PHD-School of Environmental Studies

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This collections contains bibliographic information and abstracts of PHD theses and dissertation in the School of Environmental Studies held in Kenyatta University Library

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Adaptation and Coping Strategies to Climate Variability among Small-Scale Farmers in Arid and Semi-Arid Agro-Ecological Zones of Laikipia County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Ndichu, Gitau D.; Cecilia Gichuki; Richard Kerich
Climate variability as expressed by droughts, heavy rainfall, flooding, intense temperatures, hail storms and cyclones pose a major threat to small-scale crop farmers. Arid and semi-arid regions are known to have hot and dry climate with low and erratic rainfall that varies widely both in spatial and temporal parameters. Unpredictable seasons have been exacerbating the perennial uncertainty of farmers in most parts of ASALs where subsistence farming is practiced. This study aimed at delineating the adaptation and mitigation strategies applied by small-scale farmers in Laikipia County due to climate variability. The research sample population was drawn from the agro-ecological zones which are determined by the climatic parameter patterns. The sample size was determined systematically using probability proportion to size sampling method. Questionnaires were administered in randomly sampled households in five arid and semi-arid regions, namely; Salama, Rumuruti, Ol Moran, Mukogondo and Ngobit which experience frequent drought related challenges. An interview schedule was prepared and administered to local leaders. Rainfall and temperature data from the Kenya Meteorological department between 1970 -2018 were obtained to gather further information on climate variability in Laikipia County. The quantitative data collected were then analysed using descriptive statistic and presented in charts, tables and graphs. The qualitative data at household level were collected through focused group discussions, key informant interviews, and observations and were analysed thematically according to the set objectives of the study. More secondary data were derived from a review of existing literature and records from relevant institutions.These data were then analysed using statistical Package for social Sciences (SPSS Version 22.0) Computer programme to generate descriptive statistics like frequency, mean, percentage and standard deviation. The results showed that, over the years (1970 – 2018), there was a decline in the precipitation in Laikipia County with an R2 value of 0.76%. During the same period, the maximum temperature tended to increase with R2 value of 17.41% .The average minimum monthly temperature also increased, R2 value of 14.24%. Further, the perception of the farmers was sought using multivariate probit model (MVP). The results indicated that 92.3% had perceived changes in climate.Further,54.5% had noted that the rainfall was receding while 76.0% had noted an increase in temperature. The MVP model showed that crops production had declined and seasons changed. The study showed that the small scale farmers had varied adaptation strategies depending on; their locality, climate, topography and availability of resources for both on-farm and off-farm. Among the adaptation strategies employed by the farmers included use of drought resistant crops at 4.72%, irrigation along the riparian areas at 11.6%.Others provided labour to the green house farms at 23% and reducing their livestock at 8.6% . The study recommended that the small-scale farmers need to be supplied with water, certified seeds and technical assistance from Agricultural extension officers. Farmers reported several barriers in the implementation of adaptation strategies that included; accessibility to seed varieties, lack of skilled labor, advanced farm implements, climate change information, and capacity to learn and apply techniques in their daily practice. The information gathered from the study was intended to improve the social capacity of the small-scale crop farmers in addressing adaptation strategies and the policy/decision makers to formulate policies aimed at addressing the challenges faced in Laikipia and ASAL regions.
Adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices among Small Scale Farmers of Kitutu and Nyaribari Chache in Kisii County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2017-11) Wamalwa, Isaac Wafula
Climate variability and change has caused instability in production and decline in productivity exacerbating food insecurity particularly in Latin America, Africa including Kenya and some parts of Asia. The magnitude and frequency of extreme climatic events is projected to increase. The effects of these climatic changes will become even more pronounced among small scale farmers whose farming activities are weather dependent and vulnerable to climate change, and already affected by environmental degradation and socio-economic risks. Effective adaptation to climate change among small scale farmers is therefore of critical importance, and is dependent on adoption of climate smart practices. However, studies have shown low adoption of climate smart farming practices among small scale farmers world over, in Kenya and Kisii county. This study therefore examined factors influencing adoption of climate smart practices among farmers of Kitutu and Nyaribari Chache in Kisii County, evaluated their existing knowledge, attitude and practice of these practices, assessed their perception of climate change, examined the extent of climate information dissemination, and the resultant impact on uptake of these practices. The research adopted a survey research design, where both quantitative and qualitative research strategies were used. Data was gathered through Focus Group Discussions, questionnaires, key informant interviews, observations and desk review. Both simple random and purposive sampling were used to sample 420 small scale farmers and technical officers of the agriculture sector respectively. Data was analysed using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. To test the statistical significance of the findings and relationships between the variables, chi-square test was used. The study revealed low (23.3%) access to weather and climate information, but growing (63.1%) awareness of climate change problem as evidenced by increase in temperature (48.1%), change in rainfall patterns (24.3%), emerging new strains of diseases and pests (40.7%), and decline in production (47%) for over 3 decades. The study further showed an emerging need (74%) for adoption of climate smart practices. The findings also revealed high awareness (66%) and positive attitude (84.5%) of farmers towards climate smart practices, but exhibited low knowledge (15%) and adoption (59.2% - 1.9%) of these practices. The low adoption was shown to be as a result of low diversification of income sources (86%), lack of awareness of available policy provisions (75%), lack of knowledge (85%), financial limitations (64.3%), low access to weather and climate information (76.7%), inadequate extension services (47.5%), dysfunctional farmer groups and weak policy framework. Besides the influence of perceived characteristics of climate smart practices, adoption of climate smart practices was shown to be enhanced by higher income level (P =0.028), educational level (P =0.028), size of the farm (P= 0.0), farming experience (P=0.002), knowledge of the practices (P=0.0), weather and climate information (P=0.0) based on chi-square test results, which were within the significant level (p < 0.05). The study concluded that, while there was an emerging appreciation of climate change problem and need for adoption of climate smart practices, their adoption was mainly constrained by weak legal and policy framework, financial setbacks, limited climate information and knowledge of climate smart practices. The study therefore recommends up scaling of climate and weather information sharing, promotion of skill and knowledge of climate smart practices, development of sound policy and legal framework, and mobilization of funds
Analysis of Biogas Technology for Household Energy, Sustainable Livelihoods and Climate Change Mitigation in Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015-01-21) Muriuki, Salome Wamuyu
Domestic energy insecurity is a major threat to sustainable development in Sub Saharan Africa. Across the region, the fundamental role that firewood and charcoal plays in the social and economic welfare of many households cannot be overemphasized. This study aimed to assess the role of biogas technology in saving wood, mitigating green-house gases emissions, and in improving livelihoods in Kiambu County. Oral interviews, Focused Group Discussions, and Action Learning Case Studies were used on biogas adopter and non-adopter households. Participatory experimental research was carried out using selected farmers’ installed bio-digesters of different designs and sizes. Cows were fed on nine different feed combinations and the biogas yield from these cows’ dung tested for CH4, CO2 and H2S contents. Gas was analyzed using portable Biogas Analyzer 5000 (Geo-tech UK). Fuel consumption and expenditure patterns was determined using household surveys. Carbon emission reduction was calculated from fuel consumption reduction with biogas use, and presented in CO2 equivalent. Impact of the technology on livelihoods was analyzed using DFID (1999) framework on sustainable livelihoods. Data was analyzed using SPSS and SAS computer softwares. ANOVA revealed variation in gas quality from different cattle feeds. Descriptive statistics, tests of significance (t-tests and chi-square), and logistic regression were used to establish relationships between variables. There was high likelihood of biogas adoption with combination of independent variables age, education level, farm size and the number of cows owned. The technology showed great potential and real benefits for uplifting livelihoods. Significant financial savings were realized, with an average household saving about KShs 38, 676 (455 USD) annually upon shifting to biogas energy. Time savings (up to 5 hours weekly) was highly significant. Health of user households also improved tremendously with absolute reduction in smoke, and improved sanitation around the home environment. From a livelihood perspective, biogas energy technology gave adopter households’ essential assets (human, physical, natural, social and financial) that enabled the households achieve positive livelihood outcomes. Among these assets, financial capital was probably the most resourceful. Wood consumption reduced immensely with biogas use. An approximate 303.8 metric tonnes firewood and 229.4 metric tonnes of wood from charcoal being conserved annually by biogas adopters. This combined helped mitigate approximately 1,079 tonnes of CO2 equivalent from being emitted to the atmosphere. Type and size of digester did not significantly influence gas quality. However, gas quality was markedly influenced by cattle diet. A high protein feed, gave a combined optimal effect on CH4 and CO2 emissions. The highest methane yield was achieved from chicken dropping (64.2%) and fodder legumes (63.8%). The technology therefore offers a myriad of environmental benefits and is a major driver of livelihoods in Kiambu. Efforts and resources are needed to increase widespread adoption of the technology
Anthropogenic Impacts of Land Use and Land Cover Changes on Mai Mahiu Ecosystem, Nakuru County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020) Basweti, Caleb Ntabo
Land-use changes are the main cause of human and environmental problems especially in many developing countries in Africa and Asia. Study was conducted in Mai Mahiu, Nakuru County, Kenya whose aim was to assess the impacts of land-use and cover changes on the ecosystem functioning and human environment. Specific objectives were: (i) to understand the nature of land use practices (ii) to monitor impacts on soil quality; (iii) impacts on vegetation composition and structure; (iv) to examine the level of variation in the physico-chemical parameters of rivers; and (v) to assess the effect of land-use change on climatic variability. GIS technology was used to establish landuse/cover changes from 1985 to 2015. Soil samples were collected for physical and chemical analyses from five land-use practice namely; undisturbed forest, disturbed forest dominated by Croton spp., disturbed forest dominated by Tarchonanthus camphoranthus, cropland and severely grazed grassland while Transect method was used for vegetation survey. Water was sampled at four sampling stations (A, B, C and D) which are sites where the river passes through the above mentioned land-use practices and analyzed for physico-chemical parameters while climate data was used in climatic variability analysis. Analysis of variance, regressions and mean separation at 0.05 significance level were excuted on the data using GenStat 14th edition. Results showed a remarkable land-use and land-cover change between 1985 and 2015. Cropland significantly increased by 135% from 27.3 km2 in 1985 to 64.2 km2 2015 at the expense natural forest. Built-up area and roads coverage had increased by almost three times from 9.8 to 29.9 km2. Soil quality deteriorated significantly with land conversions. There were significant changes in soil bulk density (p<0.001) that ranged from 0.93 g/cm3 in undisturbed forest to 1.27 g/cm3 in severely grazed grassland, soil pH (p=0.002), soil organic carbon (p=0.008) with losses of up to 63%, and total nitrogen (p=0.005) that ranged from 0.15 to 034%. Vegetation was stratified into three layers with shrub stratum being dominant replacing the tree layer that was dominant in 1985. Physico-chemical characteristics of river water deteriorated along sampling stations, A to D in both dry and wet seasons. Water pH, temperature, turbidity and conductivity increased along sampling stations A to D (p<0.001) while flow velocity and dissolved oxygen decreased significantly (p<0.001). Chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, phosphates calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium and sodium were significantly higher (p<0.001) at stations C and D compared to stations A and B. There was no significant difference in long-term annual rainfall variability (p=0.685). Intra-annual rainfall variability was noticed in the months of March, April, May and November (p>0.001). The study concluded that land use change and modifications in Mai Mahiu have negatively affected the state of the Mai Mahiu ecosystem. For the sake of the present and future generation in the region, the study recommends restoration and rehabilitation through landscape based land-use practices, enforcement of laws and implementation of policies relevant this type of ecosystem.
Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Masinga Reservoir, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Nzeve, J. K.
In Kenya, monitoring of heavy metal pollution is a priority area of research since their concentrations in aquatic ecosystems affect the fish industry which is a major source of livelihood. Therefore, an assessment of heavy metal contamination (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Mn and Cd) in sediments, water and in three selected fish species (Cyprinus carpio, Clarius gariepinus and Oreochromis spirulus niger) in Masinga reservoir was carried out between January and December 2013 in five sampling sites. Physical parameters (water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity and electrical conductivity) were measured on site. Heavy metal Concentrations were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The data obtained was analyzed using one way analysis of variance and significant differences accepted at p ≤ 0.05. Tukey’s HSD test was used to separate means. The mean values for the physical parameters ranged from 24.93 – 27.530C (water temperature), 4.66 - 5.36 mgL-1(DO), 41.50 – 64.23NTU (Turbidity), 109.79 – 125.98μS cm-1 (EC) and 7.51 – 7.88 (pH). The results revealed significant difference only in water temperature (p =0.044). Mean heavy metal concentrations (mg kg-1) in sediments were Cu (11.38 – 23.67), Zn (60.04 – 75.84), Pb (11.14 – 14.47), Cr (21.39-49.62) and Mn (259.12 – 642.30). There were significant differences in metal concentrations for Cu (p =0.00), Cr (p=0.00) and Mn (p=0.00) among the sites. Surface water from different sites did not show significant differences in heavy metal contamination (p > 0.05). The mean metal levels (mg kg-1) in Cyprinus carpio muscle tissues were in the range of Cu (0.519 – 1.422), Zn (39.466 – 62.233), Pb (0.994 – 1.424), Cr (0.324 – 0.709) and Mn (0.660 – 1.432). There was significant difference in Zn (p=0.006) and Mn (p=0.001) in Cyprinus carpio muscles at different sites. In Clarias gariepinus muscles, mean metal concentrations (mg kg-1) were Cu (0.677 – 0.974), Zn (32.929 – 37.205), Pb (0.643 – 0.078), Cr (0.516 – 0.858) and Mn (0.452 – 0.990). Pb exhibited significance difference between the sites (p=0.026). Mean values for heavy metals in Tilapia (mg kg-1) for different sites were Cu (0.515 – 0.782), Zn (29.645 – 37.999), Pb (0.552 – 0.765), Cr (0.559 – 0.791) and Mn (0.183 – 1.480). Only Mn showed significant differences between the sites (p=0.00). Pearson matrix correlation analysis showed some significant correlations among the heavy metal levels in water, sediments and different fish species. Bioaccumulation transfer factor (TF) calculated showed that water had higher TF compared to sediments. The concentrations for all metals in surface water did not exceed the WHO recommended limit for drinking water. In sediments and the three fish species they were also lower than WHO set limit except for Cr. Results from this study demonstrate the need for an ecosystem approach towards sustainable management of reservoirs. This will curb aquatic pollution which is a health risk to people consuming aquatic resources contaminated with heavy metals.
An assessment of the potential of life cycle Management system on project performance in the Building industry in abuja, nigeria
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Usman, Napolean Daniel
ABSTRACT The building industry (Bl) has continued to be a major player in the socioeconomic development of many countries globally. Apart from creating employment, it provides shelter to millions as well as operational infrastructure such as offices, schools and hospitals. The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja continues to expand as a result of shift of the Federal Administration from Lagos to Abuja. This has attracted increased private and public investments in the BI to cater for the increasing population. Despite this expansion, issues of quality, costs, reliability, and human and environmental safety have posed a challenge to the growth of the BI. These issues are linked to the processes in building production. Studies express concerns over issues of poor quality and the high cost of buildings as well as longer duration before project completion which prevents the B1 from successful project delivery. Hence, this study focused on the assessment of the potentials of Life Cycle Management on project performance in the building industry in Abuja, Nigeria. The objectives of the study were to: examine policies/procedural framework within the BI; investigate how adoption of initial phase principles may affect project performance within the BI; examine how planning phase principles influence project performance within the Bl; determine how implementation phase principles may influence project performance within the B1; and ascertain whether completion phase principles can improve project performance within the industry in Abuja, Nigeria. Data for this study was collected from a population of 231 0 (350 architects, 352 builders, 354 engineers, 354 Quantity Surveyors, 350 Urban and Regional Planners, and 350 contractors) and a sample of 341 representing 20% from a population of 2310. Proportional Stratified Random Sampling was used to select 341 samples and purposive sampling was used to select six projects from project files for qualitative data analysis. Data was collected by use of questionnaires and interviews. The responses to the questionnaires were coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17. Descriptive statistics and frequency tables were used to present the data. Chi-square statistics and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were conducted to test hypothesis at 95% level of significant. The study established that policy and procedural frameworks are not fully adhered to as stated in the National Building Code. It was established that from the initial to completion phases, LCM principles have not been adequately applied leading to projects being delivered at high cost, and to time and quality standards being compromised. Despite LCM principles successful use in B1 (UK, USA and Singapore), its use in Nigeria is yet to be optimal. The study recommends that LCM principles be adopted to improve project delivery according to time, cost and quality standards in the B1 in Abuja, Nigeria.
Assessment of vulnerability of water resources to climate variability in Mara river basin, Kenya
(2014-09-09) Waithaka, Reuel Kamau
Africa's water resources are at risk due to climate variability further aggravating the water scarcity and also ability to cope with other external pressures and calamities. Climate variability on intra-seasonal and decadal time scales has had significant impact on water resources. The main objective of the study is to assess the vulnerability of water resources to climate variability in Mara River Basin. To achieve this, study analysed rainfall, river flow and satellite imagery data. The rainfall data spanned from1980 to 2011 and satellite imagery from the years 1985- 2010. The study relied on secondary data (rainfall, temperature, river gauges measurements and satellite imagery) various empirical tools such as key informant interviews and field observation guides. Numerical tools for data analysis comprised descriptive statistics and non-parametric test. Satellite imagery were ana lysed by use ILWIS and Arc GIS software's and climatic data analysed through Microsoft excel. The study results showed great inter annual variability of rainfall and corresponding river flow. Temperature data trend line analysis showed an annual increase of 0.2oC. Rainfall showed an increase of 0.02mm/yr at Narok station while Ilkerin weather station showed a decreasing trend of 0.002mm/yr. The rainfall showed uneven distribution both in spatial and temporal scales with cyclic nature of high intensity followed by drought periods. The inter-annual variability in rainfall is more sporadic and unpredictable, and this affects water supply both to the ecosystem, domestic and agricultural use. The study predicts that this will have detrimental effect on the basin water resources at a local level and regional. Vegetation cover type and trend over time was utili sed as an indicator of water resources vulnerability. The analysis of NDVI, NDWI and LULC thematic maps from 1985-2010 provided compelling analysis of vegetation density and distribution in the basin. Forest/shrubland reduced by 38% while cropland/shrubland increased by 28% and surface water aerial coverage reduced by 10.7% within the same period. There is direct relationship between vegetation cover change and reduction of aerial coverage of surface water. Majority of the respondents interviewed were farmers (24.4%) planting mainly maize and pastoralists (45.5%). Drought and crop failure were the many effects of climate variability. The respondents (45.2%) experienced more than 5months of food deficiency. Majority associated the insufficiency to climate variability. Distance travelled to access water averaged 2-5km,while most of the water resources were seasonal (56.7%), apart from distance other challenges affecting water accessibility include ,dirty water and conflicts with neighbours. To overcome these challenges there is need to develop basin management strategies geared towards increased forest conservation. The need for education and awareness creation on crop diversification and investment in both household and community water harvesting strategies. There is need for integrated waters resources management especially on education on efficient water use mechanisms both for domestic and agriculture.
Benefit Sharing and Community Participation in Ecotourism in Meru and Laikipia Counties, Kenya
(Kenyatta Universiy, 2022) Ireri, Philip Murithi; James B. Kung’u; Joseph K. Muriithi
Beneficial involvement of local communities is a cornerstone of ecotourism. It has however emerged that in developing countries, privately-owned ecolodges, joint ventures between private investors and local communities and other types of tourism businesses are characterized by low involvement of local communities and inequitable benefit distribution. This study investigated benefit distribution and community participation within ecotourism enterprises that are owned and operated solely by the local community of Il Ngwesi Group Ranch in Laikipia County and Ngare Ndare Forest Trust in Meru County. Specific objectives of the study were to analyze the socio-demographic factors that influence distribution of the benefits of ecotourism; to investigate the institutional arrangements that influence distribution of the benefits of ecotourism; to examine how the distribution of benefits affects community attitudes to ecotourism, and; to analyze how the distribution of benefits affects community participation in ecotourism. The study used mixed methods approach to collect primary data from a survey of 556 respondents, 18 focus group discussion sessions and 15 key informants. Qualitative data was analyzed using thematic analysis while for quantitative data logistical regression and ordinal regression were applied to test relationships between variables. The study established that ecotourism offered a wide variety of benefits to the local community in both study sites, with some accruing directly to individuals while others accrued to the wider community. Each of the two enterprises however still faces some of the challenges that hamper community participation and benefit distribution in other types of tourism enterprises including governance weaknesses that led to some members receiving more benefits than others; disparities in benefit distribution against sections of the community including women, those with low levels of formal education and those dwelling farther away from the conservation area, and; failure to affirmatively channel significant benefits to the poorest members of the community. The study demonstrates that though full control of tourism enterprises by local communities is beneficial, it is not a panacea for the challenge of low community participation or inequitable benefit distribution. Many local communities in Africa and other developing countries remain poor even though they occupy areas that are rich in tourism resources and have a lengthy history of participating in tourism. This study has revealed that the pursuit of equality rather than equity is one of the causes of this prevailing poverty. In addition to reviewing existing tourism policies in order for them to reflect the strong social-justice foundation set by the Constitution, the study recommends for formulation of dedicated policy on community participation in tourism in Kenya.
Biophysical evaluation of sand encroachment and nebkha-dune stabilisation in North Horr, Marsabit district, Kenya
(2012-01-04) Olukoye, Godfrey Alati
Nebkha dunes, formed by the trapping of sand around the body of a plant, provide habitats for small fauna and are thus, important in the conservation of biodiversity in desert ecosystems. Many authors have reported results on investigating of nebkha dunes in the Kalahari, Sahara and Namib deserts of Africa. In contrast to this, scant information exists on the nebkha dunes of the Chalbi semi-desert region of Northern Kenya. Besides, land degradation in arid rangelands resulting from sand encroachment has to be evaluated within the framework of climate-vegetation-livestock interactions. However, no study has particularly focused on the dual role of vegetation for economic (livestock-production) and ecological functioning in nebkha dune stabilisation in Kenya. A study was therefore, designed to investigate theoretical and empirical issues related to sand encroachment and nebkha-dune stabilisation in North Horr, Northern Kenya. The study focused on soil and vegetation degradation as the main biophysical indicators of land degradation in North Horr. Satellite images taken at four points in time (1976, 1986, 1996 and 1998) were evaluated and complemented with field vegetation surveys. This enabled the assessment of the origin, history and extent of the process of sand accumulation in North Horr. Growth performance of different indigenous and exotic tree and shrub species was also evaluated in terms of height, relative growth rates and mortality. These were collectively used in assessing the suitability of exotic and indigenous trees and shrubs in dune stabilisation. Soil chemical and physical analyses were carried out and related to sand encroachment. Wind erosivity indices that give an indication of potential wind erosion hazard and sand movement potential were derived from wind speed data collected between July 1999 and September 2000. The Gabra camel production system involves involuntary culling of the mature breeding females at 300 months while both fattening male and female camels are culled at 58 months. These parameters were incorporated into a range utilization model and a bio-economic model-PRY for the assessment of ecological and economic trade-offs in the utilization of Suaeda monoica for dune stabilisation and camel browsing. The results of the simulation modelling were explored and linked to the problem of sand encroachment. Sand dunes in North Horr were predominantly of the nebkha type and were preferentially aligned with the predominant wind direction during the dry season. The morphonetry, orientation and textural examinations of the nebkhas suggested that fluvially deposited sand in North Horr, had in the recent years been reshaped by aeolian activity. Empirical evidence showed a positive correlation between wind speed and sand movement potential, which varied between month and time of the day. Average monthly wind speed of 3.99±0.06 m/s, with absolute maximum wind speeds of 10 m/s, implied that wind erosivity and sand-movement potential in North Horr were high, indicating increased soil degradation. Nebkhas showed heterogeneity in their morphomettry attributed to differences in plant species cover. For instance, in terms of length, there was a decreasing order of Hyphaene coriacea (16.36±3.23m), Acacia tortilis (5.10±0.20 m) and Suaeda monoica (3.20±0.68 m). Large nebkhas were, therefore, found in the southern and western parts of North Horr settlement dominated by Hyphaene coriacea (doun palm) and Acacia tortilis. Hyphaene coriacea is, therefore, the most important tree trapping large volumes of sand. However, due to the less compact (diffuse) growth form of Hyphaene coriacea, the trapped sand is loose and therefore, highly mobile when compared with that of Suaeda monoica with a more compact growth form and a denser canopy. Percent soil organic carbon was used to evaluate fertility status. The decreasing order of fertility beneath the different trees/shrubs were: Acacia tortilis (0.24%). Hyphaene coriacea (0.21%), Suaeda monoica (0.14%), Prosopis chilensis (0.12%), Acacia goetzei (0.11%) and bare ground (control) (0.09%). Although there were no significant differences (P<0.05) in soil organic carbon between vegetation types, it nevertheless demonstrated the differential abilities of plant species for land rehabilitation in North Horr. In additional, nebkhas could probably represented a large and significant storage of nutrients within the dryland system of North Horr. Multi-temporal analysis of statelite imageries (1976, 1986, 1996 and 1998) showed that the area (in ha) covered by bushland, degraded bushed grassland, degraded grassland, denuded bushland and open bushland decreased significantly (p<0.05) by 11.38%, 0.19%, 3.22%, 0.39% and 7.54% respectively. Over the same period, the area (in ha) covered by grassland and exposed land covered with sand, gullies and rocks increased significantly (p<0.05) by 15.25% and 8.51% respectively. This indicated progressive increase in area covered with sand. The greatest increased in the are covered with sand was recorded between 1976 and 1986 (7.08%) and the lowest between 1996 and 1998 (3.34%). There were corresponding dynamics in coefficient of variation (CV) in annual rainfall betwen 1976 and 1998 with the highest and lowest variability being recorded for the period 1976-1986 (56.42%) and 1996-1998 (33.64%) respectively. Correlations between land cover and rainfall were significant (p<0.05). Empirical evidence presented in this study suggested that exogenous stochastic factors (climatic) were primarily responsible for land cover dynamics and the concomitant localized degradation in North Horr. Simulation modeling with PRY showed that camel population in Stuaeda monica vegetation complex was not viable. Therefore, stochastic forces could also be responsible for the imbalance in supply and demand for Suaeda monoica forage by camels. However, with appropriate culling policy, a sustainable balance in the economic and ecological functions of Suaeda monoica could be achieved. It was concluded that participatory nebkha-dune stabilisation would only be possible if economic aspects of the Gabra pastoralists were taken into consideration. These findings have important implications for policy in the sustainable management of natural resources in arid rangelands for both economic and ecological functions. To rehabilitate saline soils and stabilise sand dunes in North Horr, emphasis should be placed on the used of indigenous tree and shrub species. Although fencing and enclosures encourage natural regeneration of vegetation, the viability of fencing for large-scale land rehabilitation in a nomadic pastoral system is questionable. Natural vegetation regeneration could, therefore, be the most cost effective, fastest and easiest method for stabilizing dunes in North Horr. The management of important dune stabilizing plants such as Suaeda monoica, an important camel forage, through natural regeneration is, therefore, significant in ensuring that it performs both the economic and ecological functions. This option is compatible with the pastoral land use system and appears to be the most viable for nebkha-dune stabilization in the eastern part of North Horr settlement
Challenges and Prospects of Civil Society Organizations in Enhancement of Sustainable Livelihoods and Environmental Conservation in Homa Bay County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2019-08) Radeny, Enos Otieno
Although most studies document the benefit of delaying umbilical cord clamping in relation to improved haemoglobin levels, few of those studies have been done in low resource settings. Standard routine practice in most facilities is generally clamping umblical cord in less than 60 seconds. This study therefore sought to establish the effects of umbilical cord clamping time on infant nutritional status at 6 months at Longisa County Referral Hospital through randomized controlled trial design. Sample size of n=204 of mother-infant pair was enrolled in both control and experimental group of the study. The experimental group involved clamping the umbilical cord between 3-5 minutes after delivery while the control group was clamped as per the standard routine practice in the facility. Infant’s blood sample was drawn and haemoglobin was assessed at birth, 6 weeks and 6 months. Ballard maturity assessment score was used to assess infant gestational age at birth. Weight was measured using SECA 354 and length was assed using SECA 210 length Matt. Mother -infant socio demographic characteristics collected using a validated questionnaire. A standard Pre-test questionnaire based on WHO 2014 guidelines was used to measure health workers knowledge on the umbilical cord clamping time. Data was analysed using Stata version 15.1 and Microsoft Office Excel 2007. Mother-infant socio-demographic characteristics by the study group was compared using Pearson chi-square (p < 0.05; 95% CI). Health workers’ knowledge was analysed results presented in percentage. Third trimester maternal haemoglobin was collected in mother child booklet and analysed using Pearson chi-square. Infant haemoglobin levels at birth, 6 weeks and 6 months by study group was analysed using Pearson chi-square. The relationship between maternal and infant haemoglobin status was assessed using Pearson correlation coefficient determinant. The effect of umbilical cord clamping on infant nutritional status and haemoglobin was tested using student t-test. Predictors of infant Nutritional status at six (6) months were established using binary logistic regression model. The results are based on two-tailed tests at 95% confidence interval and a p-value p < 0.05 was used as the criterion for significance. Results were: Mean age of mothers of infants enrolled into the study was (22.73 ± 1.9; p<0.05); about 50% of health workers knew that delaying umbilical cord clamping is beneficial to the infant. Approximately 69% of health workers believe that delaying umbilical cord camping increases the HIV infection. Control group: Mean weight: at birth 2.89kgs (95% CI, 2.81-2.97), 4.81 (95% CI (4.68-4.94) at 6 weeks and 7.41kgs (95% CI, 7.28-7.54) at 6 months. Mean haemoglobin at birth was 18.72g/dl (95% CI, 18.19-19.25), 10.85g/dl (95% CI (10.58-11.12) at 6 weeks and 11.10g/dl (95% CI, 14.26-15.52) at 6 months. Experimental group: Mean weight at birth 2.93kgs, 5.22 (95% CI, 4.99-5.22) and 8.51 at 6 months ((95% CI, 8.40-8.60; p<0.05). Mean haemoglobin: Birth 19.67g/dl, (95% CI, 19.25-20.09), 11.72(95% CI, 11.45-11.99) and 12.22g/dl (11.95-12.49 at 6 months ((95% CI, 8.40-8.60; p<0.05). Predictor of infant nutritional status at 6 months were weight (OR14.90, p<0.05; 95% CI: 7.25-30.00) and infant haemoglobin (OR1.64, p<0.05; 95% CI: 1.3-2.07). The study concluded that delaying the umbilical cord clamping improved infant Nutritional status and haemoglobin. Setting optimal time to clamp the umblical cord is important for Kenyan health facilities.
Climate Variability Risk Perception on Rainfed Agricultural Practices among Small-Scale Farmers in Embu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Adiel, Ruth Kangai; James Koske; Evelyn Chitechi Wemali
Agricultural productivity is a function of climate variability and its associated impact on farming practices and farmers’ adaptive capacity. Small-scale farmers in the study area have involuntarily engaged in climate variability adaptation mechanisms. This study was instigated to assess the extent of variation in temperature and rainfall, analyze the economic impact of climate variability on crop and livestock production, examine climate variability risk perceptions, adaptation mechanisms and how they influence rainfed agricultural practices, determine farmer and farm characteristics that influence climate variability perceptions and adaptation, and assess the effectiveness of institutions and information channels in facilitating climate variability adaptation mechanisms and risk perception. The research design involved a descriptive survey that allowed the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. The sampling procedure involved a multi-stage sampling procedure to obtain 411 respondents, purposive sampling for 10 key informants, and quota sampling techniques to select 5 focus groups. Data were analyzed by the use of descriptive statistics, the Mann Kendall test, Logit regression, chi-square, Likert scale analysis, and the use of variables produced through the Ricardian model and Heckman approach. Results show that there is climate variability and the rise in maximum temperature and rainfall variability are significant at P<0.002 with a 0.02ºC increase in temperatures and a 10.2mm decline in rainfall amount per year. Economic impact on crop and livestock production indicated that temperature rise affects crop net revenue negatively and that of mixed farming positively respectively at p≤0.05. Apart from climate variability, other factors were found to influence the net revenue of the three sectors such as distance to the market centers, size of land under cultivation, level of education, and soil fertility. The farmers perceived climate variability as real. The perception was expressed in terms of extreme changes in both rainfall and temperatures. The majority (85.4%) observed the outbreak of crop pests and diseases as a result of climate variability. Whereas 97.6% of the respondents perceived that training and extension services would minimize the negative impact of climate variability on agricultural practices. However, 86.4% attributed the failure to the adaptation of climate change to inadequate time. Perception and adaptation were influenced by gender, social networks, education, extension services, land size, and age. Both formal and informal institutions exist in the study area and among the formal institution cooperative societies were the most influential in the adaptation of climate variability while Departments of Agriculture and Livestock Development were more likely to influence small-scale farmers on climate variability risk perception. Access to credit and extension services were more likely to attract farmers to membership in informal institutions. However, only formal institutions were significant (P≤0.05) in improving farmers' perception and adaptation to climatic variability. Five information channels namely, farmer to farmer, agro Vets, radio, lifetime experience, and school knowledge were more likely to influence farmers’ perception and adaptation mechanisms. This study concludes that there is climate variability which leads to an economic impact on agricultural practices and adaptive capacity is influenced by climate change risk perceptions, institutions, and the dissemination of information. This study recommends that the Department of livestock and that of Agriculture continuously provide climate-related information for effective risk perception and adaptation to climate change by small-scale farmers.
Community Preparedness, Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change in Kajiado County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Mutua, Kitheka; Samuel O. Ocholla; Joseph K. Muriithi; Eric K. Bett
Climate change has led to an average of 5% reduction in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of developing countries. Climate change is characterized by changes in climate indicators, for example an estimated 5% increase in global temperatures leads to 10% decline in agriculture productivity. These changes require adoption of adaptation and mitigation strategies among inhabitants of the developing countries. However, there is insufficient knowledge on the indigenous knowledge based early warning systems and indicators that have guided the local community in resource use and management as well as the adaptation and mitigation strategies adopted by pastoralists in Kajiado County. Similarly, the socio-economic impacts of climate variability and change on livelihoods of pastoralists in the County is not well understood. The general objective of the study was to assess community preparedness, adaptation mitigation and the existing communities‟ local knowledge-based early warning indicators with an ultimate aim of generating information that will be useful in climate variability and change early warning, preparedness, adaptation and mitigation. The study addressed knowledge gap by use of mixed method research design, applying the use of multiple methods of data collection and analysis. Multi-stage sampling was applied where stratified sampling was used to select two sub counties, simple random sampling was used in selection of households for administration of the questionnaire and snowballing procedure in identification of key informants. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Science. Quantitative data was analyzed using various multi nomial regressions and thematic analysis done on qualitative data. The results showed that there was an indigenous based knowledge system composed of early warning indicators within Kajiado County. However, most of the respondents were not aware of the early warning indicators. The most commonly used early warning indicator was flowering and shedding of leaves by some plants (48.7%). Others included observation of animal behaviour (11.2%), high temperatures and wind direction (8.6%), orientation of stars (8.4%), shape of the moon (7.1%), appearance of red ants (6.9%), migration of birds and wilder beast (4.8%), bleating of goats (3.0%), colour of sky (0.8.%), and appearance of cyclones (0.5%). Observation of the shoat‟s, intestines was also reported during the focus group discussion. The adaptation strategies adopted by the respondents were grouped into water conservation strategies, sustainable land use strategies, cropping management strategies, livelihood/income diversification strategies, food security and resilience related strategies and livestock management strategies. The adoption of these strategies was significantly influenced by socioeconomic variables that included the age and gender of the household head, cost of water, herd sizes and selling price of cattle, education level of the household head and the formal employment. The elements of extreme weather condition that included drought, floods and extreme temperatures had significant impact on household socioeconomic variables that included size of arable land, food aid, land tenure, number of meals taken by a household per day, household income from formal employment and number of livestock kept. In view of these findings, the study recommends capacity building (through creation of indigenous based knowledge hubs) on indigenous knowledge based early warning system/indicators among the pastoral communities toensure generational transmission of the knowledge and promotion of culturally appropriate climate variability and change adaptation and mitigation strategies.
A comparative study of the influence of variations in environmental factors on phytoplankton roperties of selected reservoirs in Central Kenya.
(2011-08-03) Kitur, Lesan Esther; Kotut, Kiplagat; Kerich, Richard Kimutai
Limnological information on reservoirs is important as it forms a vital baseline for among others the detection of undesirable changes in water quality. The physicochemical and phytoplankton properties were investigated in uhuru, Ruiru, Ngewa, Comte and Kianjjibbe reservoirs in central and Nairobi provinces of Kenya, over a period of 12 months (between February 2002 and January 2003) The aim of the study was to determine the nature and level of variation in the physico-chemical properties and its influence on phytoplankton composition, diversity and biomass. Sampling was done during day time and samples analyzed within four hours of sample collection. Among the limnological properties measured were: Secchi depth, temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen pH, total alkalinity, nitrite-nitrogen, nitratenitrogen, total nitrogen, ortho-phosphate, total phosphate, soIuble reactive silica, phytoplankton composition and phytoplankton biomass. The study revealed varied degrees of seasonal changes in physico-chemical and phytoplankton properties of the reservoirs. Mean Secchi depth (SD) ranged from 0.1± 0.4 (Ndewa) to 0.9 ± 0.43 m (Ruiru). In general, the highest variation was noted during the dry season. Mean EC ranged from 45.8 ± 5.7 uS cm-1 (Ruiru) to 298.9 ± 41.5 pS cm- in Kianjjibbe with the highest EC being recorded during the dry season. Mean total alkalinity (TA) at the reservoirs ranged from 18.0 ± 0.24 mg L-1(Ruiru) to 110.2 ± 15 ') mg L-1 (Kianjjibbe). Mean nitrate nitrogen (N03-N) concentration ranged from 4.2 ± 043 pg L-' in (Ngewa) to 13.6 ± 1.14 pg L_1 in (Kianjjibbe). Low mean N03-N concciltration was recorded during the dry season. Mean total nitrogen (TN) concentration a the reservoirs ranged from 32.5 ± 28.7 Itg L-1 (Kianjjibbe) to 40.5 ± 36.9 lag L- (Comte). High (TN) concentration was recorded during the wet season. Mean total phosphorous (TP) ranged from 0.70 ± 0.25 pg L-1 (Kianjjibbe) to 1.03 ± 0.82 ug L-1 (Comte). High mean TP concentration was recorded during the wet season. Mean soluble reactive silica (SRS) concentration ranged from 3.2 f 0.47 (Uhuru) to 7.3 f 0.74 pg I ,(Ngewa). High SRS concentration was recorded during the dry season. A significant difference in Secchi depth electrical conductivity, total alkalinity, nitrate nitrogen total nitrogen, total phosphorus and Soluble reactive silica was noted in all the five reservoirs (P<0.001). A total of 35 phytoplankton genera belonging to 7 divisions were 1ccntified in all the five reservoirs. However the largest number of genera (16) belongs d to the Chlorophyta while Cryptophyta had only one genus. Total biomass ranged "rom 3291.87 mg L_1 (Ngewa) to 22,338.763 mg L-1 (Kianjjibbe). Most of the biomass vas due to Dinophyta. Wet season was characterized by high biomass. Total biomass between the reservoirs were significantly different (p<0.001). Phytoplankton biodiversity was high during the dry season. Uhuru reservoir had the highest diversity of 2.4 bits The study concludes that the reservoirs investigated vary in levels of physico-chemi,- 11 and phytoplankton properties investigated. This variation was attributed to differences in rainfall, volume of outflow and use dynamics of the water of the reservoirs.
Contribution of cultivated African indigenous vegetables to agro-biodiversity conservation and community livelihood in Mumias sugar belt, Kenya
(2014) Wemali, Everlyn Nambiri Chitechi
Worldwide, agricultural activity causes great concern to conservation of natural biodiversity. In Kenya, agricultural expansion into natural habitats continues unabated, thus posing a threat to biodiversity. Research into the rate of loss of biodiversity and regain through agro-biodiversity practices are largely lacking. This study was carried out to examine how cultivation of African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) have contributed to agro-biodiversity conservation and enhanced community livelihood in Mumias sugar belt area of Kenya. The study set out to specifically isolate and analyse factors that promote cultivation and consumption of AIVs, determine the contribution of cultivated AIVs to community livelihood, assess indigenous knowledge (IK) that has sustained cultivation of AIVs and evaluate opportunities and challenges that exist in consumption and cultivation of AIVs. This study adopted a descriptive research design. It used 392 individuals sampled from sugarcane out-growers of the Mumias Sugar Company. Key informant interviews, structured questionnaires, checklist and Focused Group Discussions were used to collect data. The resulting data was statistically analysed, discussed and presented in graphs, tables and charts. Further, species diversity was determined using the Shannon–Weaver Diversity Index (SDI). From the resulting analysis, it was noted that farmers contribute to agro-biodiversity conservation by cultivation of 10 AIV species and by preserving genetic material in the cultivated AIVs. The vegetables cultivated were: C. olitorius, V. unguiculata, G. gynandra, C. maxima, C. brevidens, C. ochroleuca, B. junceae, S. nigrum, A. hybridus and A. lividus. Cowpeas were cultivated by 83.1% of respondents compared to African kales cultivated by only 2.4%. The highest SDI was 1.85 in Lubinu sub-location and the lowest was 0.69 in Bukaya sub-location. The types of cultivated vegetables were predicted from previous year data by the relationship: y = 1.048 + 0.368x. Factor analysis isolated five factors that motivated cultivation of AIVs: financial gains, diversification, household size to land-size ratio, availability of land and seeds, and vegetable sufficiency. There was a positive correlation between household size and cost of vegetables as explained by regression model: y = 2.432 + 0.162x. This study observed that AIVs contribute to livelihood of households through increased food security, diversification of sources of income and provision of sustainable natural resource base. Indigenous knowledge is important in sustenance of AIV cultivation. Cowpeas and pumpkin leaves are most preferred. The vegetables on decline are spider plant, bitter slender leaf, African kales and nightshades. Primary factors underlying the decline include scarcity of seeds, scarcity of land and divergent attitude. Challenges facing production of vegetables are intermittent production, market, drought, pests and access to seeds. Opportunities in production of AIVs are education, medicinal potential and preparation time reduction techniques. The study concluded that cultivation of AIVs conserves, sustains and improves biodiversity and livelihoods. It recommends inclusion of teaching of AIVs in formal and non-formal education curricula, creation of awareness through special days, development of county seed banks, and feeding program initiatives that incorporate AIVs.
A decision support system for the management of biodiversity resources in Kenya: a case study from Kenya Wildlife Service
(2012-02-06) Amuyunzu, Charles Lwenya
Throughout the world, environmental problems resulting from human activities are causing great concern to environmental scientists and the general public. Although many of the human activities that contribute to these problems are localized, the repercussions are felt not only at the local level but also at the regional, national, supra-regional, continental and global levels. Concern about many of these problems was first expressed in the late 1960s and culminated in the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm in 1972 that led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). However, it took another 21 years to formalize the international legitimacy of these issues, which found its expression in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, and its Agenda 21-an agreement that was signed by many heads of state. Loss of biodiversity is one such problem. Over the last two decades, there has been general agreement that global biological resources are declining at an accelerated rate, mainly through species extinction. Concern for the loss of biodiversity in Kenya has resulted in a number of government policy initiatives that address the problem. The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) has been given the mandate to conserve the existing biodiversity resources in the country. Decisions related to biodiversity conservation are made at three levels: national, regional and local levels, each of which requires different levels of abstraction of information. Although the different decisions made at each level generally require specific information, similar data acquisition procedures are needed at all levels (ground truth, airborne and satellite data). Because collection of data on biodiversity resources can be very costly, a large organization like KWS needs to restrict acquisition to those data items that are essential for information to support biodiversity conservation decisions and to ensure consistency in the use of data and subsequently derived information. Research to determine how this can be accomplished was the main focus of this study and Tsavo ecosystem was used as a case study. This study was designed to define, develop and test a prototype of such a decision-support system for management of biodiversity resources on a sustainable basis. This study applied existing system analysis and information system development methodologies, tools, and techniques to develop a prototype decision support system for management of biodiversity resources in Kenya. This system has been tested using two case studies from the Tsavo Ecosystem. Results from the case studies show that modern information technology concepts and theories can be modified to provide a powerful tool for effective and efficient management of biodiversity resources on a sustainable basis. The prototype should now be tested and implemented in the whole Kenya Wildlife Service Organization.
Deforestation and decimation of Biota in Kericho district of Kenya, East Africa
(2012-06-12) Kerich, Richard Kimutai; Koech, Michael K.; Njuguna, Stephen G.
Deforestation and decimition of Biota in Kericho District, Kenya. Deforestation and decimation of biota have been recognized as some of the most pressing world problems of the recent times. Today certain plants and animals are faced with a threat of extinction due to increased deforestation and decimation of biota within the natural environment. This study focuses on deforestation and decimation of plants and animals and sought answers to the following questions: a)Is the amount of land under natural forests in Kericho District the same extent now as it was twenty (or more)years* ago? b) What kind of faunal and floral changes have taken place within Kericho District since the last twenty (or over) years* ago? c) Is the productivity of soil the same now as it was twenty (or over)years* ago? and if not why? d) Is there a plant or animal whose existence in the District is endangered outside the protected areas? e) What are the major causes of increased rate of deforestation and decimation of species within the District? *Refers to twenty or over years from 1988. The study was carried out in Kericho District of Kenya, East Africa using fifty (50) randomly selected nodal or study points. The selected study points were scattered throughout the District. From each study points ten (10) interviewees were selected. Interviewees were selected. Consequently the total number of people interviewed were five hundred (500). When all the fifty nodal points are considered. The District was divided into two ecological zones and for each of the zones thirteen (13) plants and thirteen (13) animals were sampled for the study. The information required from the respondents was that which helped in the attainment of the objectives stated. Specifically, four broad areas were dealt with by the stated objectives and these are:- a) Magnitude of deforestation of the past twenty (or over) years ago as compared with the present. b) Relative abundance of named plants and animals. c) Cultural traditions and perception of environmental conservation. d) Environmental awareness and mode/rate of information dissemination. The data required were collected through the use of a questionnaire and an observation record sheet. Field observations were done by the researcher using the observation record sheet as a tool while the questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. When preparing the research tools, the objectives of this study were borne in mind. This was necessary if the set objectives were to be achieved. In summary, the study was intended to: a) determine the extent of deforestation in Kericho District. b) identify the major reasons for deforestation in the District. c) identify the conservation measures taken to safeguard the forests in the District. d) identify those floral and faunal species that are endangered within the District. e) identify major causes of elimination of plant and animal species within the District. f) identify (if any) attitudes and perceptions of the people of the District that would reinforce or go against the conventional conservation measures for soil, natural forests, and endangered plant and animal species. g) determine the state of environmental awareness of the people of Kericho District. The tools were therefore designed so as to meet the requirements of the stated objectives. Majority of the data collected were in form of stated opinions checked off in the provided Likert Scale within the questionnaire. To ease analysis and interpretation of data, responses were categorized depending on their position within the provided Likert Scale. For all the responses received in form of a Likert Scale, categorization was done accordingly. Classification of the opinions expressed made it easy to distinguish between the extreme opinions e.g. "Low" and "High". However, "decision" level was set for all responses given in form of a Likert Scale. In judging the provided responses the set "decisions" level was "moderate". Any response that was either high, or very high was categorized "high" while responses given as very low, low, or moderate were categorized "low". From the recorded opinions, frequency of responses falling into any one category (i.e. low or high) was determined using the set criteria mentioned above. As a basis for conclusion, means, percentages and absolute counts were determined for the various categories of responses received. The other set of data collected was that obtained from field observation and these include actual counts of plants within their natural environment and self assessment of the extent of deforestation within the study areas. Data derived from actual field observation were intended to confirm the information given by the respondents regarding deforestation and decimation of biota. From the assembled data relevant calculations were done depending on the parameters involved in the objective under consideration. Basically, averages, percentages and frequencies were computed and these sufficed for to conclude on set objectives. It was from the computed values that conclusions were made concerning the stated objectives. The research findings indicate that: a) Deforestation in Kericho District is currently higher than it was in the past** according to peoples views. (see table 11p.83). b) Majority of the forests within Kericho District have reduced in size by people's opinions. (see table 12 p.86). c) Due to habitat destruction (in form of deforestation) animals have greatly reduced in number everywhere within the District). d) Within Kericho District, there has been a great reduction in both plants' abundance and their species diversity. e) Cultural traditions and environmental perception of the people of Kericho District are supportive of conservation measures of plants and animals. f) Of the sampled plants Juniperus procera was found to be the least frequent outside the gazetted area and needed protection from wanton destruction. g) Acacia lahai, although still abundant within the District, was found to have experienced the greate
Determinants of the Biodiversity Conservation-tourism Nexus in the Buffer Zone of Amboseli Biosphere Reserve, Kenya
(2014-02-24) Mwakima, Margaret Wawuda; Njuguna, Steven G.
Tourism is an important ecocomic sector that generates billions of dollars all over the world. In Kenya, tourism is an important economic sector, contributing nearly 12% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product. The main resource base of this sector is a rich cultural and biological diversity. Despite the significance of tourism sector, its contribution to biodiversity conservation is not well understood, yet the two should be planned in an integrated manner. This study sought to establish the contribution of tourism to biodiversity conservation in Amboseli Biosphere Reserve. The specific objectives were to assess the threats to biodiversity conservation, to evaluate the effects of wildlife displacement by tourism infrastructure, and to determine the opinions of the local community on the effects of land use change, sustainability of biodiversity and tourism in the study area.This study was conceptualized on the premise that biodiversity conservation can be supported through wise stewardship and management of species and ecosystems. In order to achieve the research objectives, a stratified random sampling design incorporating both descriptive and analytical approaches was adopted. Field observations, interview schedules and questionnaires were used to gather data on biodiversity management practices, development of tourism infrastructure, threats to biodiversity and tourism; and opinions of local community about benefits from tourism and land use change. The results from 447 respondents, reviews of existing documents and field vists showed that changing land use, human encroachment, hunting for bush meat and game trophy, human-wildlife conflict and growing infrastructure development, including fencing were major threats to biodiversity in the buffer zone of Amboseli Biosphere Reserve. About 68% of the respondents were concerned that infrastructure associated with tourism development was displacing wildlife and disrupting their movement and behaviour. There were also no significant differences in the opinions of local community regarding the effects of land use change on biodiversity and tourism in the wildlife buffer zone around the park. A majority of the responses (83%) of the land owners and tourism related business owners were of the opinion that sustained favourable economic returns and effective community involvement in biodiversity conservation and tourism development were fundamental. This was necessary because the more attractive economic activities, such as land leasing to external developers and crop farming in the ranches increased human-wildlife conflict by restricting their movement to access to water and forage, especially during the dry season. The socio-demographic trends of local community and the changing values attached to land and wildlife are likely to influence the future of biodiversity conservation and tourism in Amboseli Biosphere Reserve. Group ranch owners and all the stakeholders should form mutually beneficial partnerships so as to sustain biodiversity conservation, tourism and livelihoods of the local communities.
Determination of factors influencing the efficiency of legume green manures for maize production in Embu, Kenya
(2011-11-01) Gitari, Josiah Njiru
Land productivity in the central highlands of Kenya is mainly constrained by low and declining soil fertility. In the maize-based farming systems, continuous cultivation without adequate soil fertility enhancement measures has led to a deterioration of land quality resulting in low agricultural yields and degraded soils. Herbaceous legumes can provide an alternative to commercial fertilizers and animal manures. This study explored the use of these legumes in Embu District - situated within the central highlands of Kenya. In order to achieve this objective a survey and four field experiments were conducted to: (1) Validate farmers' knowledge and practices in soil fertility and use of plant residues; (2) Determine the performance of maize and green manure herbaceous legumes under different intercropping densities and relay-cropping regimes; (3) Investigate the relative efficiency of different legume residue management techniques and determine the need for mineral nitrogen (N) supplementation and (4) Determine the role of low quality plant residues as agents for slowing down the fast-decomposing legume residues to improve N synchrony for maize growth. The study consisted of one survey and four on-station field experiments. The survey involved a total of 134 small-scale farmers cutting across 5 major agro-ecological zones of the 30 km transect of the district. About 87 per cent of all the farmers in the district were affected by the problems of low soil fertility in their farms. Farmers gave soil colour and structure as some of the visual soil fertility assessment indicators used to determine soil fertility status in their farms but the most pronounced and elaborate local indicators seemed to be the dominance of certain weed flora. Soil pH and exchangeable bases (Ca++ and Mg++) were the most sensitive laboratory soil parameters that corroborated farmers' perceptions and knowledge of soil fertility. Results of the field experiments showed that it is feasible to intercrop maize with any of the three green manure legume species, namely, mucuna [Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Var. utilis (Wright) Bruck], crotalaria [Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don] and lablab [Lablab purpureus (L) Sweet cv. Rongai]. Relay-cropping these green manure legumes (GML) beyond the second week after maize emergence had a significant reduction on legume biomass production possibly due to reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) under the maize canopy. Intercropped GML intercepted less than 30 per cent of the total incident radiation. Nonetheless, intercropping of maize and GML greatly improved land productivity giving relative yield total (RYT) values of between 1.0 and 1.5. Incorporation or surface mulching of the GML residues gave similar maize yield responses that was about double that of the control (no residues). Supplementation of the GML residues (raised in situ) with mineral N was only beneficial if the quantities incorporated were below 2.0 Mg ha 1. Maize grain yield after mucuna, crotalaria and lablab residues alone (no mineral N supplemented) was 2.5, 2.3 and 1.6 times higher, respectively, than those of the control. Soil N mineralization reached a peak 4 weeks after planting (WAP) and declined thereafter until 8 WAP before picking up again for the remainder of the season. Seasonal mineral N levels ranged between 40 to 128 kg N ha 1. GML residue treated plots gave significantly higher total N uptake than the untreated plots. Over the 3 year period, legume residue incorporation resulted in a slight reduction (0.9-1.8%) in soil bulk density, a small increase in the soil total N but no change in the soil pH. Addition of low quality residues (maize stover) to any of the three GML residues did not affect N release but appeared to enhance their performance. Soil mineralization and maize N uptake was not affected by the addition of low quality residues to the GML residues but resulted in a small increase in the total soil N and pH. However, addition of large quantities of these low quality residues (6.0 Mg ha 1) significantly increased the soil organic carbon by 13 per cent and also decreased the soil bulk density by 8.3 per cent when compared to the absolute control with no residues added.
Developing responsible environmental behaviour through formal school curriculum: the case of Kajiado, Kiambu and Nairobi Districts of Kenya
(2012-09-12) Karembu, Margaret Gathoni
The acquisition of responsible environmental behaviour through the school curriculum has more often been inferred than researched. Literature search on the subject indicates that more studies have focused on the status of environmental education (EE) than on its outcome especially regarding impact on the learners. The relatively early stages of development that formal EE finds itself could explain why institutionalised evaluation systems have not yet emerged. However, given the acknowledged role that EE could play in the pursuance of sustainable development, an assessment of how well environmental educators have faired in preparing the youth as environmental stewards is crucial. Given this scenario, this study set out to evaluate the quality of EE taught in formal school curriculum in terms of its ability to develop responsible environmental behaviour among learners. The study specifically focused on the contribution of the school towards this responsibility while acknowledging the existence of a multiplicity of other selected non-school factors such as the neighbourhoods, gender and environmental information sources. An attempt was also made to gauge teachers' perceived preparedness to teach EE. The respondents were finalists of the first tier of education (standard eight pupils) from public schools in Kenya. The study design was ex-post facto while the approach was that of a comparative case study of urban and rural settings commonly found in Kenya. Three districts Kajiado for low potential rural agro- ecological zone, Kiambu for high potential rural agro-cological zone and Nairobi for urban zone represented these settings. A number of sampling techniques were used starting with stratified sampling to select the study sites, systematic random sampling to choose 45 schools and simple random sampling to pick the 450 respondents. Data were collected with the use of questionnaires, interview guides and checklists, which were reinforced, with photographic sceneries of selected environmental conditions existing in both rural and urban settings. The data were computer-analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The major finding of the study was that the general school approach to EE that has assumed a linear relationship between knowledge, understanding and behaviour has not been successful in developing responsible behaviour on a sufficiently large scale. While there is no denial that some achievement has been made, the findings indicated that learners were inadequately prepared to translate the expressed high levels of environmental knowledge and sensitivity into responsible action at personal level. The results revealed many inconsistencies between what pupils believed they should do and what they actually did. Levels of participation in environmental conservation activities were found to be low. The learners attributed this to overloaded curriculum, feelings of helplessness, lack of environmental role models and the linking of environmental activities with punishment, among others. Although the school was rated highly as an environmental information source, the mass media was also found to play a significant role. In general, urban pupils were more involved in environmental activities than their rural counterparts and recorded higher levels of knowledge on environmental problems and their solutions. Gender did not have an influence on levels of participation but showed significant influence on environmental concerns. Majority of the teachers felt inadequately prepared and incompetent to teach EE which was compounded by lack of relevant instructional materials; limited understanding of the scope and content of what constitutes EE; lack of time and funds for field trips. At the policy level, mechanisms for reinforcing EE curriculum were found to be weak, while inconsistencies were noted between a school's day-to-day practice and its operational curriculum. From the findings, it is recommended that the EE curriculum should incorporate and provide opportunities for learners to acquire skills for translating awareness into action. Environmental activities should not be used as modes of punishment as these create a negative image about EE. Values and attitudes espoused in the school should be reflected in the day-to-day behaviour of teachers and support staff as well as at the community level to model responsible behaviour. Environmental action learning should be core to a whole school's approach to EE and should be reinforced through care of the school grounds throughout learners' school life. The curriculum also needs to be reviewed to avoid duplication and release time for practical activities in EE. In-service training of teachers on methodologies of using school grounds and neighbourhoods in providing learners with hands-on experiences should be mounted, while the pre-service curriculum should be reviewed to put EE in its proper perspective. At the policy level, a mechanism to reinforce EE should be put in place, which can be achieved through school-to-school, child-to-child environmental inspections and organising annual environmental awards. In View of the above, further research is needed in a wider context of the geographical locations in Kenya. Other areas requiring further research include: methodologies of using the community as an effective tool for environmental action learning; enhancing the teaching of environmental matters through the school curriculum and how the mass media could effectively deliver EE in view of the study findings.
Development control and standards in decentralized Sanitation systems in Karengata and Ongata Rongai, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Kiama, Philip Mbugua; Sammy Letema; Aggrey Thuo; Daniel Okang’a Oyoo
Sanitation and hygiene promotion is an integral part of national development strategy. Everyone is entitled to adequate, safe, accessible, and non-discriminatory sanitation as enhanced in the 2010 Kenyan Constitution. The research employed the use of general system theory in sanitation services delivery chain, which requires the participation of various stakeholders or players in a framework for wastewater management. This is achieved through sanitation systems that are compliant to sanitation standards contained in development controls. This research was conducted in Karengata and Ongata Rongai, which are peri-urban areas that have undergone rapid urbanisation and population growth. The main objective of the research was to establish the existence of sanitation standards in development control mechanisms and their relationship to installation and management of decentralised sanitation systems and their compliance. The specific objectives were to: assess sanitation standards governing decentralised sanitation systems, examine the types of decentralised sanitation systems in use, evaluate compliance of decentralised sanitation systems to sanitation standards, and effects of compliance on the environment in Karengata and Ongata Rongai areas. The research used a descriptive survey research design with a sample size of 400 households. Eight zones were sampled using spatial stratified systematic random sampling. The tools used for collection of data include household questionnaire, global positioning systems, digital distance measuring instrument, Olfactometer, observation, and desktop research. Statistical Packages for Social Science software was used to run descriptive statistics and produce frequency distribution, and percentages. Data from observational methods were in the study results as graphs and photographs. Inferential statistics such as t-test and analysis of variance were used to determine associations between variable and its significance. Sanitation systems in Karengata and Ongata Rongai were septic tanks at 75% and 50% respectively and pit latrines at 24% and 50% respectively. The most preferred type of pit latrine was with slab at 20% in Karengata and 34% in Ongata Rongai. On the other hand, for septic tank systems, those without Soakaway facilities were dominant with 57% in Karengata and 72% in Ongata Rongai. Compliance to sanitation standards showed variance between Karengata and Ongata Rongai. The sanitation standards in both areas were not compliant (p=0.0019<1.96), which confirm the null hypothesis. Standards on separation distance of sanitation facility from boundary showed significance in pit latrine (p=0.003<0.05) and no significance in septic tank (p=0.180>0.05). Based on the research findings, the study recommends establishment of a central institution governing sanitation at National and County levels, which will be responsible for coordination, regulation, monitoring and enforcement of sanitation development control policies and regulations. In addition, the public should be sensitized on sanitation standards to enhance compliance and adoption of safe sanitation systems.

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