MST-Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies

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    A political history of the Meru 1750-1908
    (1992) Njogu, Peter Mbae
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    Social Concepts in the Initiation Rituals of the Abatachoni: A Historical Study
    (Kenyatta University, 1992-10) Kakai, Pius Wanyonyi.
    The study discusses the social concepts articulated in initiation rituals among Abatachoni between 1750 and 1946.An examination and analysis of some outstanding concepts is made with respect to ritual practices pertaining to circumcision, Okhulichana, age-set systems, post initiation nomenclature, symbolism, militarism and smithing. In treating the movement of the above concepts from clan to clan and region to region, an attempt is made at tracing the Origin, development and eventually spread of such concepts among Abatachoni and their neighbours. Furthermore, the study argues that the changing times,human agency and the natural environmental factors affected the movement and function of the concepts in initiation Rituals. It also illustrates the mutuality of influences among Abatachoni and their neighbours. These influences engendered various cognitive and speculative dimensions in the communities.This work contends that in the colonial era initiation ritual ideas obtaining among Abatachoni got disrupted. As a Consequence, certain ritual concepts dwindled while new ones emerged.The examples of those whose values and applicability dwindled include militaristic and pre-colonial nomenclature systems. But those values which emerged include the Circumcision concept of olupao and Christian nomenclature Systems. In going about the analysis, the study examines the data procured from the field and libraries within the structural- functionalist theoretical paradigm. It is the contention of the thesis that such paradigm is apt because of its provision for ritually based models. These models facilitate the thesis' treatment of religious, ritualistic and symbolic Structures.
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    Archaelogical evidence regarding diet on the North Kenyan Swahili Coast between ca. 8th and 17th centuries A.D.
    (1997-09) Otieno, Okelo David
    This thesis examines the archaeological evidence on the Swahili people dietary practices between Ca. 8th and 17th centuries. The study analyzes the extent to which the environment influenced the procurement of food on the north Kenyan Swahili coast. The study adopts a model which relates the Swahili dietary system and economic strategies to the local environment based on culture history. Evidence for this study draws From the 1987-88 excavations carried out at lngwana by George Abungu as well as the 1980-84 excavations at Shanga by MarkIlorton. Data from ethnographic observations and documentary accounts were also examined. Au in-depth study of the ecofact from Ungwana and Shanga was carried out. Further, Faunal analysis of the excavated materials from the aforernentioned sites was undertaken. Evidence adduced from the research carried out indicate that there was lack of direct floral remains. However, ceramic and non-ceramic finds offered" indirect" yet worth evidence of the use of crop Foods in the Swahili dietary system. In most cases, the inferences made from the floral evidence about the existence of certain foodstuff among the Swahili concurs with similar assertions of the early historical accounts and ethnographic observations. There are however, discrepancies in some of the type, quantity and place where the Foods are reported. The study Further asserts that, the Swahili dietary system was a blend of agricultural, pastoral, marine and game resources. Therefore. the Swahili can no longer be seen narrowly as being either of agricultural or pastoral origin only. Evidence yielding from this study indicate that protcinous foods like fish which were hitherto considered an insignificant component of the Swahili diet were indeed popular among the community. The presence of certain types of foods probably not eaten by the Swahili communities but within Swahili ettlement confirm the coast-interior interaction thesis in terms of economic symbiosis and social intercourse
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    Gender dimension of ethnic identities and conflicts in Kenya: The case of Bukusu and Sabaot Communities
    (Kenyatta University, 2009) Khamala, Geoffreyson
    Previous studies on ethnic identities and conflicts have not adequately considered the place of gender in the social stratification of the Bukusu and Sabaot communities and its impact on amity and reciprocated existence. Therefore, this thesis examines how the interaction between gender and ethnicity contribute to the construction of ethnic identities and ethnic conflicts, principally how ethnic identities are constructed; reinforced in symbols, myths and rituals; and the interplay of gender and constructed ethnic identities become evident in the struggle for power, resources and ultimately ethnic conflicts between the Bukusu and Sabaot communities. To achieve this objective, the researcher undertook oral interviews and Focused Group Discussions (FGDS) in two divisions, Chwele Division (Bungoma District) and Kopsiro Division (Mt Elgon District). Materials were also sourced from secondary literature besides observations made during the field research. Overall, the study utilized Gayatri Chakrovarty Spivak’s subaltern theory. The findings revealed that respondents trace their ethnic identity through men, either the husband or the father, and as such, women do not bestow ethnic identity. Therefore, the construction of ethnic identities is based on the unequal relationships between men and women, and mobilizes men and women to subtly rally against each other. For that reason, identity construction breeds struggles within and between constructed ethnic identities with men projecting the strength of the group through ethnic conflicts. The study further established that constructed ethnic identities are often reinforced through symbols, myths and rituals with noticeable differences being used for purposes of discrimination and stereotypes that in part contribute to tension between identities (intra and inter-ethnic conflicts). Finally, it is evident from the research findings that among the Bukusu and Sabaot communities political power, property ownership, property acquisition, economic roles and external relations with other ethnic identities remain the preserve of men fuelling competition within families, between families, lineages, clans and ethnic groups. With regard to peace building, the exclusion of the female gender is evident in the Bukusu/ Sabaot peace process initiatives. Based on the foregoing findings, a number of recommendations have been made to help peace-building efforts among the Bukusu and the Sabaot. They included the need for effective representation and equal participation of both men and women in peace initiatives and the encouragement of both men and women to trade with each other and the establishment of a land commission to look into the issue of land tenure and expedite issuance of title deeds for people who bought or were allocated land. Further, there is need to create public awareness so that members of the public could respect valid documents of land ownership, the need to de-link fraternal groups from inheritance, acquisition and ownership of land and other resources, and the need for members of the two communities to strive to identify with the nation as a whole rather than with their particular ethnic groups. A number of areas for further research were identified: a study on how the rise of ethnically-based parties that accompanied multi-partism in Bungoma and Mt. Elgon districts has partly contributed to the presence of very few successful women in elective politics among the Bukusu and the Sabaot; a study on how gender informs trade between the Bukusu and Sabaot communities and thus inter-ethnic relations; and a study on intra-ethnic conflicts among the various Sabaot clans over the distribution of land in the Chebyuk Settlement Scheme.
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    Politics and Nationalism in Colonial Kenya: The Case of Babukusu of Bungoma District, C. 1894-1963
    (Kenyatta University, 2010) WEKESA, PETER WAFULA
    This study focuses on politics and nationalism in Kenya with special reference to Babukusu of Bungoma District in the period between 1894 and 1963. It examines the place of Babukusu in Kenya's politics of decolonisation by demonstrating their contribution to the emergence and development of nationalism. Using an integrated approach, the study examines the growth of political consciousness among the Babukusu in the light of the changes in their material conditions posed by the colonial political economy. It has been deduced herein that since the inception of colonialism, Babukusu like other Kenyans elsewpere, offered a concerted political challenge to its existence. This challenge, as we have shown, can only be adequately explained by taking into account the fundamental social, economic and political changes, which were introduced during the colonial period. It was out of their sense of self-realization that a political consciousness grew, which in essence was a reaction to the unfavourable structures of the colonial political economy. This political consciousness created a new necessity, namely, decolonisation that finally led to the liquidation (?f colonial~sm in 1963. For a clear insight into the theme of politics and nationalism, aspects of the Bukusu pre-colonial history that are important for understanding their participation in Kenya's nationalist politics during the colonial period are discussed. It has been demonstrated ' that the people's social, political and economic structures on the eve of the colonial rule laid an important basis for understanding the phenomenon of colonial politics and the nationalist struggle. In discussing the method and. nature of the establishment of the colonial administration among the Babuktisu, their initial reactions between 1894 and 1918 to the setting up ~f colonialism are noted. It is obser~ed that' the' initial wars of resistance . impacted heavily qn the development of the Bukusu nationalism within this period. The wars together with the social, economic and political changes introduced by the colonialists' impacted greatly, on the people's traditional values and institutions. The Bukusu response, therefore, towards this potent new political force is highlighted. ' During the . inter-war period, Babukusu continued to participate in Kenya's nationalist politics. Here, the central role the unfair colonial policies continued to play in I increasing the people's · political activity is emphasized. Other factors like their experiences in .the First World War, the ~conomic hardships arising from it and the world depression are highlighted as equally important in unleashing all sorts of hardships within the period.· As such, both official and non-official avenues adopted by Babukusu in challenging' the colonial· state and the latter's response to such initiatives are demonstrated. Unlike the inter-war period, it is indicated that during and after the Second World I War the Bukusu nationalist politics intensified both in strength and purpose. The period became a critical one not only in the Bukusu history but the whole of Kenya in general. It was within this period that the seeds of African nationalism that were sown before and during the inter-war years matured with rapid speed into the decolonisation drama and eventually independence. It is demonstrated that just like the First World War, the Second World War became an important precipitate in fuelling nationalist unrest among the Bukusu. The war and post-war time circumstances specifically created the conditions favourable in shaping local, national and international politics. It was with the convergence of the foregoing actors that the reality of independence became feasible in Kenya in 1963.
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    The relations between the African and Asian communities of Kenya's Nyanza region, 1901-2002
    (2011-07-25) Onyango, Omenya Gordon; Ndeda, Mildred A.J; Kisiang'ani, Edward N.W.
    This study investigates the problem of race relations between Asians and African communities in Kenya's Nyanza region. It examines the roots of Asian presence in the Nyanza region and explores the various levels of interactions between the Asian ethnicities and the Africans. Although the literature review demonstrates that some research on the Asian Question in East Africa has been undertaken by a number of scholars, there is little evidence to show Afro - Asian relations in Nyanza Province has been given scholarly attention. This hiatus makes the proposed study abundantly significant and justified. The study revolves around four fundamental premises. It proposes that forced immigration played a remarkable role in the emergence of interracial relations between Africans and Asians in Kisumu, Ndere, Kendu Bay and Yala areas of Nyanza region. Besides, it assumes that government policies were the main causes of suspicion, tension and conflict between the Asians and the African communities. Furthermore, it supposes the contest between the Africans and the Asians manifested itself in the social, political and economic spaces available in Nyanza. Finally, it proposes, racial integration and harmony have been achieved between African and Asian communities within the area of study.The study employs variants of the post-colonial theory- hybridity and plurality-to analyze data. The gist of the Postcolonial theoretical formulation is to interrogate forms of knowledge and social institutions authored and authorized by the West. Thus, the struggle against colonial values and institutions, within the postcolonial space of Nyanza, has been executed through the emerging hybridities and pluralities. What is more, the post colonial terrain of Nyanza was plural space-embracing Europeans, Africans and Asians- upon which competing racial and ethnic interests have been witnessed and negotiated. Moreover, Nyanza Province was one of the spaces, within the Kenyan postcolony, which experienced forms of knowledge and social institutions authored and authorized by the West. The study argues that the formal settlement of Asians in Nyanza and, specifically, in Kibos area was marked by contestation between the European settlers on the one hand, and the Asians. In this scheme, Asians acted as a buffer zone between the warring Luo and Nandi communities around Kibos area. While doing business, Asians employed Africans as workers in the cotton ginneries. Africans too served as domestic workers on Asian farms and in Asian residential areas. However, the study reveals that the relationship that existed between Africans and Asians was unequal. The Asians were later accused of exploiting Africans not only by inflating commodity prices but also by paying low wages. Over time, the Afro - Asian relations changed from being mutually beneficial, indifferent, to being conflictual. Towards the independence watershed of 1963, AfroAsian relations were characterized by a lot of conflicts which led to the withdrawal of Asians from Ndere, Kendu Bay, Kibos and Yala locations of Nyanza region to other parts of Kenya or outside Kenya. During the period, 1945-1963, Africans formed such organizations as the Luo Thrift and Trading Corporation to compete with both Asians and European economic consortiums. Such developments were signs of resistance as Africans started questioning various forms of knowledge and values authored and authorized by the West. After independence, these relations took a different dimension when Asians were accused of exploiting Africans and undermining the integrity of black people. Methodologically, the study employs an elaborate scheme of oral interviews, archival investigations and library research to collect data. The data collected has been subjected to the postcolonial theoretical perspective. The study concludes that full AfroAsian integration was not achieved in the Nyanza postcolonial space.
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    The state, IGAD and civil society organizations in socio-economic development of Turkana District, Kenya: 1963-2006
    (2011-11-02) Chemelili, Philip K.
    At independence and in post independent period, the people of Kenya had a vision that would guide them to pursue radical socio-economic changes for the common good. But after forty years into independence majority of the people living in Turkana District still lived in abject poverty. This study therefore attempted to examine the roles played by the State, the IGAD and the Civil Society Organizations in the socio-economic development of the people of Turkana District of north-western Kenya. This study therefore, examined the historical factors that militated against the achievement of meaningful socio-economic development in Turkana District, demonstrated the shortcomings of the state approach to socio-economic development in Turkana District, examined the extent to which the multi-sectoral approach of State-the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development and Non Governmental Organizations led to tangible change in socio-economic lives of Turkana District residents and assessed the overall performance of region-based approach to socio-economic development. The neo-liberal approach as expounded by Kegley and Wittkopf (1997) and Keohane (1995) was adopted as its tool of analysis. The theory advocates that the state should accommodate an array of NGOs, transnational, supranational and transgovernmental relation and coalition building in an effort to uplift the socioeconomic status of the people. This study obtained data from both primary and secondary sources. Interviews were conducted after a purposive sampling. This was preferred so as to target respondents who are IGAD officers, government officials and employees of other specialized organizations, such as Civil Society Organizations and Voluntary Agencies. It was discovered in the course of the study that the general lagging behind in socio-economic development in Turkana District is a function of historical factors(ecological and human), the post-colonial initiated socio-economic development in the district was bound to fail, the synergizing of effort between the State, Civil Society Organizations and IGAD has great potential of unleashing forces and processes of socio-economic development in the District and lastly the regional approach to socio-economic development may have unique challenges to surmount, but holds the promise of transforming the socio-economic status of the people of Turkana District. Several recommendations as to how the socio-economic development in Turkana District can be advanced are suggested. The recommendations are based on the role the Public Service, the role of women in development, poverty eradication strategies, pastoral sector, HIV/AIDS, education, security and tourism. It is believed by the researcher that if the recommendations are followed by planning that involves the locals in implementation, Turkana District will eventually attain the much anticipated socio-economic transformation.
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    Gender dimension of ethnic identities and conflicts in Kenya: the case of Bukusu and Sabaot communities
    (2011-11-02) Khamala, Geoffreyson
    Previous studies on ethnic identities and conflicts have not adequately considered the place of gender in the social stratification of the Bukusu and Sabaot communities and its impact on amity and reciprocated existence. Therefore, this thesis examines how the interaction between gender and ethnicity contribute to the construction of ethnic identities and ethnic conflicts, principally how ethnic identities are constructed; reinforced in symbols, myths and rituals; and the interplay of gender and constructed ethnic identities become evident in the struggle for power, resources and ultimately ethnic conflicts between the Bukusu and Sabaot communities. To achieve this objective, the researcher undertook oral interviews and Focused Group Discussions (FGDS) in two divisions, Chwele Division (Bungoma District) and Kopsiro Division (Mt Elgon District). Materials were also sourced from secondary literature besides observations made during the field research. Overall, the study utilized Gayatri Chakrovarty Spivak's subaltern theory. The findings revealed that respondents trace their ethnic identity through men, either the husband or the father, and as such, women do not bestow ethnic identity. Therefore, the construction of ethnic identities is based on the unequal relationships between men and women, and mobilizes men and women to subtly rally against each other. For that reason, identity construction breeds struggles within and between constructed ethnic identities with men projecting the strength of the group through ethnic conflicts. The study further established that constructed ethnic identities are often reinforced through symbols, myths and rituals with noticeable differences being used for purposes of discrimination and stereotypes that in part contribute to tension between identities (intra and inter-ethnic conflicts). Finally, it is evident from the research findings that among the Bukusu and Sabaot communities political power, property ownership, property acquisition, economic roles and external relations with other ethnic identities remain the preserve of men fuelling competition within families, between families, lineages, clans and ethnic groups. With regard to peace building, the exclusion of the female gender is evident in the Bukusu/ Sabaot peace process initiatives. Based on the foregoing findings, a number of recommendations have been made to help peace-building efforts among the Bukusu and the Sabaot. They included the need for effective representation and equal participation of both men and women in peace initiatives and the encouragement of both men and women to trade with each other and the establishment of a land commission to look into the issue of land tenure and expedite issuance of title deeds for people who bought or were allocated land. Further, there is need to create public awareness so that members of the public could respect valid documents of land ownership, the need to de-link fraternal groups from inheritance, acquisition and ownership of land and other resources, and the need for members of the two communities to strive to identify with the nation as a whole rather than with their particular ethnic groups. A number of areas for further research were identified: a study on how the rise of ethnically-based parties that accompanied multi-partism in Bungoma and Mt. Elgon districts has partly contributed to the presence of very few successful women in elective politics among the Bukusu and the Sabaot; a study on how gender informs trade between the Bukusu and Sabaot communities and thus inter-ethnic relations; and a study on intra-ethnic conflicts among the various Sabaot clans over the distribution of land in the Chebyuk Settlement Scheme.
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    A phenomenological study of ethnicity, ethnocentrism and ethnic conflict management strategies in independent Kenya
    (2011-11-03) Mwaniki, Mercy Muthoni; Benson K. Wambari; Eric Masinde Aseka
    This is a phenomenological study of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts that distinguishes between ethnicity and ethnocentrism. Since independence, there has been witnessed an emerging trend and a new pattern in ethnic uprising in the political scene such that ethnic conflict in Kenya is becoming strongly latent and that is why the study looks at these questions phenomenologically. The study demonstrates how scholars have confused ethnicity with ethnocentrism and have concentrated much on the "why" and "how" of ethnicity and have often ignored the "what" of ethnicity, which has led to settling without success in resolving and managing ethnic conflicts. It assumes that until the root causes of a conflict are comprehended and mastered, such conflicts cannot be resolved. As such, the root cause of ethnic conflicts can only be comprehended if the foundation of ethnicity is first established phenomenologically. The study therefore highlights the history of phenomenology and applies its method to ethnicity, ethnocentrism and conflict in independent Kenya. It explores the phenomenon of ethnicity as a maker of identity thereby distinguishing between ethnicity and ethnocentrism. It also evaluates the various methods and processes of conflict management and assumes that confusing ethnicity with ethnocentrism has created serious problems of clarity in social discourse. It also assumes that ethno-politics is central to the country's ethnic conflicts and that ethnocentric attitudes are the main causes of interethnic violence. These assumptions are validated by the key findings which demonstrate the pervasive nature of ethnocentrism in Kenya. The study explores, Heidegger's phenomenology, which circumscribes ontological transcendence and epistemological transcendence where one goes beyond popular beliefs so as to have a better understanding of a phenomenon. The study hinges upon ontological transcendence but for purposes of understanding the phenomenological method, Husserl's and Merleau-Ponty's theories will be considered. To operationalize the latter, the study explores various theories including non philosophical ones on ethnicity. Heidegger's characteristics of Being and Hobbes's theory of human nature are used to address the question of human existence. In using Heidegger's ontological transcendence, this work makes a contribution in demonstrating the need for developing a supra-ethnic consciousness based on the transcendence motivation where humans rise beyond ethnocentrism by developing a national consciousness. As such, the ontological perspective has enabled the study to argue on the need to go beyond conventional conflict management strategies so that conflict transformation agendas which employ a phenomenological model can be applied for suitable peace processes.
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    The history of special education in Kenya : a case of Kisumu and Nyando districts 1945-2003
    (2011-11-07) Orinda, Jacob Onyango; Omwoyo, Samson M.; Ngari, Lazarus K.
    This study focuses on the history of Special Education in Kisumu and Nyando Districts of Kenya, 1945-2003.11 examines the type of Education given to the youth before the colonial government and the missionaries. It argues that the colonial government was not concerned with the education of the Africans except to the extent that the education would give Africans minimal skills for use in colonial labor force. Equally the missionaries opened up catechism centers for religious institutions and basic schools for elementary instructions on arithmetic, reading and writing. The study established that from 1945, Special Education programs were started in Kenya mainly spearheaded by churches like the Salvation Army. the Catholic and other charitable organizations such as the Aghakan foundation. It is evident through the study that the Kenya government was aware of the needs of the disabled children as evident in the first education commission's report of 1964 which put forward some recommendations on the care to be put in place. Subsequent education commissions gave some recommendations on what was to be done towards the education of the handicapped but there was not much implementation until late1980's when training of teachers for the handicapped was centralized at Kenya Institute of Special Education. But still only four areas of handicap have been addressed at K.I.S.E programs for the gifted and talented and even adult literacy for disabled persons have not been addressed by the government. This further deny a big number of persons with Special Needs the services they deserve. The study found out that Special Education in Nyando and Kisumu Districts only gained ground with the establishment of Nvabondo center for the disabled, Kibos school for the blind in early 1960's, the establishment of Maseno school for the deaf and Joyland school for the physically handicapped in1970's. The institutions named above were initiated by the churches, a fact that confirms the little role the government played in providing education to the disabled. It must however be noted that the government contributed by providing teachers for the special programs though much supervision and management was left in the hands of the sponsors, a fact which compromised quality and led to some conflicts in administration. The study has established that the challenges that face Special Education in Nyando and Kisumu Districts includes lack challenges physical facilities, qualified personnel, attitude by non disabled, funding. access and participation among others. Even though some of these are being addressed, when compared to the non-handicapped, people with disabilities are still highly disadvantaged.
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    The colonial transformation of agriculture in Siaya, c.1894-1945
    (2012-02-09) Cokumu, Pius Ouma
    This study focuses on agricultural change in Siaya between 1894 and 1945. The study contends that the people of Siaya had an efficient, self-sustaining and dynamic agricultural system prior to the advent of the establishment of the British colonial rule and its attendant institutions. It demonstrates that Luo agricultural organization was sound and rational and based on Siaya people's knowledge of their own environment. It further argues that during the colonial epoch, the colonial state played a major role in incorporating the agriculture of Siaya into colonial capitalist economy. It did this through political conquest and the establishment of a repressive regime. This led to the loss of political independence by the people of Siaya. It also defined the political parameters within which the colonial capitalist economy was established and influenced the responses of the local people. The colonial state also established a system of taxation, which was aimed at the collection of revenue for financing general administration and also for drawing the local people into the capitalist economy. A more direct assault on the indigenous agriculture by the colonial regime was the introduction and development of commodity production, wage labour, and the extension of market. To achieve these and to serve the needs of capitalism the colonial regime partially dissolved and restructured the indigenous agriculture. For instance, Luo households in Siaya suffered from insufficient labour, resulting in food shortages. Extensive cultivation of crops such as maize for export led to soil degradation and erosion. While colonial capitalism provided new opportunities for some people in Siaya to accumulate wealth and expand agricultural output, it also pauperised part of the population. In addition, the new mode of production modified, marginalised and subordinated the Luo indigenous agriculture. However, it is contended that Luo agricultural organisation was not totally destroyed; it kept readjusting, was articulated and co-existed with the colonial capitalist sector to serve the interest of capitalism. And the introduction of cash crops severely affected food production.
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    A Historical Study of the Economic Transformation of the Samburu of North-Central Kenya, 1909-1963
    (2012-04-10) Lemoosa, Peter Letotin
    The Samburu inhabit a locality they call Enkop el Samburu which is administratively referred to as Samburu District. It is one of the districts in the Rift Valley province of Kenya. This is a study of the economic history of the Samburu. The study provides a variety of Samburu social data to reconstruct the pre-colonial and colonial Samburu pastoral economy. The peopling of Samburu enkop or Samburu is given on the basis of oral traditions, which trace their origins from the two directions of Oto in the area South of the Ethiopian Highlands and Baringo (the area South of Lake Turkana). In the study, it is argued that the Samburu arrived and settled in some parts of their present land in the early nineteenth century. By the beginning of the twentieth century, they spread and inhabited all parts of the present day Samburuland. The study divides Samburuland into two geographical zones namely, the Lpurkel (Lowland) and Ldonyo (Highlands). These ecological zones, the study argues, have influenced the evolution of the Samburu pastoral economy. They have also influenced the formulation of the colonial policies to which the Samburu were subjected. The study posits that the Samburu pastoral economy was organized along traditional patterns. Although the Samburu livestock herders had individual rights to ownership of Livestock, their land tenure systems made land a collective economic productive resource. Communal ownership of a land gave them accessibility to this resource for the purposes of settlement and exploitation. In addition to this they used traditional methods of livestock organization, nomadic pastoralism, and livestock accumulation for both economic and social purposes. With the establishment of British colonial rule, new livestock management methods were introduced. They included the introduction of livestock breeds such as Sahiwal, Boran cattle, and the introduction of a new concept of land ownership, and the division of the Samburuland along clan lines. The colonial administration also imposed on the Samburu a destocking policy whereby they were forced to seal some of their livestock for cash. The study observes that in many respects the Samburu refused to cooperate with the British administrators. Whereas the Samburu resisted these efforts, the study shows how the introduction of taxation among the Samburu forced them to sell their livestock to raise money to pay the tax. The administrative impact o the colonial state was evidenced in the enforcement of the tax collection process that made the Samburu to seek wage employment as a means to raise money for the payment of the tax. This was one of the factors responsible for the transformation of the Samburu pastoral economy to make it responsive to labour market demands. Other factors included the effects of famine and livestock diseases. The study argues that these forces resulted in the employment of many Samburu both n the public and private sectors of the colonial political economy. The study demonstrates that before the advent of the British, the Samburu organized and operated a barter trade system. They exchanged cattle with small stock and vice versa. It proceeds to show how during the colonial period, the barter system was largely replaced by a money commanded exchange as Samburu livestock traders, shopkeepers and even alien merchants variously interacted in Samburu district. The study demonstrates that before the advent of the British, the Samburu organised and operated a barter trade system. They exchanged cattle with small stock and vice versa. It proceeds to show how during the colonial period, the barter system was largely replaced by a money commanded exchange as Samburu livestock traders, shopkeepers and even alien merchants variously interacted in Samburu District.
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    The evolution of Mumias settlement into an urban centre to circa 1940
    (2012-04-10) Murunga, Godwin Rapando
    This study examines the evolution of Mumias into an urban centre. It adopts and critiques the Weberian approach to urbanization and also re-asserts the underdevelopment perspective of unequal exchange and uneven development. In the framework of the underdevelopment theory, the place of merchant-capital in the development of Mumias is explained. The study demonstrates the relevance and/or lack of it of these theories in understanding the physical structure and social processes that characterised the evolution of Mumias from its earliest time to the year 1940. The study begins on the premise that there is no standard of determining an urban centre and that the Wanga had their own form of urbanism. The whole question of urbanization has to be re-examined and defined beyond Western definition straitjackets. The functionality of the Wanga urbanism is demonstrated in the importance of Itookho, the traditional name for the capital. The idea of Itookho is central in the urbanism of the Wanga. Its location, functions and changing character were a product of the centres response to the local needs and aspirations of the Wanga and their gerontocracy. The politico-administrative imperatives of the institution of Nabongo and the attendant socio-cultural and economic roles were pertinent aspects that defined Itookho. The place of the Maasai in the changing nature and functions of Itookho is also underscored in the study. By 1860, Itookho had evolved into a key aggregation of humans for socio-cultural purposes in its urban evolution. The study proceeds to examine the interlude between the traditional nature of Itookho and the exceedingly powerful presence of British colonialists. Attempts are made to illuminate the impact of the Arab-Swahili presence in Itookho including their commercial and religious lagecies. It is shown that the Arab Swahili reached Itookho, as a direct response to growing mercantile needs at the Coast. The Arab-Swahili mercantile incursions in Wanga in the era of Nabongo Shiundu made his Itookho re-named Kwa-Shiundu which became largely cosmopolitan. With such a cosmopolitan composition, the morphology of Kwa-Shiundu was gradually transformed. However, by 1894, when British colonial designs in Kenya became apparent, Islam had not effectively taken root in Kwa-Shiundu and the European presence and the Arab-Swahili lack of evangelical zeal accounted for the subsequent decline of the Arab-Swahili influence. The study analyses the impact of the Arab-Swahili merchant-capital on the Wanga and other parts of the Buluyia social formation. The establishment of the colonial state in Buluyia is given prominence in the study. It emphasizes the importance of grasping the colonial racial dichotomy in analysing and understanding the social processes evident in Mumias. Its colonial transformation was based on this dichotomy and its declining nature after 1928 is associated to colonial policies. The study also highlights the role of Indian merchant-capital in the post 1900 history of Mumias and proceeds to offer a penetrating assessment of the conflicting place of Indian trading needs European settler agricultural demands in Mumias. Evidence is adduced to demonstrate how the African needs were sand-witched between the Indian and European interests. Consequently, the evolution of a viable network of Wanga traders was stifled. This explains why Mumias 'decayed' after 1928 when the district headquarters was moved to Kakamega. These shifted emphasis from Mumias as greater focus went to other towns in the region. But the inability of the royal Wanga family to transform their political clout over the British into economic prowess is seen as a fundamental issue. The rest of the Wanga traders remained petty traders. The unprivileged entrepreneurial skills of the less connected local traders were easily petered out of competition by Indians. Thus the Wanga initiatives in trade and the local dynamic in the urban growth of Mumias were undermined.
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    The response of the Kipsigis Orkoik to colonial rule
    (2012-04-18) Sialai, Michael Rotich
    This study of the response of the Kipsigis Orkoiik to colonial rule. It is also intended to make an important contribution to the historiography of the imperial conquest of Kenya and seeks to make its own contribution to the theories of resistance and collaboration, and protest. Chapter one forms the introduction of the thesis. It includes a definition of the problem and of the area of study; literature review; a statement of the objectives; a description of the methodology used in the collection of data and a formulation of the theoretical framework against which the data was interpreted. Chapter two attempts to trace the origins of the Kipsigis Orkoiik (Talai) and their contact with the Kipsigis people to the eve of colonial intrusion. The effects of the interactions between the two determine the Kipsigis Orkoiik resistance to the British conquest and rule in Kipsigis country. Chapter two attempts to trace the origins of the Kipsigis Orkoiik (Talai) and their contact with the Kipsigis people to the eve of colonial intrusion. The effects of the interactions between the two determine the Kipsigis Orkoiik resistance to the British conquest and rule in Kipsigis country. Chapter three discusses the arrival of the Europeans (British) in Kipsigis and the Orkoiik response to colonial conquest and the establishment of colonial rule in 1919. In the chapter, Kipsigis clash with the British and the initiative undertaken by the Chief Orkoiyot Kipchomber Arap Koilegen when the British arrived in Kipsigis County among other things will be discussed. Chapter four analyses the protest and repression in the inter war years. It will study the colonial administration in Kipsigis between 1920 and 1939 and how the Kipsigis Orkoiik protested against the colonial policies imposed on the Kipsigis in this period. It will also consider the culmination of this protest. Chapter five is devoted to the kind of life the Talai led in exile and the effects of the deportation of the Orkoiik on Kipsigis society and politics. The concluding chapter contains in a summary form the major findings of the study. The study aimed at analyzing the establishment of colonial rule in Kipsigis country and the response of the Orkoiik, focusing on the interwar years, the upshot of which was the deportation of the latter to Gwasi, in the South Kavirondo District (now Gwasi District). It also sought to examine the impact of the deportation on Kipsigis society and politics up to independence. With the establishment of colonial rule in Kipsigis in 1902. The Chief Orkoiyot Arap Koilegen and his people allied with the British. But as time went by he realized that the primary aim of the British was to occupy his country. This realization made the Orkoiyot to change from being an ally to an enemy of the colonialists. This confirms what the protagonists of the Collaboration and Resistance theories have argued that even the best allies of the Europeans did not know that the colonialists primary aim was to occupy their country and rule them. The interests of the Chief Orkoiyot and the British soon clashed as each tried to win the loyalty of the local people. The Orkoiyot was now faced by problems that other African leaders had either faced or were facing, with their sovereignty being threatened by outside forces. Hence he had no alternative but to fight to save his threatened dynasty. Thus the Kipsigis Orkoiik vigorously resisted the occupation of their country by the British. Their initial resistance in the early period of colonial rule led to three leading Orkoiik namely the chief Orkoiyot Arap Koilegei, Arap Singoe and Arap Boisio being exiled to Central Kenya in 1914. The trio died in exile. Their deportation is comparable to that of Jaja of Opobo and Samouri Toure of Mandinka state in West Africa who was ready to be exiled instead of ceding their territories to aliens. The banishment of the Orkoiik leaders confirms Boache's (1958) argument that African leaders were ready to be exiled or killed defending their territories. The indigenous religious beliefs inspired the Orkoiik unrest. Just after the deportation of 1914, there appeared locusts; there was lack of rain and a strange disease passed through the District. These strange supernatural occurrences were attributed to the spirits who were believed to be unhappy and were showing displeasure over the exiling of the three leaders. An irate mob of women numbering about five hundred turned up at the Kericho Mission with a view to punishing the converted Kipsigis who were instrumental in the deportation act. The role of religion in the African resistance was a common phenomenon. The resistance and collaboration theorists have argued that instrumentality of religious beliefs in resistance was not unusual among the African societies, which resisted alien rule. The deportation of the three leading Orkoiik leaders did not deal a blow to the Orkoiik resistance instead energetic and more powerful leaders emerged who continued to challenge the British rule in Kipsigis country. In 1928, the Orkoiik and the other Kipsigis planned a big revolt to "chase away the whites from Kipsigis country". The discovery of the plot, coupled with increased cattle raids and a state of political unrest in Kipsigis land, made the British colonial administrators to call for the deportation of the whole clan of Orkoiik in order to end their influence over the Kipsigis people. The Orkoiik totaling about 698 males and females were subsequently deported to Gwasi in the then South Kavirondo District following the enactment of the Removal of the Laibons Ordinance on 1st August 1934 by the Legislative Council. The Orkoiik protest in the inter-war period sought to restore the past that had been disrupted by the coming of the British, thus confirming Mazrui's protest theory that African societies engaged in protests of Restoration and Conservation of restore their glorious past and were on the whole a manifestation of disturbed faith. The deportation of the whole clan in 1934 marked a watershed in the resistance of the Orkoiik and indeed their history. In exile, they led a miserable life and were reduced to a destitute lot. However, they continued to challenge the British rule and as Davidson (1968) argues so long as there is oppression there is no end to protest by the oppressed. When the Orkoiik were finally repatriated to Kericho District in 1962, they had no land to settle on as the other Kipsigis had taken their ancestral land away. As a result, majority of them are now squatters in Kericho Municipal Council and Kipkelion Town. The fate of the Orkoiik confirms the argument of the Resistance and Collaboration theorists that those who sacrificed most in the struggle against the establishment of colonial rule in Africa lost our compared to the people who had played safe.
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    A history of the African labourers of Nyeri township, 1902--1945
    (2012-04-19) Kiruthu, Felix Macharia
    This study focuses on the creation of urbanization and an African labour force in Nyeri Township right from 1902 when Nyeri Fort was established by the colonial authorities to the end of the Second World War in 1945. During these years, several colonial policies were promulgated which created fundamental changes in the lives of the Africans both in the Town and in the surrounding villages. Colonial penetration was accompanied by appropriation of African land and labour which inevitably altered the majority of African lives. Right from the start of colonial rule, the colonial government used force in order to acquire labour. Young men were forced to build roads, bridges and forts. Infact, the British had to exploit the pre-capitalist modes of production in order to acquire labour. Consequently, the loot captures from the resisting communities was used to reward the British collaborators in Nyeri. Thus pre-capitalist formations were deliberately preserved partially by the British in order to assist in the reproduction of the African Labour Force. The socio-economic life of the Africans was interrupted by the colonial forces. The African laborers who were forced to settle in Nyeri Township and provide labour to the Europeans and Asians encountered serious problems, including insufficient native area for settlement of the labourers. Hence, crowding and disease outbreaks were common. Similarly, the British paid meager wages to the African labour force in town. The labourers, in turn, responded by maintaining some interest in the reserves as a form of social security. As a result most of them belonged to two economic spheres: wage earning in the town became complementary rather than an alternative to the produce of the family in the reserve. Since the basis of the new mode of production was the exploitation of the indigenous modes of production, serious contradictions inevitably emerged. In Nyeri, the spurge of nationalism that accompanied the two World Wars is a good example of these contradictions. The Western education imparted to some Africans in mission schools enabled them to rationalize that the comfortable lives of the Europeans in Kenya was the direct result of the African drudgery and poverty. It is in this light that the emergence of welfare, religious, and political associations in Nyeri is analyzed. Moreover, the exposure of the African Carrier Corps and soldiers of Nyeri to other countries and ways of doing things gave them confidence in dealing with Europeans. Indeed the modes of production paradigm contends that the articulation of various modes in the colonial state eventually leads to violence. In Nyeri, this was demonstrated by the violence that shook the township shortly after the Second World War in the name of Mau Mau resistance. The majority of the Mau Mau in Nyeri were African squatters, demobilised soldiers and petty businessmen. The common characteristic of all the members of Mau Mau was poverty and disillusionment with the colonial establishment.
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    The impact of Japanese economic aid on development in Kenya 1963-1990
    (2012-05-03) Imbisi, Joel
    This study focuses on the impact of Japanese economic aid on Development in Kenya. The evolution of Japanese foreign aid and Japanese aid activities in Kenya is analysed and an assessment is made. The study argues that Japanese economic miracle, built on the past achievements and failures which enabled Japan to borrow foreign knowledge, human resource, technology and capital which later provided Japan with an opportunity to accumulate enough capital and start her aid policy in Kenya by 1964. The study also states that Japanese linkage with the international agencies such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and IRDB enabled her to join other developed countries in providing Kenya with economic aid for her economic development. This thesis also argues that although Japanese aid to Kenya insures her better relations with Kenya, it also builds viable social-economic and cultural interaction. It is through these interactions in both social, economic and cultural activities that this thesis argues that Japanese aid offers Kenya an opportunity to join the ranks of newly industrializing states. Japanese foreign aid policy is formulated and implemented by organs such as Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (Loans) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (technical aid). It is also observed that Japan's project implementation is meticulous. The appraisal of a project is a continuous process. Further, it is contended that Japanese aid to Africa started on a low ebb because the Japanese had a dim idea about the continent; visits by various Japanese administrators and professionals to the African continent corrected the position. Today Africa is increasingly getting Japanese economic assistance, Japanese economic aid programmes in Kenya started on a low note in 1964 just after independence. However today, Japanese aid is diverse for it touches every facet of Kenya's life. By mid 1980's Japan had virtually replaced Britain as the main donor to Kenya. This was because of Kenya's promising capitalist economic development. The study boils down to Kenya and asserts that upon the attainment of independence in 1963, British had laid the foundation of Kenya's economic development. The modernisation paradigm in which development was understood made the newly independent Kenyan state to seek foreign aid from outside. It is against this backdrop that the history of Japanese aid to Kenya can be understood. Japanese aid to Kenya is characterized by more loans than grants and technical assistance. It is also argued in this study that Japanese aid activities in Kenya are impeded by a number of factors. Among them we have, inappropriate language of technology transfer, understaffed aid agencies, the Japanese favour of loans to grants and technical assistance and tough aid conditionalities. On the whole, the study posits that Kenyan's draw a number of lessons from the Japanese experience through their aid projects.
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    Social concepts in the initiation rituals of the Abatachoni: a historical study
    (2012-05-09) Kakai, P. W.
    The study discusses the social concepts articulated in initiation rituals among Abatachoni between 1750 and 1946. An examination and analysis of some outstanding concepts is made with respect to ritual practices pertaining to circumcision, okhulichana, age-set systems, post initiation nomenclature, symbolism, militarism and smithing. In treating the movement of the above concepts from clan to clan and region to region, an attempt is made at tracing the origin, development and eventually spread of such concepts among Abatachoni and their neighbours. Furthermore, the study argues that the changing times, human agency and the natural environmental factors affected the movement and function of the concepts in initiation rituals. It also illustrates the mutuality of influences among Abatachoni and their neighbours. These influences engendered various cognitive and speculative dimensions in the communities. This work contends that in the colonial era initiation ritual ideas obtaining among Abatachoni got disrupted. As a consequence, certain ritual concepts dwindled while new ones emerged. The examples of those whose values and applicability dwindled include militaristic and pre-colonial nomenclature systems. But those values, which emerged, include the systems. But those values, which emerged, include the circumcision concept of olupao and Christian nomenclature systems. In going about the analysis, the study examines the data procured from the field and libraries within the structural- functionalist theoretical paradigm. It is the contention of the thesis that such paradigm is apt because of its provision for ritually based models. These models facilitate the thesis' treatment of religious, ritualistic and symbolic structures.
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    A political history of Meru 1750-1908
    (2012-05-09) Njogu, Peter Mbae
    This study is an attempt to analyze the historical process of the genesis and development of Meru Political Organization from 1750-1908. The study asserts that the political organization of Meru was a function of the interaction of complex layers of inter-related institutions. It is evident that by about 1908 the Meru had evolved into a society in which political authority was not vested in any single individual or institutions; rather, political power and authority were diffused amongst various institutions and representative individuals. The thesis identifies and analyses these institutions including 'Mwiriga' (Pl.'Miiriga') 'Kiama'Biama') Age-set system and military units. The character and functions of leadership in these institutions is assessed. The study also examines the effects of internal forces like geographical environment, religion and the role of disputes in political evolution and organization. The impact of other communities including the Maasai, Kamba, Embu and Mbeere on the political institution is investigated. Throughout the study, an attempt is made to portray the role of various institutions on the day-to-day functioning of the society. Ultimately, the form of political organization, which emerged in the Meru pre-colonial society, is shown to have grown in response to the impact of diverse internal and external forces.
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    An ethnoarchaelogical study of contemporary local pottery on the Kenyan coast
    (2012-05-09) Ndiiri, Washington
    The focus of this study is on Production, Consumption and discard of Contemporary local pottery on the Kenya Coast. It revolves around a number of sites around Jomvu Kuu (Mombasa) Lamu and Pate areas. An analysis of pottery from these sites was made with a view to understand the operations of this industry in archaeological past. For comparative purposes aimed at supporting cultural continuity or discontinuity, an archaeological analysis of the 14th-16th century sherds from sites such as Kipini, Ungwana, Idabu and pate was made. To achieve these objectives various methods including both physical and chemical analyses were used. The physical methods included attribute analysis, thin sections while chemical methods included x-ray fluorescence. In attribute analysis the discrimination of a specified member of characteristics were synthesized. Some of the attributes studied were:- the clay texture, method of manufacture, vessel forms, decorative techniques and motifs, rim profiles and basal shapes. Through this analytical framework it was construed that the contemporary pottery attributes were in agreement with those found on sherds in archaeological excavations. Two sets of sherds; the contemporary and archaeological sherds were exposed to chemical and physical analytical frameworks. These results showed similarities in the fabric for a number of sites. For example most if not all the sherds had fossils in their quartz particles showing a sedimentary origin characteristic of the Kenya Coast. The chemical analytical approach, the x-ray fluorescence is an important method in provenance of studies. It was important in ascertaining the Kenyan Coast as the source of clays used in pottery manufacture, From the results of this method, the element composition in terms of percentage for Idabu (Lamu) and Jomvu Kuu (Mombasa): Ungwana and Pate Island were similar. This showed exchange of pottery objects or clay in this region. This study does illustrate that pottery industry on the Kenya Coast is a cultural continuum. This guarded knowledge was probably kept ablaze by being passed from one generation to the next as the case still is today.