and Conflicts in Laikipia North Sub-County, (1895-2020)
(Kenyatta University, 2025-02) Karanja, James Gachara
Land conflicts in Laikipia County have been covered by local media for years and have been a subject under scrutiny by various agencies, including the Kenya Government and Non- Governmental Organizations. Land conflicts have hindered the socioeconomic activities of the residents of Laikipia County. The objectives of the study were to: analyze the status of the Maasai-British settler land conflicts (1880-1963); demonstrate the escalation of land conflict in Laikipia County following the in-migration of Agikuyu into the area during Kenyatta’s reign (1963-1978); investigate the nature of land conflict in Laikipia during the reign of President Moi (1978-2002), assess the changing nature of land conflict and its impact in Laikipia during the reign of President Kibaki (2002-2010) and analyze the Land Conflict in Laikipia after the Promulgation of 2010 Constitution in Kenya. The study was conducted in Laikipia County, Kenya, and was narrowed down to Laikipia North sub-County due to the fact that it is the home to the three main players involved in the conflict, namely the Maasai who are pastoralists, Agikuyu who are farmers and the European settlers who are ranchers. The study adopted a survey research design. Primary data was collected using Key Informant Interviews, Focus Group Discussions, and archival sources. Secondary data was collected from Government reports, journal articles, print media, and the thesis. Descriptive data analysis methods, verbatim and documentary analysis, were utilized during data analysis. The study adopted the protracted social conflict theory by Edward Azar’s (1990). According to Azar, the denial of human needs to a large population initiates cases of protracted social violence, as witnessed in Laikipia, where the conflict is highly blamed on resource struggle between farmers, pastoralists, and white settlers who own ranches. A significant concern of the study was to identify the possible triggers of conflict and the role played by each category of players. The study's findings are that land leases, beliefs and traditions, sand harvesting, and environmental extremes are Laikipia's main sources of conflict. The study recommends peace resolution strategies for utilizing resources in Laikipia that can be applied in other regions facing land conflicts in Kenya.
Transformation in Heritage Management: The Case of Gedi Historical Site, 1927- 2013
(Kenyatta University, 2025-06) Mwarora, Ali Hassan
This thesis examines the transformation in heritage management using Gedi ruins as a case study. Gedi historical site is an important site of archaeological research and a tourist attraction center. Despite this central role, there has been little discussion or exploration of the actual needs of local people or the development of the existing participation process into a Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) framework at the Gedi Site. Therefore, this study sought to achieve three objectives: to examine the cultural significance of the Gedi heritage site to the community, to investigate the management of the Gedi historical site from 1927 to 1962, and to evaluate the extent to which the community was involved in the management of the Gedi historical site from independence to 2013. Data for this study was gathered from both primary and secondary sources. Field research involved self-administered questionnaires and oral interviews. The target population was selected using purposive and snowball sampling. An intensive survey was conducted of the entire forty-five-acre site with the assistance of museum staff. The condition of the site was assessed to ascertain threats. Observation of the ruins and the biodiversity was thoroughly surveyed to assess different forms of threats to the historical site. This study was guided by two theories, thus the Conflict Theory and The Tragedy of the Commons Theory. The findings revealed that the site contains several archaeological remains of medieval period dating back to the 12th Century. There is much the historical site of Gedi can teach us about African history. Gedi not only bears witness to a glorious African past but also reminds us about the important interaction spheres that developed in antiquity, which involved technology transfers and immigration that have become so common place today. The town’s superstructure preserves a capsule in time of what was the precolonial urban landscape in Eastern Africa. The study also established that the upstanding built-structures, mainly stone walls, are deteriorating rapidly due to vagaries of tropical climate and the growth of vegetation. Local communities contribute significantly to the destruction and loss of archaeological materials and historical sites. The research further reveals that Gedi communities feel that although they are involved in the site's tasks, the administrators have failed to diligently involve them in the site conservation, specifically in making their own choices. This has created a rift between the communities and state officials involved in resource management, and is by extension responsible for the destruction and loss of archaeological materials. There is also mistrust between the management of the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) in the region and the community at the Gedi site. Therefore, the study recommends that NMK should devise ways of incorporating the communities in the routine management of the site and future project development. This is because to get community support in the course of protection and preservation of cultural sites, there should be a clear involvement of the communities and a shared understanding of their benefits.
Transformation of Sara-Suka Gang in Bauchi State, Nigeria; 1960-2015
(Kenyatta University, 2023-01) Aliyu, Mohammed Malami
Abstract
Political Impediments to Regional Integration Process: The Case of Kenya in the East African Community Common Market Protocol 2000-2018
(Kenyatta University, 2023-05) Masika, Benjamin Barasa
he FAC has been fronted as a vital integration arrangement with the potential of addressing the development challenges in the region. To achieve these expectations, partner states have established brilliant provisions in the EAC common market protocol aimed at deepening integration in the region. Despite the brilliant provisions of the protocol, over cight years since its ratification not much could be celebrated. The common market has not been fully actualized and partner states have continued to implement protectionist laws that have hindered the free movement of goods, services, persons, capital and the enjoyment of the right of residence and establishment. Since EAC regional integration operates in a political environment, political factors have become push factors that have driven states to reluctantly implement the EAC Common Market Protocol. This study generally attempted 108 the Political Impediments to Regional Integration Process in East Africa with focus on Kenya in the EACCMP in the period between 2000-2018. The study was guided by the following objectives; first the study sought to evaluate the level of awareness of the EAC Common Market Protocol in Kenya. It then examined the divergent protectionist laws implemented by Kenya that affected the full realization of the EAC Common Market Protocol in Kenya and finally it sought to determine the political factors that motivated Kenya to implement divergent protectionist laws that contravened the provisions of the FAC Common Market Protocol in Kenya. The study was guided by two main theories; the inter-governmentalism theory of integration and new institutional theory. Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. The study adopted a descriptive research design and the locations of the study were; EAC one stop border posts of Namanga and Busia, and in the City of Nairobi. Purposive sampling was employed for the study and out of the 400 targeted population 40 informants were selected for the study. The findings of the study revealed a number of political impediments affected the full implementation of the EACCMP in Kenya, amongst them were: the fear of loss of sovereignty, prioritization of national interest, the quest for nationalism and national pride, divided loyalty to other regional communities and lack of political will. The study among others recommends; the need to address all the political impediments affecting the EACCMP and allow law and policy reforms to be undertaken smoothly for the EACCMP to flourish. Develop good will towards its implementation by amending all divergent protectionist laws that contravene the EACCMP.
Evolution and Growth of Katagum Emirate of Bauchi, Northern Nigeria; 18041960
(Kenyatta University, 2023-06) Dahuwa, Sale
Abstract
A History of the Waata People of Kilifi County, Kenya, 18952010
(kenyatta University, 2023-04) Wambua, Cyprian Kioko
Absract
A History of the Waata People of Kilifi County, Kenya, 1895-2010.
(Kenyatta University, 2023-04) Wambua, Cyprian Kioko
Throughout history communities have been known to have specific and distinct patterns of economic, social and political organization. These socio-economic and political institutions are dynamic from one community and generation to another}ri Waata community is among the indigenous Kenyan communities whose social, polmca! and economic organization has not been adequately studied. This study focused on the history of the Waata people living in Kilifi County. The study was guided by the following objectives: to trace the traditional institutions which shaped the history of the Waata people up to 1895. The study examined the impact of the colonial policies on the political, social and economic history of the Waata people between 1895 and 1963. Lastly, the study investigated the impacts of post-colonial policies on the Waata from 1963 to 2010. There are many theories which could have been used to explain the history of the Waata but most of them had several weaknesses. The most relevant and applicable theory which guided this study was the cultural interaction and identity formation theory. This theory focused on how individual defend their shared cultural identities and relationships in particular situations....
Change and Continuity in Marriage among the Abagusii of kenya during the Colonial Period (1895-1963)
(Kenyatta university, 2024-04) Nahashon, Onkwani Orera
Marriage in many communities is attributed to the numerous fundamental social and individual roles that it plays, such as sexual fulfillment and regulation, sex-based divisions of labor, economic production, as well as personal longing for affection, prestige, and companionship. With the advent of colonialism, significant socioeconomic developments in Africa led to shifts in marriage demographics with an increase in the age of marriage, a decline in the number of official cultural marriages, and more unauthorized unions. Though this was so, early decades of colonial encounters witnessed the resilience of Africans to change. A catastrophic shift away from traditional marriage began on the eve of the 1930s. There had been reports of wives abandoning their husbands, some of whom fled with other men, fathers forcing their girls to marry, and a category of desperate men abandoned by their wives. This study will investigate how the colonial period influenced and shaped marriage customs over time. It will shed light on issues such as social and economic influences on marriage during the colonial era, connections between social and economic life and the institution of marriage, and the nature of marriage customs among the Abagusii of Kisii County between 1895 and 1963. The choice of change and continuity of marriage practices among the Abagusii is crucial because it clarifies what transpired in Gusii's marriage during a time when gender conflict and the marriage traditions' growing dynamic nature made change inevitable. The objectives of the study were to: Examine the key characteristics and functions of the Gusii marriage institution in the pre-colonial period up to 1895, Characterize the encounter between Christianity and western culture on the Gusii institution of marriage in the early colonial period (1895-1930), Establish change and continuity in the Gusii marriage institution in the period between (1930-1963). The study used modernization and social constructivism theories. A descriptive research design was used for the investigation. This project's primary data collection instruments included interviews and questionnaires, and archival data from Kenya. Secondary data came from public documents, magazines, journals, and national archives. Data in the historical form was analyzed qualitatively. The ethics of research was closely scrutinized. The research found out that marriage among the Abagusii of Kenya had amenable history consisting of changes and continuities in its various aspects.
Participation of Women in Politics in Meru, C.1880-2013
(Kenyatta University, 2025-04) Mworia, Stella Kananu
Women comprise more than half of the total population in many countries in the world, and they play major social and economic roles. Despite this, women are constrained in political participation., especially in Kenya. Against this background, the current study sought to examine the participation of women in politics in South Imenti in Kenya‟s Meru County, focusing on the period 1890-2013. The study sought to answer three questions. First, how did women engage in the political processes of the Ameru in the pre-colonial period? Second, how did the colonial order affect women‟s participation in politics among the Ameru? And third, what trends may be discerned in women‟s participation in the politics of South Imenti during the post colonial period? The study acknowledges that the Ameru society has been predominantly patriarchal since the pre-colonial period to the present, with little upward mobility of women in the public space. Further, despite the colonial system of administration generally marginalizing women from public spaces, women from South Imenti transcended these constraints and have played prominent political roles in post-independence Kenya. In spite of this, the women have performed dismally in elective politics. In seeking to understand this reality, this study was guided by the Social-Cultural Patriarchal Theory, complemented by a broad understanding of gender ideologies. These were used to explain the inability of women representatives to attain the 30 percent global threshold, something that derives from residual cultural barriers that militate against progressive socialization that assign specific tasks to particular genders. For instance, household tasks such as cooking, childcare and farming are assigned to women and girls, thus preconditioning them to domestic spaces. Regarding methodology, the study employed mixed methods that combined qualitative and quantitative approaches of collecting and analysing primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected through in-depth oral interviews, questionnaires, and archival material, while secondary data was collected from published journal articles, books and book chapters, newspapers, theses, internet resources, and periodicals. For fieldwork, the researcher used stratified sampling techniques to categorize wards in South Imenti Constituency where the research was based. There was also purposive sampling, particularly snowballing technique, in selecting respondents. Snowballing was appropriate because after each interview, respondents would recommend other potentially informative respondents. In total, 72 respondents participated in the study; six (6) from each of the six wards in South Imenti Constituency, three (3) focus group discussions, and twelve (12) Key Informant Interviewees. The data obtained was analysed qualitatively. The findings of this study reveal that women in South Imenti Constituency continue to suffer various challenges in their pursuit of political leadership. The challenges relate to economic, social and political impediments that women regularly encounter. Ultimately, the challenges contribute to the continued marginalization of women from political leadership, a reality that can be traced across the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. This calls for urgent intervention strategies to enable women to achieve greater successes in their political aspirations.
Inter-Ethnic Conflicts In Turbo Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya (1895-2010).
(Kenyatta University, 2024-09) Were, Emmanuel Mbogo
Kenya is a multi-ethnic society whose people have overtime co-existed, traded and intermarried. These cordial inter-ethnic relations have resulted in the country’s social development, economic growth as well as political stability. However, efforts to promote perpetual peaceful co-existence remains a mirage despite decades of restructuring. This is partly because of the failure by the political elite to de-ethnicize politics, a development that is frequently connected with intermittent conflicts experienced in various parts of the country. Such conflicts have threatened the very bases of social order and cohesion, caused hatred, death, destruction of property and collapse of thriving economy. Against this bedrock, and guided by Dahrendorf’s Conflict theory, this study investigated Inter-ethnic Conflicts in Turbo sub-county, Uasin Gishu County Kenya between 1895 to 2010.It explored the localized processes of identity production and negotiation in the area. The following objectives guided the study; tracing the evolution of the multi-ethnic community in the study area, analyzing the nexus between politicized ethnicity and inter-ethnic conflicts and examining the heightened inter-ethnic conflicts and intervention measures to mitigate the conflicts in Turbo Sub-county. The study targeted a population of people who had knowledge of the history and surrounding terrain plus those conversant with early inter-ethnic contacts and conflicts in the study area. In its methodology purposive and snowballing sampling method were employed and the data collected and analyzed qualitatively. Primary data was gathered by conducting questionnaires, interviews and by examining government official reports and archival documents whereas secondary data was sourced from theses, books, articles in newspapers and journals from libraries. The study’s findings indicate that the demands of the colonial economy resulted in the formation of a multi-ethnic community in Turbo area. The settled people had a peaceful and harmonious co-existence as they mutually engaged in economic and social activities. However, since politics in the country falls short of the best practices and ideals of a democratic political system, politicization of ethnicity through balkanization of the residents into rigid ethnic enclaves and poor governance through resource mal-distribution heightens perceptions of exclusion which consequently provokes conflicts. These conflicts have amplified ethnic differences making citizens to consciously identify more with their ethnic groups than being Kenyan citizens. Even though various stakeholders such as the religious community and non-governmental organizations have taken measures to mitigate such conflicts, the approach has not been integrated. The study faults government efforts for its top down approach to peace building and recommends bottom up approaches including resourcing the institution of elderhood and granting it authority to manage conflicts. The recommendations are aimed to inform the policy makers and other stakeholders on how to resolve inter-ethnic conflicts and thus promote peaceful coexistence among different ethnic groups.
Ethnic Land Issues and Electoral Politics in Kuresoi, Nakuru County, Kenya, 1939-2017
(Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Koech, Stephen Kiprotich
The relationship between land, ethnic conflict and electoral politics has been widely documented. The role played by land and ethnic conflict on electoral politics has been deeply captured in Africa in general and Kenya in particular. Electoral related violence revolving around land in the Rift-Valley province of Kenya has been addressed. Kuresoi, one of the Sub counties in the larger Nakuru County in the former Rift-Valley province was one of the areas that were affected by electoral related violence revolving around land and negative ethnicity after the reintroduction of multiparty politics in 1991. Kuresoi division later became a Sub-County in 2013 following the adoption of the 2010 constitution in Kenya. The study researched on the influence of ethnic land issues and electoral politics on the parliamentary electoral contests in Kuresoi, Nakuru County, Kenya 1939-2017. It examined how the peopling of Kuresoi and ethnic land issues shaped ethnic relations from 1939 to 1991. The study also interrogated the extent to which land issues and electoral politics have played out in parliamentary elections in Kuresoi, Nakuru County, Kenya. The influence of ethnic land issues, political formations and lobby groups on the parliamentary electoral outcomes was also examined. To achieve its objectives the study administered oral interviews and questionnaires to to a sample size of 260 informants from the former four divisions of Kuresoi namely Kamara and Kuresoi in Kuresoi North and Olenguruone and Keringet in Kuresoi South. Purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were used to identify respondents. The target population included the members of the local administration, security agencies, activists, elders, the clergy, politicians, women leaders and business persons. Focus group discussions were used to back up oral interviews and questionnaires. This study applied both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis and interpretation. Anchored on the ancient hatred theory, theory of indivisible territory, the systematic replacement theory and elite manipulation theory, this study argued that the political elites have at election periods invoked the land historical injustices to win the hearts of ethnic loyalties and aligned themselves in the social formations to secure the ballots. The findings from the study will inform the functions of the security agencies in its attempt to contain the wanting security issues around the election periods and policy formations and implementations both at the national and at County levels in the development initiatives.

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