RP-Department of Pharmacy & Complementary / Alternative Medicine

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Acetyl salicylic acid attenuates cardiac hypertrophy through Wnt signaling
(Springer Verlag, 2015) Gitau, Samuel C.; Li, Xuelian; Zhao, Dandan; Guo, Zhenfeng; Liang, Haihai; Qian, Ming; Lv, Lifang; Li, Tianshi; Xu, Bozhi; Wang, Zhiguo; Zhang, Yong; Xu, Chaoqian; Lu, Yanjie; Du, Zhiming; Shan, Hongli; Yang, Baofeng
Ventricular hypertrophy is a powerful and independent predictor of cardiovascular morbid events. The vascular properties of low-dose acetyl salicylic acid (aspirin) provide cardiovascular benefits through the irreversible inhibition of platelet cyclooxygenase 1; however, the possible anti-hypertrophic properties and potential mechanism of aspirin have not been investigated in detail. In this study, healthy wild-type male mice were randomly divided into three groups and subjected to transverse aortic constriction (TAC) or sham operation. The TAC-operated mice were treated with the human equivalent of low-dose aspirin (10 mg$kg–1$d–1); the remaining mice received an equal amount of phosphate buffered saline with 0.65% ethanol, which was used as a vehicle. A cardiomyocyte hypertrophy model induced by angiotensin II (10 nmol$L–1) was treated with the human equivalent of low (10 or 100 μmol$L–1) and high (1000 μmol$L–1) aspirin concentrations in plasma. Changes in the cardiac structure and function were assessed through echocardiography and transmission electron microscopy. Gene expression was determined through RT-PCR and western blot analysis. Results indicated that aspirin treatment abrogated the increased thickness of the left ventricular anterior and posterior walls, the swelling of mitochondria, and the increased surface area in in vivo and in vitro hypertrophy models. Aspirin also normalized the upregulated hypertrophic biomarkers, β-myosin heavy chain (β-MHC), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and b-type natriuretic peptide (BNP). Aspirin efficiently reversed the upregulation of β-catenin and P-Akt expression and the TAC- or ANG II-induced downregulation of GSK-3β. Therefore, low-dose aspirin possesses significant anti-hypertrophic properties at clinically relevant concentrations for anti-thrombotic therapy. The downregulation of β-catenin and Akt may be the underlying signaling mechanism of the effects of aspirin
Alcohols and Denaturants Hand Rub Sanitizers Used to Curb COVID-19 Pandemic in Kiambu County, Kenya
(International Journal of Scientific Research in ________Chemical Sciences___________________ Research Paper., 2022) Gacuiga, Martha W; Wanjau, Ruth N; Murigi, martin K.M; Mbugua, Gerald W; Ndiritu, Antony M; Gikonyo, Nicholas K
The coronavirus disease outbreak in 2019 (COVID-19) became a pandemic that led to tremendous increase in the use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers globally. Governments and public health agencies across the world advocated for hand hygiene as one of the preventive measures against COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, washing of hands with water and soap or use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers became mandatory. The efficacy of these sanitizers is dependent on the alcohol concentration in the hand sanitizer. Alcohols commonly used in sanitizers include ethanol and isopropyl alcohol at levels of 60% to 80%. Ethanol used to manufacture the sanitizers is of industrial grade and is usually denatured to prevent human consumption. Denaturants include methanol, pyridine, acetone and denatonium benzoate at levels of ≤ 630 ppm for methanol and 20 to 50 ppm for denatonium benzoate. This paper mull over comparing levels of alcohols and denaturants with label claims of alcohol-based hand sanitizers used to curb the COVID-19 pandemic in Kiambu County, Kenya. Samples of alcohol-based hand sanitizers of different brands were analyzed in triplicates using Attenuated Total Reflectance- Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry (ATR-FTIR). Each hand sanitizer was given a unique sample identifier code ranging from HS1-HS12. The findings indicated that alcohol-based hand sanitizers contain significant amount of either ethanol or isopropyl alcohol and low concentration of methanol or denatonium benzoate. The percentage of ethanol ranged from 4.607±0.0 to 81.23±0.3. Nine samples showed concentrations above 70% ethanol. The levels found in the study were not in agreement with levels indicated on the labels. Isopropyl alcohol was found in only two samples contrary to the label claims in five samples. The analysis showed that all samples contained either isopropyl alcohol, methanol or denatonium benzoate as denaturants with levels ranging from 0.040±0.02% to 72.6857±0.4241%, while the label claim indicated the presence of denaturants in only five samples. However, two samples gave methanol levels that exceeded threshold limits of 630 ppm (0.063% v/v). In conclusion, the concentration levels of alcohols and denaturants in all alcohol-based hand sanitizers analysed in this study didn’t match with the label claim. This calls for stringent measures by regulatory bodies to ensure compliance with set standards in the manufacture of alcohol-based hand sanitizers.
Amphotericin B Toxicities among HIV Infected Adults with Cryptococcal Meningitis in Kiambu District Hospital
(Pharmaceutical Society of Kenya, 2018) Karita, A.W; Nyamu, D.G; Karimi, P.N; Gitau, S.C
Background: HIV infection is a worldwide epidemic with the highest prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa. This has increased the prevalence of cryptococcal meningitis which is a common AIDS-related opportunistic infection with a high rate of morbidity and mortality. Amphotericin B is the standard treatment for cryptococcal meningitis but its use is limited by toxicities resulting from a number of factors such as cumulative dosage and concomitant drugs. Published local studies on patterns of toxicities are scanty. Objectives: The main objective of the study was to assess toxicities associated with Amphotericin B in the management of cryptococcal meningitis among HIV infected patients aged 18 years and over in Kiambu District Hospital. Methodology: A cross- section design was used that involved review of patients’ records at Kiambu District Hospital medical records department between January 2010 to December 2014. One hundred and six files of HIV infected adults with cryptococcal meningitis and treated with amphotericin B were used. Data on amphotericin B toxicities, risk factors, and preventive strategies were extracted from the files using a predesigned semi-structured data collection form. This data was entered into Microsoft Access version 2013 to create a database and then exported to IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 22.0 for analysis. Bivariate analysis using chi-square test and logistic regression were used to determine statistical significance at 0.05. P values that were equal or less the 0.05 were considered significant Results: Prevalence of infusion-related toxicities was high at 87.7%, with fever being the most common (58.1%). The overall prevalence of nephrotoxicity was at 27.4% but principally characterized by hypokalemia (41.4%) and elevated creatinine at 58.6%. Dosing of the drug was not weight based and higher amphotericin B doses were important risk factors for toxicity (p=0.045). Prevention of toxicities associated with amphotericin B involved monitoring of serum levels of potassium (p=0.028) and creatinine (p=0.019) as well as patients hydration status A.W. Karita , D.G. Nyamu , P.N. Karimi , S.C. Gitau University of Nairobi, College of Health Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmacy Practice, P.O Box 19676-00202, Nairobi, Kenya. Emails- P.N. Karimi- ndirang@yahoo.com, D.G.Nyamu-dgnyamu@gamil.com, A.W Karita-aggienjane@gmail.com. Kenyatta University, Department of Pharmacy and complementary/Alternative medicine, P.O Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya, email—gitaus2009@gmail.com *Corresponding author 1 2 1 2 (p=0.026). Monitoring of toxicity was only prevalent (70%) at the initiation of therapy but declined to less than 20% in the course of treatment. Conclusion and recommendation: Prevalence of toxicity of amphotericin B in Kiambu District Hospital was high and related to the dose given. Therefore, care should be taken when dosing the drug. In addition, frequent patient monitoring, adequate hydration, and premedication are key to preventing the toxicity and should be encouraged.
Communication Strategies in the Management of HIV and AIDS in Kisii County, Kenya: Successes and Gaps
(International Journal of Communication Research, 2019) Nyakundi, Augustus Onchari; Maroko, Geoffrey Mokua; Mokua, Gladys Nyamoita; Onyambu, Meshack Ondora
Although interventions on HIV and AIDS in Kisii County have been ongoing for over ten years, the County’s infection rates are among the highest in Kenya. The purpose of this paper is to describe stakeholder communication strategies and tools in the management of HIV and AIDS interventions in the County. A sample of 73 informants drawn from 16 selected hospitals in the County was identified. The sample included, sex workers, officials of units affiliated to the National AIDS Control Council (NACC), and one Community Based Organisation (CBO). Data was collected using interviews, analysis of communication documents used to put to effect HIV and AIDS intervention. Further, an analysis of the websites of selected stakeholders was done to elicit their communication strategies. Findings revealed that interpersonal communication strategies used by peer navigators, mentor mothers and among People Living with HIV (PLHIV) were the most effective in the interventions against HIV and AIDS in the County. Mobilization was also found to be effective in targeting sex workers and Men who have sex with men (MSM). It emerged that the audiences targeted by the communication strategies were PLHIV and sex workers. The general population, men, the youth and other key populations were not effectively targeted. The study concludes that the communication strategies, as packaged, may not be effective in bringing about significant behaviour change among vulnerable populations. The paper recommends tailor-made communication s
A Conceptual Analysis of Metaphors Engendering HIV and AIDS-Related Stigma and Discrimination in Kisii County, Kenya
(Language Circle: Journal of Language and Literature, 2020) Maroko, Geoffrey Mokua; Mokua, Gladys Nyamoita; Nyakundi, Augustus Onchari; Onyambu, Meshack Ondora
Metaphors are mapped across two conceptual domains where A is B. Metaphorical expressionsare defined by dimensions including novelty, conventionality, abstractness and concreteness. The AbaGusii of Western Kenya is a highly conservative community of Bantu speakers of Western part of Kenya. They view HIV and Aids as taboo that cannot be the subject of discussion in public. Hence, People Living with HIV (hereafter PLHIV) are stigmatized and discriminated. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the metaphorical words and concepts that engender HIV and Aids-related stigma and discrimination in Kisii County. Descriptive narratives were elicited from HIV support providers using focus group discussions and follow-up interviews. The narratives were ana-lysed in terms of five attributes of stigma and discrimination within the conceptual metaphor theory. Results revealed some culturally ingrained metaphors that evoke stigma and discrimination. The paper advocates for language management efforts using success stories in HIV and Aids management to construct positive messages to counter the negative metaphors
Contribution of Amaranth Grain (A. Cruentus) on dietary intake and Nutritional Status of Adults Living with HIV in Mweiga, Nyeri, Kenya
(2014) Gikonyo, N.K.; Ndungu, Zipporah W.; Kuria, E. N.; Mbithe, Dorcus
Globally, there is high prevalence of macro and micronutrient deficiency among people living with HIV (PLHIV) which can jeopardize the quality of life. Under nutrition is a major cause of death among PLHIV. Use of nutrient dense foods can be one of the interventions to deal with this challenge. Amaranth grain has high kilocalories, high biological value proteins, better amino acid and micronutrient profile than nearly all cereals. However, it is not commonly used as part of diet especially among adults. The main objective of this study was to determine the contribution of amaranth grain consumption on the dietary intake among PLHIV for improved nutritional status. Experimental design was used to conduct an intervention study which involved daily consumption of amaranth grain porridge for six months. A comprehensive sample of 66 Adults living with HIV attending Mweiga homebased care group and not on antiretroviral therapy was used. Results showed increase in mean energy consumption by 13.1% and 16.7% for males and females respectively after inclusion of amaranth grain in the diet. The proportion of respondents consuming adequate protein increased from 19.4% to 96.8% for males and from 22.9% to 97.1% for females. The proportion of the respondents who met the RDAs for zinc, iron, magnesium, and calcium increased from below 40% to over 77%. Mean weight gain during intervention was 3.35 ± 0.5 kg. Proportion of respondents who were underweight reduced from 71.2% at baseline to 7.6% at month six. Consumption of amaranth grain was positively associated with improved dietary intake among PLHIV. The porridge enabled respondents to meet the RDAs for energy, protein and micronutrients. This lead to the observed weight gain. This study recommends adoption of amaranth grain by PLHIV for improved nutritional status
COVID-19 Misinformation and Infodemic in Rural Africa
(The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 2020) Okereke, Melody; Ukor, Nelson Ashinedu; Ngaruiya, Lilian Muthoni; Mwansa, Chikwe; Alhaj, Samar Mohammed; Ogunkola, Isaac Olushola; Jaber, Hadi Mohammed; Isa, Mashkur Abdulhamid; Ekpenyong, Aniekan; Lucero-Prisno, Don Eliseo
The world has witnessed rapid advancement and changes since the COVID-19 pandemic emerged in Wuhan, China. The significant changes experienced during these times remain unprecedented. The African continent has initiated significant responses to curb the spread of the pandemic. However, there is an increasing concern that rural Africa is facing serious challenges in their responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. This is due to the uncertainty if the populations are detached from or in synch with information on COVID-19. The findings reported here suggest that rural Africa is burdened with misinformation and infodemic regarding COVID-19 due to widespread misconceptions and anecdotal reports. It is, therefore, necessary to engage with community leaders to provide awareness campaigns in rural communities to ensure access to reliable information issued by local and international health authorities. It is pertinent to set up avenues that improve health literacy in communities in rural Africa as it is a major determinant of information assimilation.
Development of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Fingerprints for Warburgia Ugandensis Herbal Materials
(Malaysian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2021) Onyambu, Meshack; Gikonyo, Nicholas; Nyambaka, Hudson; Thoithi, Grace; Okumu, Tom
Warbugia ugandensis (W. ugandensis) is among the 10 most utilised medicinal plants in East Africa. Stem bark and leaves are used as remedies for malaria, stomachache, coughs and skin diseases. Consequently, the plant is endangered because of uncontrolled harvest and lack of domestication. There is therefore fear of poor quality commercialised products due to lack of evaluation mechanisms. This study explored the chemical profiles that could be used to confirm its authenticity and purity. W. ugandensis used as reference during method development was harvested from Kenyatta University Medicinal Plant Research Garden (KUMPRG). Six other samples were obtained from different geographical locations in Kenya. The samples were identified by a botanist and a voucher specimen (MO/002- 008/2013) deposited in the East African Herbarium, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. Samples were harvested and processed by World Health Organization (WHO) recommended methods. Chromatographic profiles of the leaf and stem bark were established based on parameters arrived at iteratively. The study characterised over 100 compounds in the leaf and stem bark. Based on area percent and known medicinal value, 22 compounds from the leaf and 38 from the stem bark were selected as major chemical profiles. The compounds in the stem bark included gamma-sitosterol (1.0%–2.5%), squalene (0.2%–4.6%), isolongifolene (1.2%–2.8%), phenol 2-methoxy (0.8%–1.8%) and nerolidol (0.3%–1.5%). Those in the leaf included nerolidol 2 (0.3%–1.1%), phytol (0.6%–1.7%), 2-methoxy phenol (0.2%– 2.2%), gamma-tocopherol (0.2%–0.9%), vitamin E (0.4%–1.5%) and gamma-sitosterol (1.8%–4.9%). Most of these compounds were characterised in W. ugandensis for the first time. The profiles therefore can form fingerprints for use to evaluate its quality, purity and authenticity.
Development of Pharmacy Education in Kenya Universities to date
(Academic Journals, 2016) Ogaji, Ikoni J.; Kahiga, Titus M.; Gachuno, Onesmus W.; Mwangi, Julius W.
The purpose of this paper was to examine the development of pharmacy education in Kenya since independence. Websites of the Pharmacy and Poison Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education as well as those of the universities offering pharmacy education were used to obtain information such as the framework for establishment of programmes in higher institutions, curriculum, regulation of pharmacy practice among others. From a single institution in the 1970s, six universities that are evenly divided between government and private ownerships now offer Bachelor of Pharmacy programs in Kenya. Irrespective of the ownership the requirement for the establishment of programs in Kenya universities is centrally formulated and established. Pharmacy education is regulated by both the Commission for University Education and Pharmacy and Poisons Board. Adequate and well trained, motivated and productive workforce is required for effective teaching and learning and thus the key elements for local and international competence of the graduates. The proliferation of pharmacy education institutions requires a greater and continuous collaboration amongst the regulators and the stakeholders to ensure that pharmacy graduates from these newly established schools are adequately trained and equipped to meet the ever changing healthcare needs of the populace.
An Ethnobotanical Survey of Plants Used For the Treatment and Management of Cancer in Embu County, Kenya
(Research Gate, 2019) Misonge, Onyancha Jared; Kamindu, Gikonyo Nicholas; Wangui, Wachira Sabina; Muita, Gicheru Michael
Documentation of anticancer plants is not exhaustive in Kenya. The current study therefore was carried out to identify the plants used for treatment and management of cancer in Embu County. This is part of the mapping requirements of the laws of Kenya to promote complementary medicine. Analytical crosssectional ethnobotanical study was conducted in Embu County, sixteen key informants were recruited and provided information about the names of plants, the parts of plant and methods of preparation of the medicines used to manage cancer. The plants were collected from their natural habitat and identified. Nine plants were recorded to manage cancers of the breast, prostate and throat. Fagaropsis angolensis, Hydnora abyssinica and Indigofera swaziensis were recorded for management of cancer for the first time in this study. It was concluded that traditional medical practitioners of Embu County use plant extracts to manage and treat cancers of the breast, prostate and throat.
Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology of the Genus Sarcophyte: A Review
(Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2024-01) Onyancha, Jared Misonge; Moriasi, Gervason Apiri; Onsinyo, Meroka James; Wainaina, Samuel Murigi; Sengera, Geoffrey Ogeto; Nyandoro, Vincent Obaga
Although medicinal plants have been used by ethnic communities since ancient times to prevent and treat various diseases, only a few have been scientifically documented. Therefore, due to their rare availability and lack of comprehensive scientific information, we reviewed the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of plants within the genus Sarcophyte. To do this, we used specific search terms and phrases to retrieve relevant information from online sources published in English from 2000 to July 2023. The results showed that there are only two plants in the genus Sarcophyte (Sarcophyte sanguinea Sparrm. and Sarcophyte piriei Hutch.), which are traditionally used to treat a wide range of diseases, especially cancer, and skin, gastrointestinal, and urinogenital tract ailments in humans, and to cure animals in ethnoveterinary practices. It was noted that 13 secondary metabolites have been isolated from the two plants, the most prominent of which are flavonoids (diinsininol, diinsinin, and naringenin). The antioxidant activity of S. piriei is reported based on the scavenging of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (IC50: 4.26 ± 0.22 μg/mL) and 2 -2′-Azino-di-[3-ethylbenzthiazoline sulfonate (ABTS) radicals (IC50: 4.62 ± 0.14 μg/mL), chelating iron (IC50: 1.82 ± 0.01 μg/mL, 3.50 ± 0.09 μg/mL), and nitric oxide (IC50: 9.97 ± 0.88 μg/mL, 9.09 ± 0.11 μg/mL). The methanolic stem extracts of S. piriei possess antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio fluvialis, and Enterococcus avium, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 0.16 to 0.625 mg/mL, and a minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 1.25 to 5 mg/mL. Cytotoxic effects of the extracts from the two plant species were also demonstrated. Sarcophyte piriei possesses therapeutic potential as evidenced by the inhibitory effects of the aqueous rhizome extract on edema (1,000 mg/kg) and prostaglandin synthesis (IC50 = 0.2 mg/mL). In addition, diinsininol and diinsinin were isolated from S. sanguinea inhibited prostaglandin synthesis (IC50: 9.20 µM, 13.14 µM) and platelet-activating factor-induced exocytosis. Therefore, based on this review, further scientific research is needed to demystify the links between traditional medicinal uses, various secondary metabolites, and the pharmacology of the two plants.
Evaluation of the Mineral Composition of Chia (Salvia HispanicaL.) Seeds from Selected Areas in Kenya.
(Canadian Center of Science and Education, 2023) Gikonyo, Nicholas; Ikumi, Pauline W; Mburu, Monica; Njoroge, Daniel; Musingi, Benjamin M
Chia ( Salvia hispan ica L.) seeds are gaining popularity among consumers and food processors, particularly in food fortification. Consequently, there has been an increased need to determine the mineral composition of chia seeds cultivated in different regions to ascertain the ir potential in various food applications. In this study, 20 chia seeds samples obtained from farmers practicing commercial farming of chia seeds in selected areas in Kenya during the two main chia seed planting seasons (April August 2019) and (September D ecember 2019) were analyzed for their mineral content using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). Values of sodium and potassium were determined using a Flame photometer using sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl) as the standards, while phosphorus was determined using the Vanodo molybdate method. Chia seeds samples studied revealed the most predominant minerals as phosphorus (531 to 889 mg/100g), calcium (478 to 589 mg/100g), potassium (343 to 526 mg/100g) and, magnesium (322 to 440 mg/1 00g). The general linear model (GLM) used to determine the coefficient of variation on all chia seed growing sites showed that calcium, iron, and magnesium are the best performing chia minerals in Kenya and hence should be the minerals of interest in food fortification using chia seeds.
Factors that Influence Place of Delivery for Women of Reproductive Age in Narok South Sub County
(ajhmn, 2023-08) Kirubet Purity, Ngotiek; Kahiga, Titus Muhu; onyambu, Meshack Ondora
Purpose: The main objective of this study was to explore the factors that influence the place of delivery for women of reproductive age in Narok South Sub County. Methodology: The study adapted a descriptive, cross sectional study design which focused on all women of reproductive age who delivered at home after antenatal hospital care visits in the last 24 months. The research was completed in Narok South Sub County, Narok County in Kenya. The target populace included all women with children below two years of age who gave birth at home yet attended antenatal care visits in a health facility in Narok North Sub-County. The study population included all women of reproductive age which were in the age bracket of 15 and 49 years from Narok south sub-county in Narok County. The study adapted two sampling techniques (purposive sampling and simple random sampling) first, purposive sampling was used to obtain women who have had delivered in the last 24 months and also key informants like TBAs and community elders. A sample of 30% of the targeted population was selected; this is coherent with the proposition by Mugenda and Mugenda (2009) that 30% of the population is deemed to be sufficient for statistical analysis in research. A semi structured questionnaire was utilized to gather data. The study utilized primary data only. The primary data was collected through semi structured questionnaires by visiting households with women of reproductive age who gave birth in the last 24 months in a non- hospital set up. Data was analyzed using excel and statistical package for social sciences SPSS version 22.0. Findings: The study found that emergencies during delivery are well handled in a hospital setup and will greatly improve delivery outcome, the health of the mother and baby. The extended walking distance nearest health facility, the lesser the expectation of mothers to make use of skilled and trained delivery service. The absence of trouble-free transportation service to the nearest health facility is also an essential significant convolution. Source of information on reproductive health matters and more so about pregnancy, labor, and place of delivery can highly influence decision-making on the place of giving birth. Majority of women in rural areas receive advice on reproductive health matters from their 'mothers-in-law and extended family members. When pregnant mothers attend ANC they are taught about delivery and how to prepare for it. Recommendations: County Education officers in liaison with social development officers to promote adult formal education to improve literacy levels, which will go a long way in influencing reproductive health decisions. County health management team, together with the reproductive health section to network with other relevant stakeholders to increase sensitization on utilization of hospital-based deliveries. Health education by all relevant stakeholders on the advantages of hospital delivery. Establish community health units and train community health volunteers and traditional birth attendants to be safe motherhood promoters.
Growth Disruption Activity of Polar Extracts from Kotschya Uguenensis (Fabaceae) against Anopheles Gambiae S.S. (Diptera: Culicidae) Larvae
(2008) Hassanali, Ahmed; Innocent, E.; Cosam, C.J.; Gikonyo, N.K.; Nkunya, M.H.H.
Studies on the larvicidal properties of extracts and fractions from Kotschya uguenensis Verdc. were done by long-term exposure of Anopheles gambiae s.s. larvae. The cumulative mean percentage mortalities and deformities at different concentrations for the extracts and fractions were recorded after every 24 h. Treatment of A. gambiae s.s. larvae with K. uguenensis extracts showed growth disruption by forming elongated guts and resulting in eventual death. Larvae treated with the methanol extracts from the stem and root barks, and fractions of the former extract attained complete mortality in 6–8 days at 50 and 100 ppm. More deformed larvae were observed from the methanol extract of the stem bark (40%) and methanol-soluble fraction (88%) than those treated with water-soluble fraction (22%) and methanol extract of the root bark (5%). The growth disruption may be associated with constituents in the plant that interfere with the normal endocrine system functions.
HIV/AIDS in Kisii County: Current Status and Challenges
(Science Publishing Group, 2019) Mokua, Gladys Nyamoita; Maroko, Geoffrey Mokua; Nyakundi, Meshack Ondora; Onyambu, Augustus Onchari
In 2012, adult HIV/AIDS prevalence in Kisii County was disproportionately high at 8.6%, against the national average of 5.6%. Thus, the researchers set out to investigate the current status and intervention measures in place in combating the condition. Mixed method approach combining both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques was used. It entailed a desk review of HIV/AIDS materials for the period 2010-2018. Published data on HIV/AIDS in Kisii County from a diverse set of stakeholders was used. Quantitative data was also extracted from online databases, County reports and proposals. Qualitative data was generated from key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Comparative analysis of the qualitative information obtained from the respondents and the documented information was done and conclusions were drawn. Quantitative data was expressed as percentages and the data was presented in form of graphs and tables. Findings indicated that although HIV and AIDS remain a challenge in Kisii County, commendable strides have been made in its management and possible containment. The Kenya HIV estimates report for 2018 indicates that Kisii County has a prevalence rate of 4.4% against the national prevalence of 4.8%. The study also revealed that over 80% of HIV response is funded from external sources with more focus on biomedical interventions with less priority on the non-biomedical interventions. Based on the findings, the study recommends coordination among implementing partners for accurate data documentation and resource distribution. Deliberate efforts also need to be made to increase resources for prevention especially behavioral and structural interventions.
HIV‑1 protease inhibitor drug resistance in Kenyan antiretroviral treatment‑naive and ‑experienced injection drug users and non‑drug users
(BioMed Central, 2015) Budambula, Valentine; Musumba, Francis O.; Webale, Mark K.; Kahiga, Titus M.; Ongecha‑Owuor, Francisca; Kiarie, James N.; Sowayi, George A.; Ahmed, Aabid A.; Ouma, Collins; Were, Tom
Background: Although injection drug use drives antiretroviral drug resistance, the prevalence of protease inhibitor (PI) resistance among Kenyan IDUs remains undetermined. We, therefore, explored PI resistance mutations and their association with viral load and CD4+ T cell counts in HIV-1 infected IDUs (ART-naive, n = 32; and -experienced, n = 47) and non-drug users (ART-naive, n = 21; and -experienced, n = 32) naive for PI treatment from coastal Kenya. Results: Only IDUs harboured major PI resistance mutations consisting of L90M, M46I and D30 N among 3 (6.4 %) ART-experienced and 1 (3.1 %) -naive individuals. Minor PI mutations including A71T, G48E, G48R, I13V, K20I, K20R, L10I, L10V, L33F, L63P, T74S, V11I, and V32L were detected among the ART-experienced (36.2 vs. 46.9 %) and -naive (43.8 vs. 66.7 %) IDUs and non-drug users, respectively. All the four IDUs possessing major mutations had high viral load while three presented with CD4+ T cell counts of <500 cells/ml. Among the ART-naive non-drug users, CD4+ T cell counts were significantly lower in carriers of minor mutations compared to non-carriers (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Transmitted drug resistance may occur in IDUs underscoring the need for genotyping resistance before initiating PI treatment.
In vitro activity of aqueous and methanol extracts of Callistemon citrinus (Family Myrtaceae) against Leishmania major.
(African Forum for Health Sciences, 2014-04-29) Kinuthia, G.K.; Kabiru, Ephantus W.; Gikonyo, N.K.; Ingonga, J.M.; Kigondu, E.M.; Anjili, C.O.
Leishmania major is a protozoan parasite that causes cutaneous leishmaniasis and the standard drugs are expensive and toxic. Cheaper and safer natural drugs are therefore needed. In this study, the in vitro efficacy of crude extracts of callistemon citrinus were tested against l. Major. Controls were anti leishmanial drugs pentostam and liposomal amphotericin b. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of c. Citrinus crude aqueous and methanolic extracts were 5mg/ml and 1mg/ml respectively compared to 12.5µg/ml and 6.25µg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin b respectively. The ic50 for c. Citrinus extracts against promastigotes ranged from 297.75 to 572.69µg/ml compared to 0.26 and 0.82µg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin b. The ic50 for c. Citrinus extracts against vero cells ranged from 467µg/ml to 1314.65µg/ml. The promastigotes’ viability after treatment with aqueous and methanolic extracts was 69.58% and 75.74% respectively. At 125µg/ml, the aqueous and methanolic c. Citrinus extracts had in vitro amastigotes’ infection rates (irs) of 77.0±2.50 % and 77.5±3.50% respectively. The multiplication indices (mis) and irs of amastigotes treated with c. Citrinus crude aqueous extracts and those treated with crude methanolic extracts differed insignificantly (p > 0.05). C. Citrinus methanolic extracts stimulated production of about 20µm nitric oxide in balb/c mice peritoneal macrophages suggesting immuno-modulatory role of the extracts. The crude aqueous and methanolic extracts of c. Citrinus were therefore concluded to be relatively less toxic and possessed in vitro anti-leishmanial activity against l. Major promastigotes and amastigotes.
In Vitro and in Vivo Activities of Blends of Crude Aqueous Extracts from Allium Sativum L, Callistemon Citrinus (Curtis) Skeels and Moringa Stenopetala (Baker F) Cufodontis against Leishmania Major.
(Open Access Science Research Publisher, 2013-06-18) Gikonyo, N.K.; Kinuthia, G.K.; Anjili, C.O.; Kigondu, E.M.; Ingonga, J. M.; Kabiru, Ephantus W.
Leishmania major caused cutaneous leishmaniasis leads to painful skin sores in humans and usual drugs are expensive, toxic, and require prolonged use. The in vitro and in vivo efficacy of aqueous crude extracts from Callistemon citrinus flowers (B), Allium sativum bulbs (C) and Moringa stenopetala leaves (A) against L. major was studied. Controls were pentostam, liposomal amphotericin B, and phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Dried and ground plant materials were soaked in distilled water at 70oC for 1.5 hours, filtered and freeze dried to obtain aqueous extracts. L. major infected BALB/c mice were treated orally or intra peritoneally (ip) with blends of the extracts. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of single extracts ranged from 3 to 5mg/ml while IC50 from 297 to 575µg/ml compared to MICs of 12.50 and 6.25µg/ml and IC50 of 0.26 and 0.82µg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B respectively. Blends of M. stenopetala and C. citrinus (AB), M. stenopetala and A. sativum (AC), and C. citrinus and A. sativum (BC) at concentrations based on MICs of individual extracts were active at ratios 1:1, 1:9 and 1:1 with promastigotes’ viabilities of 33.82%, 17.41% and 60.74 % respectively. IC50 for blends AB, AC, and BC ranged from 174µg/ml to 1314µg/ml against promastigotes. The individual extracts comprising blends AB, AC and BC interacted additively and synergistically in several combination ratios. Blend AC (1:1) at 125µg/ml had in vitro infection rate (IR) of 71% and multiplication index (MI) of 48.20% for L. major amastigotes compared to IR of 67% and MI of 47.51% for pentostam at 12.50µg/ml. Oral blend BC (1:1) reduced the mice footpad lesion size significantly (P < 0.05). Both oral blends BC and AC reduced mice spleen amastigotes by 48.33% and 60.94% with total LDUs of 6.35 ± 0.66 and 4.80 ± 0.95 respectively. Oral blend AB (1:1) lowered spleen amastigotes by 6.5% with total LDU of 11.49 ± 6.84. In conclusion, aqueous blends of C. citrinus, A. sativum and M. stenopetala extracts that interacted additively or synergistically were less toxic but active against L. major.
In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Trypanosomal Activities of Methanol Extract of Azadirachta Indica Stem-Bark
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321102140, 2017) Wanzala, Everlyne N; Gikonyo, Nicholas K; Murilla, Grace; Githua, Mercy; Hassanali, Ahmed
Background: Current chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of African trypanosomiasis have become largely ineffective, necessitating the search for alternative compounds. The objective of this study was to evaluate in vitro anti-trypanosomal activities of methanol extracts of parts of Azadirachta indica against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma evansi and establish the in vivo efficacy of the most active extract. Materials and methods: Maceration of powdered leaves, stem bark and root bark of the plant in methanol afforded three extracts. In vitro assays were carried out with the extracts on the three trypanosome strains in 96-well microtitre plates at concentration ranges of 4000 - 1000μg/ml. The most active extract was assayed in vivo using Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infected Swiss albino mice at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight. Melarsoprol and suramin served as positive controls. The infected untreated group served as the negative control. Parasitaemia levels, packed cell volume, body weight changes and mean survival period of all groups were monitored throughout the experimental period. Results: Methanol extract of the stem bark of A.indica was most active in vitro against all the three trypanosome strains (MIC values of 9.93±1.88, 16.25±0.92 and 9.97±0.44μg/ml for T. b. rhodesiense, T. b. brucei and T. evansi, respectively). The extract showed optimum activity at 400 mg/kg and was comparable to the positive control groups. Parasitaemia levels were kept at a significantly low level (p < 0.05) by the extract compared to the negative control. Notably, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in mean survival time of mice treated with the extract at 400 mg/kg and the positive controls. Conclusion: In vitro and in vivo anti-trypanosomal activities of the methanol extract of A. indica stem bark could be attributed to the presence of constituents of moderate polarity
Investigation of Selected Pathogenic Microorganisms and Toxic Elements in Herbal Materials Used in Management of Oral Health in Nairobi County, Kenya
(Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 2013) Gikonyo, N.K.; Ngari, Florence W.; Wanjau, R. N.; Njagi, E.N.M.
Traditional medical practitioners in Kenya have used herbal materials to treat oral diseases for several years.However data on contamination of the herbal medicine with microbial pathogens and toxic metals is lacking.The aim of this study was to investigate presence of selected pathogenic microorganisms and selected elemental levels of herbal materials used in management of oral health in Nairobi. Herbal materials were purchased from Nairobi County and taken to the laboratory for analysis. Microbial contaminants were analyzed by inoculating the herbal samples in selective media followed by macroscopic, microscopic and biochemical studies to identify the microorganisms. Mineral elements were investigated by Total Reflection XRay Fluorescence (TXFR). Results indicate that herbal materials are contaminated with, Escherichia coli,Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi. The herbal materials are also contaminated with aluminium,chromium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc and lead at various concentrations. The study concludes that some herbal materials in the market are not safe for use by humans orally.

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