PHD-School of Environmental Studies

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This collections contains bibliographic information and abstracts of PHD theses and dissertation in the School of Environmental Studies held in Kenyatta University Library

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Structural analysis of the drainage basin of Kenyan rift valley lakes within the aberdare detachment, using satellite data, GIS and field observations
(Nairobi University, 1997-03) Onywere, S. M.
In addressing the problem of lake-level changes in the drainage basin of the Kenyan Rift Valley lakes (Bogoria, Nakuru, Elmenteita, Naivasha) of the Aberdare Detachment System, a study of the watershed of the basin is made. The study deals with information extraction and representation using digital techniques based on ERDAS image analysis programs and Intergraph, Geographic Information System (GIS) based on Microstation software. A GIS database is designed, and through modelling, has provided the cartographic ability to address the questions posed by the present problem. Because of variation in data types and sources, raster-based GIS and vector-based GIS are used. At first approach, analysis is based on visual interpretation of photographic products. In designing raster-based GIS, satellite imagery is initially digitally enhanced and filtered. Analysis of Landsat-5 TM and SPOT imagery is made and used for interpretation and classification, facilitating analysis of land use and land cover characteristics and patterns. Good ground resolution, and characteristics of the data reveal significant details of the land use cover patterns and linear patterns of fault scarps, with the synoptic view suggesting NNE, NE and NW trending scarps and associated grabens. The spectral analysis has allowed for: (1) Image classification of Nakuru-Menengai area using supervised image classification programs and Principal Component Analyzed (PCA) image data. (2) Lineament analysis and drainage pattern analysis using peA and directionally filtered image data. (3) Generation of raster GIS data files that are integrated and modelled with vector GIS data files. III The image classification identifies 17 land cover types that show a marked increase in agricultural activity in the study area in the period July 1984 to present. Increased irrigation around lake Naivasha in this period has resulted in increased direct consumption of water from the lake. There is also increased land use in the catchment areas of the lakes, affecting the morphology of the delicate soil structure and the forest cover, and subsequently run-off into the lakes. The loss of vegetation cover on the soils has resulted in decreased infiltration and thus ground discharge into the lakes. This has affected the water levels in the lakes. For the vector GIS, information concerning five themes, namely structures (faults), lithology, drainage patterns, land use patterns, and topography, is extracted from topographic maps, geologic maps, and tables and reports of the study area. The various digitized elements are given attribute values through Look-up-Tables and referenced to the analyzed satellite data. In the referencing, the imagery products are draped on the vector data and incorporated into the database. The area is divided into three tectonic blocks on the basis of recognized trends of fault patterns. A detailed analysis of selected areas in the three divisions is made, basing the interpretation on a number of measurable and recognizable features in the images, ground truth data, and integration with digitized data sets. Stored GIS information allows for graphic presentation of the morphotectonic structures of the Aberdare Detachment. Comparison between vector data and raster data, reveal a strong structural control and tectonic involvement on the drainage patterns and the lake basins. There is also strong structural control into the geothermal reservoirs. Step-fault ramps channel water from the marginal escarpments and the platform areas into the rift floor, largely directing the waters away from the nearby lake basins into widely separated basins. Thus, the drainage into lakes Bogoria, Nakuru, Elmenteita and Naivasha cover small areas, poorly recharging these lakes.
Pupils' understanding of the concept of environment: a case study of standard seven pupils in Nyanza Province, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2005-12) Otewa, John Odhiambo
The study, resulting into this thesis, was based on the awareness that humanity's survival and prosperity depend on the finite resources and life supporting systems (e.g. water, air and soil) all of which are rapidly deteriorating from the surface of the earth. This awareness was first echoed in 1972 at the International Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm and later incorporated into the school curriculum in the member states through the recommendation of Tbilisi Conference of 1977. In Kenya, formal infusion of environmental concepts into the school curriculum, from primary to tertiary levels, started in 1985. But, since environmental degradation has continued unabated, threatening the well being and sometimes the very survival of life on earth, there seemed to be a deficiency in the implementation process of such infused environmental concepts in the school system. In an attempt to investigate the causes of this deficiency, this study endeavoured to provide answers to the following questions: what prior knowledge did Standard Seven pupils have on the concept of environment before it was formally taught; and did the prior knowledge have effect on the pupils' understanding of the concept when it was formally taught as outlined in Standard Seven science course? The study focused on pupils' understanding of environmental principles, namely: meaning of environment; components of environment; pollution of environment and conservation of environment which are included in the topic "Our Environment" in Standard Seven science course. The study involved 288 Standard Seven pupils, eighteen head-teachers, eighteen Standard Seven science teachers and twelve cultural opinion leaders from Gusii and Luo communities. Various research instruments were used to I investigate the target population's perception of the environment, including Environment Apperception Test (EAT) for pupils and Interview Schedule for cultural opinion leaders. The findings of the study were that: the pupils' prior knowledge of the concept of the environment was that environment is constituted by a single component of the wider environment, for example water, soil, air, plants or animals; the sources of the pupils' perception included the pupils' communities' perception of environment and the schools' presentation of environmental concepts in the school curriculum from Standard One to Six; and that the pupils' prior knowledge affected their understanding of the concept when it was formally taught to them under the unit "Our Environment" in Standard Seven science course. The Study therefore recommends that the curriculum development, the teaching and evaluation of environmental concepts in the school curriculum be systematic. This implies that different concepts of the environment are to be taught in different classes in the school system accordingly and the content be evaluated comprehensively so as to draw the attention of the examiners, the teachers and the learners on the concepts of environment infused in the school curriculum.
An Evaluation of Integrated Soil Fertility Management Practices in Meru South District, Kenya.
(Kenyatta University, 2007-10) Mugwe, Jayne
Farmers in the central highlands of Kenya do face problems of low crop yields due to soil fertility decline. This is as a result of continuous cropping, nutrient losses through crop harvests, soil erosion and leaching coupled with inability to replenish the soil through use of external inputs. The situation is aggravated by poor adoption, among farmers, of improved soil fertility management options. This study investigated feasibility of using integrated soil fertility replenishment technologies (SFRT) involving organics in combination with inorganic fertilizer to improve soil fertility and consequently crop yields in Chuka, Meru south district. The organic materials evaluated comprised of two leguminous trees (Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena trichandra), two herbaceous legumes (Mucuna pruriens and Crotalaria ochroleuca), Tithonia diversifolia, a locally available tree shrub, and cattle manure. Effect of these organic materials (sole or combined with inorganic fertilizer) on maize yields and soil properties (pH, macronutrients, inorganic nitrogen) was assessed under both on-station and on-farm experiments. Farmer adoption surveys were carried out to assess adoption process that included technology preferences and farmers‟ experiences, as well as household and farm characteristics determining decision to adopt or not to adopt SFRT. All biophysical data were subjected to ANOVA and means separated using LSD at α = 0.05. Social data were subjected to descriptive statistics and summarised using means, frequencies and percentages. Factors influencing adoption were subjected to multivariate regression analysis. The on-station experiment showed that treatments that had sole application of the organic materials at 60 kg N ha-1 , and organic materials (30 kg N ha-1 ) plus inorganic fertilizer (30 kg N ha-1 ) gave similar yields (p≤0.05). However, these treatments recorded higher maize yields than that from sole inorganic fertilizer treatment. They maintained maize yields at 4 to 6 t ha-1 and should therefore be recommended for use by farmers, who currently get 0.5 to 1.5 t ha-1 from their conventional farming systems. Herbaceous legumes gave the lowest yields among the organic resources, but performed better than the control treatment. At the onfarm trials, maize yields from researcher designed and farmer-managed trials were less variable than those from farmer designed and managed trials, which was attributed to differences in management practices among farmers. The organic materials had a positive contribution to soil pH, K, C and N while cattle manure showed superiority in terms of its contribution to soil properties. The amount of soil inorganic N within the plow layer and N-uptake by maize monitored during 2002 LR and 2004 LR seasons showed variation among the treatments, sampling periods, and between the seasons. There were high amounts of soil inorganic N at 0-15 cm soil depth at the beginning of the season, followed by a decline from around 4 to 8 weeks after planting. This trend was attributed to rapid mineralization of the incorporated organic materials and “Birch effect” that was followed by leaching, due to intense rainfall, coupled with uptake of N by the maize crop. Treatments that had tithonia, calliandra and leucaena applied had the highest soil inorganic N in most sampling periods and also the highest cumulative N uptake by maize. It was evident that the effect of external inputs on N uptake was dependent on climatic conditions (especially rainfall) prevailing throughout the growing period. Poor rains during 2004 LR resulted in accumulation of soil inorganic N and restricted N uptake by the maize crop. There was high residual inorganic N at 100-150 cm soil depth that was probably due to greater N mineralization compared to plant uptake in the top-soil immediately after the onset of the rainy season and subsequent nitrate leaching. This inorganic N observed in the 100-150 cm depth is below the rooting zone of most maize plants and may not be available to the maize crop. The study established that first farmer preferences were SFRT involving manure and tithonia combined with fertilizer followed by fertilizer alone and was attributed to easy accessibility and probably low opportunity cost of practicing these technologies. Technologies that combined organic and inorganic fertilizer were more popular among farmers and farmers used them on significantly (p≤0.05) larger plots than with application of either sole organics or inorganic fertilizer. Farmers developed innovations that involved mixing of organic materials, which gave high yields possibly due to increased nutrients supply and other benefits associated with organic materials. The main benefits reported were increased crop yields and fodder (calliandra and leucaena) and this could have been a driving force to the adoption of the technologies. The major constraints were high labour demand and inadequate biomass and farmer tried to cope by preparing land early, applying materials without chopping and planting trees near the crop fields. Five factors were identified to significantly (p≤ 0.1) influence adoption. Age of household head and number of mature cattle negatively influenced adoption. Farm management category, ability to hire labour and number of months in a year households bought food for the family positively influenced adoption. The odds in favour of adoption increase by a factor of 0.9 for households hiring labour, while households buying food for more than three months in a year have an adoption probability of 25%. The implication of these results is that adoption of improved SFRT could be enhanced through targeting of young families where both spouses work on farm fulltime, food insecure households and farmers who lack access to other sources of soil improvement such as those without enough cattle to produce manure. This study has filled an important gap by providing a recommendation on some appropriate technologies for replenishing soil fertility by smallholder farmers in Meru South District. The role of cattle manure in increasing soil fertility parameters was well demonstrated and due to its easy accessibility in the region, it is likely to remain one of the key resources for managing soil fertility. It is therefore recommended that factors that seem to limit its performance especially on farms such as low quality be addressed. The study also showed how farmers test and manage new soil fertility management innovations to meet their livelihood objectives, and identified factors crucial for enhancing adoption of integrated SFRT. The government therefore needs to strengthen, expand and support long-term soil initiatives that aim at enhancing adoption of these technologies. Policies and institutional support should be focussed on enhancing willingness and ability of farm households to adopt the technologies while taking into consideration key factors that were identified to influence adoption in this study. Further research is recommended on the follwing areas: residual effects on soil of low and high quality organic resources, partitioning of N upon decomposition of these resources, tradeoffs of biomass banks on farms and their economic viability, diffusion and potential of up-scaling of integrated soil fertility management technologies in the area.
Micro-level wood energy planning for Kiambu, Thika and Maragwa districts: a case study for decentralised wood energy plan in Kenya
(2011-07-28) Githiomi, Kabucho Joseph
Wood energy provides 70% of Kenya's national energy needy and is expected to continue as the country's main source of energy for the foreseeable future. However, despite the importance of wood energy in the economic development, woodfuel data are scarce and characterized by high degree of uncertainty that makes it difficult to undertake relevant wood energy planning and policy formulation. This study was carried out in the the Kiambu, Thika and Maragwa districts of Central Kenya. It aimed at developing micro-level wood energy plan that would act as a case study for future decentralized wood energy plans in Kenya. The study objectives were to analyze the potential of wood energy planning factors in the study area; to determine the supply networks and consumption of woodfuel and analyse utilization technologies used in reducing the amount of woodfuel consumed; to develop a decentralized wood energy plan and it's implementation strategies aimed at meeting the demand and supply of woodfuel in the study area and finally to analyze the economic importance derived from the use of wood energy. Primary data was collected from households, vendors, producers, transporters of fuel wood and service/production institutions comprising factories/industries, schools, restaurants, hospitals and prisons using structured questionnaires. Secondary data was collected from existing information on wood energy and related areas from various institutions. Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) where descriptive statistics, chi-square, correlations, Kruskall-Wallis test and ANOVA were used. The supply and consumption data were projected from base year 2006 to 2018 (Planning period). Sustainable supply was matched with demand over the planning period. Scenarios were developed with implementation strategies aimed at bridging the deficit gap. I'he study established a deficit between supply and demand balance of -41.7%, -45.6% and -50.1% of woodfuel in 2006 for Kiambu, Thika and Maragwa districts respectively. Four scenarios were created with their implementation strategies which included allocation of 16%, 19% and 21% of gazetted plantation forest in respective districts to fuel wood production, increase of improved stove technology, increase of on-farm tree planting area and use of 'a combination of alternative energy sources. The combination of all these strategies gave a projected surplus of woodfuel in all the districts by 2018. Consequently, the income from the projected woodfuel consumption for Kiambu, Thika and Maragwa was about Ksh 371,848,400, Ksh 534,536,800 and Ksh 337,862,000, respectively in 2006 which was expected to increase to Ksh 490,925,400, Ksh 615,616,400 and Ksh 410,959,400, in that order by 2018. In conclusion the study found out that m er 70% of woodfuel was sourced from farmlands and the household area under tree was significantly correlated to household land size. On average, about 72% of the households had less than 0.2 ha of their land under trees and Grevillea robusta and Eucalyptus spy) were the most preferred species. Inadequate land was found to be the major constraint to tree planting. On average, about 66% of the households used 3 stone stoves while only an average of 24% had adopted improved stoves. The study recommends implementation of the suggested supply and demand strategies to reduce the huge deficit between supply and demand. Other recommendations include; integrating woodfuel production with farming systems, improving wood energy production and utilization technologies and improving wood energy data base for planning purposes.
Land use and its effect on biodiversity in the lake ol' Bolossat basin, Nyandarua, Kenya
(2011-08-03) Macharia, Geoffrey Mugo
There is need to address factors that endanger species' survival now than ever before in order to reverse or slow down the rate of loss of biological diversity. The main objective of this study was to assess the effect of land use on biodiversity in the Lake Ol' Bolossat basin with land cover, human activity, birds and water quality as indicators. Land use aspects evaluated included human population, activity on farms and livestock. Land cover prior to this study was estimated from satellite images selected to reflect a time series pattern spanning about thirty years from 1973 to year 2000 The images were analyzed and interpreted using GIS technology. Systematic random sampling was done on crop cover. Farmers selected at random were also interviewed through questionnaires on key social economic aspects. Birds were counted in stations following the line transect technique along the lake edge between fixed stations approximately 2 km apart. Water quality physical-chemical parameters were measured by means of a portable electronic meter. Water level was determined using temporary and permanent gauges. The common land use types found in the area were mainly subsistence arable farming and livestock rearing. Subsistence farming was the major land use with four crops maize (56%), potatoes (20%), beans (6%) and carrots (7%) having the largest land cover on farms. Increased human population which had a cumulative growth of over 316% from 176,928 in 1969 to approximately 559,626 in 1999 had caused intensification of land use and exploitation of land based resources. Rapid expansion of farms decreased and altered natural habitats of the riparian reserve and the forest. This resulted in acceleration of soil erosion and silt deposition. Population increased and exerted tremendous pressure on the natural ecosystem. Regression analysis of satellite land cover data and human population changes over the corresponding period revealed human population to be the principal factor in all cover area changes observed accounting for 87% on the coefficient of determination, (r2 ). This had reduced the area of the lake water mass while deposition of silt increased the area under marsh. Human activities had some influence on the occurrence and distribution of communities of birds and had variable effects on water quality parameters. Water dissolved oxygen recorded was between 0.60mg 1"1 and 9.60mg 1"1. pH value had a range between 6.5 and 9.6 while conductivity was between 172 and 465pS. Dissolved oxygen was influenced by all activities to some extent while the pH was not. Conductivity was affected by land preparation, weeding and harvesting. Water abstraction on the eastern side of Lake Ol' Bolossat influenced hydrologic processes and decreased inflow. Environmental degradation, notable as soil erosion, overgrazing, burning. and encroachment onto the riparian and forest reserves, were found at various areas of the basin. Environmental rehabilitation was minimal in the basin, particularly on the eastern side of the lake. This study, therefore, supports the conclusion that increasing exploitation of land, water and biological resources principally affected biodiversity in the Lake Ol' Bolossat ecosystem.
A comparative study of the influence of variations in environmental factors on phytoplankton roperties of selected reservoirs in Central Kenya.
(2011-08-03) Kitur, Lesan Esther; Kotut, Kiplagat; Kerich, Richard Kimutai
Limnological information on reservoirs is important as it forms a vital baseline for among others the detection of undesirable changes in water quality. The physicochemical and phytoplankton properties were investigated in uhuru, Ruiru, Ngewa, Comte and Kianjjibbe reservoirs in central and Nairobi provinces of Kenya, over a period of 12 months (between February 2002 and January 2003) The aim of the study was to determine the nature and level of variation in the physico-chemical properties and its influence on phytoplankton composition, diversity and biomass. Sampling was done during day time and samples analyzed within four hours of sample collection. Among the limnological properties measured were: Secchi depth, temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen pH, total alkalinity, nitrite-nitrogen, nitratenitrogen, total nitrogen, ortho-phosphate, total phosphate, soIuble reactive silica, phytoplankton composition and phytoplankton biomass. The study revealed varied degrees of seasonal changes in physico-chemical and phytoplankton properties of the reservoirs. Mean Secchi depth (SD) ranged from 0.1± 0.4 (Ndewa) to 0.9 ± 0.43 m (Ruiru). In general, the highest variation was noted during the dry season. Mean EC ranged from 45.8 ± 5.7 uS cm-1 (Ruiru) to 298.9 ± 41.5 pS cm- in Kianjjibbe with the highest EC being recorded during the dry season. Mean total alkalinity (TA) at the reservoirs ranged from 18.0 ± 0.24 mg L-1(Ruiru) to 110.2 ± 15 ') mg L-1 (Kianjjibbe). Mean nitrate nitrogen (N03-N) concentration ranged from 4.2 ± 043 pg L-' in (Ngewa) to 13.6 ± 1.14 pg L_1 in (Kianjjibbe). Low mean N03-N concciltration was recorded during the dry season. Mean total nitrogen (TN) concentration a the reservoirs ranged from 32.5 ± 28.7 Itg L-1 (Kianjjibbe) to 40.5 ± 36.9 lag L- (Comte). High (TN) concentration was recorded during the wet season. Mean total phosphorous (TP) ranged from 0.70 ± 0.25 pg L-1 (Kianjjibbe) to 1.03 ± 0.82 ug L-1 (Comte). High mean TP concentration was recorded during the wet season. Mean soluble reactive silica (SRS) concentration ranged from 3.2 f 0.47 (Uhuru) to 7.3 f 0.74 pg I ,(Ngewa). High SRS concentration was recorded during the dry season. A significant difference in Secchi depth electrical conductivity, total alkalinity, nitrate nitrogen total nitrogen, total phosphorus and Soluble reactive silica was noted in all the five reservoirs (P<0.001). A total of 35 phytoplankton genera belonging to 7 divisions were 1ccntified in all the five reservoirs. However the largest number of genera (16) belongs d to the Chlorophyta while Cryptophyta had only one genus. Total biomass ranged "rom 3291.87 mg L_1 (Ngewa) to 22,338.763 mg L-1 (Kianjjibbe). Most of the biomass vas due to Dinophyta. Wet season was characterized by high biomass. Total biomass between the reservoirs were significantly different (p<0.001). Phytoplankton biodiversity was high during the dry season. Uhuru reservoir had the highest diversity of 2.4 bits The study concludes that the reservoirs investigated vary in levels of physico-chemi,- 11 and phytoplankton properties investigated. This variation was attributed to differences in rainfall, volume of outflow and use dynamics of the water of the reservoirs.
Environmental determinants of material morbidity and mortality in Bondo district, Kenya
(2011-08-10) Okumbe, Mukolwe Gaudencia
The evident disparities in maternal morbidity and mortality between developed and developing countries are of concern. These stem from the fact that developed countries have achieved very low rates of 9 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, while developing countries have very high rates of 900 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. In the developing world, 533,000 women lose their lives as a result of complications of pregnancy and delivery, unlike the developed world where there are only 6,000 deaths. The persistence of high maternal mortality ratios in developing countries despite the Safe Motherhood Initiative and efforts by the Inter Agency Group has led to prioritisation of maternal mortality reduction one of the UN's Millennium Development Goals. In Kenya, the maternal mortality ratios between different regions have displayed similar disparities with some regions in Central and Rift Valley Provinces having very low rates while some regions in the Coast, Western and Nyanza Provinces have very high rates, hence the problem of the study. The choice of Bondo District was based on the fact that the District is in one of the regions with a high maternal mortality rate of 620 deaths per 100,000 live births and a high number of health problems. The main objectives of the study were to estimate the maternal morbidity and mortality rates for Bondo District; determine environmental factors that impact on maternal morbidity and mortality; ascertain the extent to which each of these factors impacts on these phenomena in the District; and to assess progress made towards lowering maternal mortality rate in the District. The literature review covered several issues perceived to impact on maternal morbidity and mortality. The perspectives were founded on population theories, such as the demographic transition theory. This was followed by a review of maternal morbidity and mortality studies conducted worldwide. The Mosley and Chen's conceptual model (1984) of factors affecting mortality was adapted for this study. The methodology addressed the study site, the study design, methods of data analysis and their limitations. The study was conducted in five divisions of the District. A random sample of 50 enumeration areas was drawn from a total of 686 enumeration areas in the District. From each of the enumeration areas, 20 households were systematically sampled in proportion to the size of each enumeration area. From each household, a female of reproductive age 15-49 was selected for interview. A total of 1,000 female respondents were thus selected. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis were applied in data analysis, using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). Common morbidities were malaria, during pregnancy and fever n postpartum period, while the least illness suffered was sexually transmitted disease (STD). The maternal mortality rate for the District was estimated at 477 deaths per 100,000 live births. The logistic regression analysis showed that environmental factors such as demographic attributes of age, socio-economic attributes of occupation, income and health attributes of family planning increased risks of maternal morbidity. The study confirmed increased risk of haemorrhage during pregnancy among women aged 3539, increased risks of postpartum haemorrhage in the age group 25-29 and 30-34, but reduced risks of haemorrhage in pregnancy among low income Age was also found to be a risk in some maternal morbidity areas such as cough, anaemia, and fever. The study recommends mandatory delivery in health facilities and attendance of postpartum care. It also recommends empowerment of women economically and educationally as a means to better healthcare. The study emphasizes the need for further study on causes of postpartum haemorrhage in adolescents and the link between the injectable and Norplant methods of contraception and anaemia
Socio-economic empowerment of smallholder farmers through community based tourism in Meru South district of Kenya
(2011-10-31) Mutunga, John Kanyuithia
Competing demands for livelihood support to the 80% of the Kenyan population dependent on agriculture and the national goal to steer economic growth have increasingly applied pressure, to the already strained sector, thanks to the few available alternatives. Kenya is endowed with immense potential for conventional and other upcoming types of tourism, such as Community Based Tourism (CBT). Like most of the other developing countries, Kenya is yet to exploit this potential. The study therefore came in to evaluate whether people actually know about the existing potential for CBT, why it has been minimally utilized and elaborate how best such potential could be exploited for socioeconomic empowerment of the smallholder farming community. The overriding theoretical orientation applied in the study encompassed stakeholder interactions, promotion and development of social capital and sustainable utilization of available natural and cultural resources through mutually supportive action processes. Though richly supportive, the available relevant literature fell short of explaining the phenomenal interactions between the bio-geophysical resources to bring forth mutual socio-economic empowerment at the community level, which therefore legitimized the principal focus of the investigation. Meru South was chosen as a study district due to the presence of a rich mix of environmental and socio-cultural phenomena, which if adequately exploited could turn the resource poor majority smallholder farmers into socially and economically empowered individuals and groups. The study was conducted in two phases; a qualitative prestudy phase which interviewed 75 public servants as key informants, selected through stratified random sampling at district, division and location levels of Meru South district. The pre study data was collected by use of a researcher administered interview guide. The detailed quantitative study covering eight randomly sampled locations out of the 24 habited ones in Meru South, reached to 400 smallholder farmers as the units of analyses of the study. Smallholder farmers, half of whom were youth aged between 25 and 35 years, were reached out by use of a researcher administered standardized questionnaire/interview schedule. The number of households to be visited was proportionately determined relative to the household population in each location, while specific households were systematically selected. Data from the qualitative study was analyzed using the Non Numerical Data Indexing Searching and Theorizing (NUD*IST) programme, to collect related ideas and formulate broad clusters from which the study later on isolated a total of nine dependent variables. Those variables turned out to be of complex nature, in this study referred to as the drivers for socio-economic empowerment and therefore measured through indicators which ranged between five and nine. The study premised empowerment drivers as those that fuel the processes of attracting tourists, extending their stay and/or increasing the frequency of tourists' visits to a locality for improved socio-economic gain to the host community. Data from the household survey was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS), as to generate inter rater reliability (Kappa coefficient) at the indicator level, then variability analysis by use of means, standard deviations, t-test as well as F-tests all measured at the theme level of the study. Pearson's product moment coefficient was calculated to capture the presence, direction and the significance vi of the linear relationships between the core variables of the study, in line with the stated hypotheses. Results indicate that besides being highly educated by the national standards, the Meru South smallholder farmers are also entrepreneurial in character as they practice other non-farm income generating activities, with group activity being one of the most important. The two responder categories significantly agreed on most of the key tourists' resources available in the district, all the accruable benefits upon smallholder farmer participation in CBT, and some of the efforts towards utilization of the resources as the means that cumulatively lead to optimization of benefits from bio-geophysical resources relative to the first objective of the study. The study established that the potential for CBT has not been exploited due to the varying levels of commitment of the smallholder farmers to tourism as measured through a variety of indicators, as well as the existing impediments towards exploitation of the same, in which case the two rater categories significantly agreed in most the indicators, thus responding to the second objective of the study. Relative to the third objective, the study established that smallholder farmers could participate in CBT through strategic positioning to deliver the perceived tourists' preferences, utilization of their due diligence in packaging the venture relative to CBT facilitators and an overly adoption of the community based design and management options. Kappa coefficient results were cross checked through inter group variability analyses at the theme level, which revealed high degrees of consistency relative to the t-test and F-test. Significant difference was however noted relative to countering impediments and utilization of the community based design and management options, which were specifically attributed to the locality and education levels mostly among the youth. The four study hypotheses yielded credible information upon evaluation of the proposed relationships, which was in perfect conformity with the focus of the study. The same process yielded four other key relationships which were worthy noting for evaluation in the future. Results of the study and information from the literature review were used to develop a CBT interventional strategy that encompasses articulation, optimization and sustenance of benefits, as processes in enhancing smallholder farmer participation. The study concludes that being entrepreneurial in character, the smallholder farming community would easily adopt CBT as an alternative income generating activity; through accountable joint venturing. The community prioritized cultural tourism which appears consistent with the current preferential shift in the modernization path of the industry. The study further concluded that community participation is socially constructed and all encompassing from the design, through the realization of the investment to sustaining the operations towards optimal social economic benefits. Further on, the study concludes that optimization of benefits would heavily depend on the extent to which impediments to tourism are addressed, tourists' satisfaction is ensured and requisite marketing of the CBT as a product of the community's relative levels of knowledge of tourists' preferences is enhanced. The study recommends further research to identify why impediments are so strong in hindering application of CBT, capture the changing demands in the tourism industry and recommends resolution mechanisms to the underlying impediments. The study further recommends a comprehensive policy review to in-build flexibility for recognition and uptake of emerging tourism concerns and ensuring maintenance and preservation of the social commons.
The potentials of agroforestry in biodiversity conservation and sustainable development; a case of the Mt. Kenya region
(2011-11-01) Muriuki, John Njagi
A study on agroforestry systems in agro-ecological zones of the Mt. Kenya region that are suitable for tea and coffee growing was carried out with the aim of establishing their potential for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. Agroforestry systems and related socioeconomics data was collected using questionnaires and conducting on-farm observations while, biodiversity data was obtained using descriptive vegetational and faunal survey methods in randomly selected farms in each zone.Validity of biodiversity data obtained was determined using the program EstimateS Ver. 7.5. Tree species diversity in different zones was determined using Shannon Diversity Index (SDI) while, Sorensen Index (SI) of similarity was used to compare coffee and tea agro-ecological zones in different districts for biodiversity. Chi-square tests were used to determine site selection tendencies by mammals, birds and herpetofauna within farm sites under different agroforestry practices while, Pearson Correlation was used to establish if relationships existed between agroforestry trees and farmland fauna. Results of the study showed that agroforestry systems in the Mt. Kenya region are largely agrisilvicultural, and are greatly influenced by prevailing socio-economic conditions. The results for species richness estimates showed that biodiversity data obtained on tree species, mammals, birds and herpetofauna had a completeness that was above 50% and was therefore reliable. Out of all agroforestry trees enumerated on farms, 67.4% were exotics while 32.6 % were indigenous, with 56.6% occurring in the tea zone and 43.4% in the coffee zone. Analysis of variance showed that there were no significant differences in the number of indigenous trees in the coffee and tea agro-ecological zones. Comparison of indigenous with exotic species for all zones showed that the indigenous species were more diverse (Shannon Diversity Index 19.99) than exotics (16.11). The Shannon Diversity Index values for agroforestry tree species (indigenous and exotic) were higher in tea zones (18.83) than coffee zones (16.96). Tea zones had also more mammals, birds and herpetofauna species. Kirinyaga tea zone had the highest diversity of agroforestry tree species in the region while Embu coffee zone was the least diverse for both indigenous and exotic species. The ordination of pairing the zones together showed that combinations with the highest SI percentage (i.e. greatest similarity) for agroforestry trees were the Nyeri coffee zone versus Meru tea zone, while combination of zones with the lowest similarity were Nyeri coffee zone versus Kirinyaga tea zone and also Kirinyaga coffee zone versus Kirinyaga tea zone. Sorenson's Similarity Index indicated that there was relatively more similarity in agroforestry trees and faunal biodiversity within a cropping zone than between the zones. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) test results indicated that the tea zones had significantly more mammals (F=7.094, sig.= 0.037), than coffee zones. Site selection tendencies for mammals were low (X2 = 20.75, d.f. = 11, P < 0.005) for most sites, with over 50% of them occurring in farm sites under woodlots. Mammals species richness and abundance increased gradually from the coffee zone towards the tea zone. For birds, analysis of variance (ANOVA) test results revealed no significant differences (F= 0.801, Sig.= 0.405) in the number of birds observed in the tea and coffee zones and that they had strong site selection tendencies (X2 =3.16), d.f. = 11, P < 0.005), suggesting a high degree of specificity within agroforestry sites. A similar pattern was observed with herpetofauna. Pearson Correlation results showed that there was a significant positive correlation between the total number of trees and farmland mammals (r = 0.716, p = 0.05), birds (r = 0.705, p = 0.05) and herpetofauna (r = 0.846, p = 0.01) in the Mt. Kenya region. The study concludes that agroforestry has an ability to raise the capacity of farmlands to conserve more biodiversity. Biodiversity conservation in farmlands however, need planning so as to determine the kind of bioversity (flora and faunal) suitable for each area, and the kind of agroforestry system or tree species that biodiversity requires for longterm conservation and sustainability. This includes decisions on agroforestry trees to plant or retain, management or maintenance of structural and compositional diversity among other factors. This in turn requires cooperation of landowners or farmers.
Exploring nitrogen replenishment option for improving soil productivity in sites with varied soil fertility status in the central highlands of Kenya
(2011-11-01) Mucheru-Muna, M.
Declining land productivity is a major problem facing smallholder farmers in central Kenya. This decline is caused by low soil fertility caused by continuous cultivation without adequate addition of external nutrients. Two experiments were established during the 2004 short rains in two distinct agro-ecological areas (Mucwa and Mukuuni - sub humid & Machang'a - semi arid) in the central highlands of Kenya with an aim of enhancing soil productivity. The 1St experiment evaluated biomass transfer systems in Machang'a and Mucwa (two sites, one with fertile soils and the other with less fertile soils). Effects of organic sources (tithonia, lantana, mucuna, calliandra and manure) and combinations with mineral N fertilizer on maize yield, soil chemical properties, economics returns, soil mineral N, N uptake and fertilizer N equivalencies were determined. The 2nd experiment was an intercrop established in Mukuuni and Machang'a to determine the contribution of legumes (bean, cowpea and groundnut), plant spacing (conventional and MBILI) and P fertilizer on overall productivity of the intercropping system. Data was subjected to ANOVA and means separated using LSD (P < 0.05). Sole manure, sole tithonia and sole calliandra generally recorded the highest maize grain yields in Machang'a, Mucwa poor and Mucwa good sites, respectively. Generally the maize grain yields were lower in the treatments with fertilizer alone compared to the treatments with organics across the three sites in the four seasons due to the poorly distributed rainfall. The maize grain yields were higher in the sole organics compared to the integrations (organic+mineral fertilizer) in Mucwa good and poor sites, however in Machang'a, the sole organic had higher yields during the short rain seasons while the integrations recorded higher yields during the long rain seasons. There was a general decline in soil chemical properties over the seasons, even with the seasonal input application in all sites. Manure was superior in terms of improving soil chemical properties, for instance, it recorded an increase in soil pH, magnesium, potassium, calcium and nitrogen in all sites. The economic returns in all sites were low, with negative net benefits, and benefit cost ratio (BCR), which were in most cases less than one. The bulk of mineral-N found in the soil was in the form of nitrate-N in all sites, however in Machang'a the amount of ammonium-N was relatively high due to the drier condition of the soils in that site. In seasons when rainfall was well distributed, the N uptake was relatively high with most of the mineral N being taken up during 0-12 weeks after planting (WAP). High fertilizer N equivalencies of manure, calliandra, tithonia and mucuna were reported in all sites, suggesting that the organics have beneficial roles other than the addition of soil N. In the intercrop experiment, neither legumes nor maize responded to P application in Mukuuni while legume yield was increased by an average of 40% and maize yields more than doubled with P application in Machang'a. In both sites, legume yields tended to be higher when planted at the conventional intercrop, irrespective of legume species or P application; though not consistently significant in all seasons. Maize yields were significantly higher with conventional spacing when intercropped with groundnut, while in MBILI spacing, highest yields were observed for maize intercropped with beans. Generally net benefits, BCR and return to labour were highest when P fertilizer was not applied in both the MBILI and conventional intercrops in Machang'a and Mukuuni. In Machang'a, there were no economic advantages of MBILI over the conventional intercrop, while in Mukuuni MBILI intercrop had more economic benefits than the conventional intercrop especially in the maize/bean intercrop. The N equivalencies were very low both in the MBILI and conventional intercrops, actually in most cases the N equivalencies were negative. The role of organics was well displayed in the study area, which is prone to poor distributed rainfall, therefore further research should be carried out to explore issues of soil moisture conservation.
Determination of factors influencing the efficiency of legume green manures for maize production in Embu, Kenya
(2011-11-01) Gitari, Josiah Njiru
Land productivity in the central highlands of Kenya is mainly constrained by low and declining soil fertility. In the maize-based farming systems, continuous cultivation without adequate soil fertility enhancement measures has led to a deterioration of land quality resulting in low agricultural yields and degraded soils. Herbaceous legumes can provide an alternative to commercial fertilizers and animal manures. This study explored the use of these legumes in Embu District - situated within the central highlands of Kenya. In order to achieve this objective a survey and four field experiments were conducted to: (1) Validate farmers' knowledge and practices in soil fertility and use of plant residues; (2) Determine the performance of maize and green manure herbaceous legumes under different intercropping densities and relay-cropping regimes; (3) Investigate the relative efficiency of different legume residue management techniques and determine the need for mineral nitrogen (N) supplementation and (4) Determine the role of low quality plant residues as agents for slowing down the fast-decomposing legume residues to improve N synchrony for maize growth. The study consisted of one survey and four on-station field experiments. The survey involved a total of 134 small-scale farmers cutting across 5 major agro-ecological zones of the 30 km transect of the district. About 87 per cent of all the farmers in the district were affected by the problems of low soil fertility in their farms. Farmers gave soil colour and structure as some of the visual soil fertility assessment indicators used to determine soil fertility status in their farms but the most pronounced and elaborate local indicators seemed to be the dominance of certain weed flora. Soil pH and exchangeable bases (Ca++ and Mg++) were the most sensitive laboratory soil parameters that corroborated farmers' perceptions and knowledge of soil fertility. Results of the field experiments showed that it is feasible to intercrop maize with any of the three green manure legume species, namely, mucuna [Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Var. utilis (Wright) Bruck], crotalaria [Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don] and lablab [Lablab purpureus (L) Sweet cv. Rongai]. Relay-cropping these green manure legumes (GML) beyond the second week after maize emergence had a significant reduction on legume biomass production possibly due to reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) under the maize canopy. Intercropped GML intercepted less than 30 per cent of the total incident radiation. Nonetheless, intercropping of maize and GML greatly improved land productivity giving relative yield total (RYT) values of between 1.0 and 1.5. Incorporation or surface mulching of the GML residues gave similar maize yield responses that was about double that of the control (no residues). Supplementation of the GML residues (raised in situ) with mineral N was only beneficial if the quantities incorporated were below 2.0 Mg ha 1. Maize grain yield after mucuna, crotalaria and lablab residues alone (no mineral N supplemented) was 2.5, 2.3 and 1.6 times higher, respectively, than those of the control. Soil N mineralization reached a peak 4 weeks after planting (WAP) and declined thereafter until 8 WAP before picking up again for the remainder of the season. Seasonal mineral N levels ranged between 40 to 128 kg N ha 1. GML residue treated plots gave significantly higher total N uptake than the untreated plots. Over the 3 year period, legume residue incorporation resulted in a slight reduction (0.9-1.8%) in soil bulk density, a small increase in the soil total N but no change in the soil pH. Addition of low quality residues (maize stover) to any of the three GML residues did not affect N release but appeared to enhance their performance. Soil mineralization and maize N uptake was not affected by the addition of low quality residues to the GML residues but resulted in a small increase in the total soil N and pH. However, addition of large quantities of these low quality residues (6.0 Mg ha 1) significantly increased the soil organic carbon by 13 per cent and also decreased the soil bulk density by 8.3 per cent when compared to the absolute control with no residues added.
Sustainability of dryland agroforestry systems in eastern Kenya: farmers' perceptions, Physio-ecological factors and landscape patterns
(2011-12-19) Anyango, Stephen Obiero
The study focused on gaining an understanding of current farmers' practices and perceptions of locally evolving agroforestry trends and practices involving Grevillea robusta and Melia volkensi and their social and environmental relevance in dryland areas, in the eastern province of Kenya (Mbeere District). Pruning of tree roots as a technique for managing competition between trees and associated maize (Zea mays L.) crops for below-ground resources (water and nutrients) at the farm level was examined by comparing water use and nutrient accumulation by the trees and crop performance in root-pruned and unpruned hedgerow systems with equivalent sole crop control treatments during the 2000 short rainy season and 2002/03 long and short rainy seasons. Landsat satellite images for the years 1988 and 2000 were used to assess the impact of such agroforestry practices on vegetation cover at the landscape scale. The results show that subjective opinions provided by previous farming experience, association with other farmers, and the ease of propagating and establishing trees were the most important factors in promoting the adoption of Grevillea robusta by farmers. Conversely, the difficulty of establishing Melia volkensii was a major factor limiting its adoption. Root pruning of trees reduced the growth of Grevillea, and trunk basal diameter, diameter at breast height, canopy width and tree height were all lower in root-pruned than in unpruned trees (p<0.001). Maize grain yields were reduced relative to sole crops in systems containing unpruned trees, but were increased by root-pruning (p<0.004). Although root pruning generally reduced transpiration, factors such as soil characteristics and tree species were important. Exclusion of tree roots from the cropping area did not improve short-term supplies of soil organic N and P to meet crop requirements, as no significant differences in %N or extractable P concentrations were found between rootpruned and unpruned treatments for any of the species examined. However, soil moisture content adjacent to root-pruned trees was greater than in the equivalent unpruned treatment for all species (p<0.001). Trend analyses performed using data series generated from the years 1988 and 2000 Landsat images using the Normalised Vegetation Difference Index (NDVI) showed that notable changes in vegetation cover occurred during this period. Further analysis revealed an association between the observed NDVI trends, rainfall distribution and land use/land cover type within the study area. It was concluded that tree species with limited perceived and practical value are of little interest to resource-limited farmers, irrespective of the extent of their complimentarity with understorey crops or environmental value. Root pruning of trees improves access to available soil water for associated crops by enforcing niche differentiation, but may also reduce tree growth rate. Moreover, cumulative removal of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from the system over a period of years cannot be avoided or ameliorated by root pruning. The current agroforestry-based human-induced type of land cover may be associated with increased biomass of vegetation compared to unmanaged natural land cover types within the study area.
Biophysical evaluation of sand encroachment and nebkha-dune stabilisation in North Horr, Marsabit district, Kenya
(2012-01-04) Olukoye, Godfrey Alati
Nebkha dunes, formed by the trapping of sand around the body of a plant, provide habitats for small fauna and are thus, important in the conservation of biodiversity in desert ecosystems. Many authors have reported results on investigating of nebkha dunes in the Kalahari, Sahara and Namib deserts of Africa. In contrast to this, scant information exists on the nebkha dunes of the Chalbi semi-desert region of Northern Kenya. Besides, land degradation in arid rangelands resulting from sand encroachment has to be evaluated within the framework of climate-vegetation-livestock interactions. However, no study has particularly focused on the dual role of vegetation for economic (livestock-production) and ecological functioning in nebkha dune stabilisation in Kenya. A study was therefore, designed to investigate theoretical and empirical issues related to sand encroachment and nebkha-dune stabilisation in North Horr, Northern Kenya. The study focused on soil and vegetation degradation as the main biophysical indicators of land degradation in North Horr. Satellite images taken at four points in time (1976, 1986, 1996 and 1998) were evaluated and complemented with field vegetation surveys. This enabled the assessment of the origin, history and extent of the process of sand accumulation in North Horr. Growth performance of different indigenous and exotic tree and shrub species was also evaluated in terms of height, relative growth rates and mortality. These were collectively used in assessing the suitability of exotic and indigenous trees and shrubs in dune stabilisation. Soil chemical and physical analyses were carried out and related to sand encroachment. Wind erosivity indices that give an indication of potential wind erosion hazard and sand movement potential were derived from wind speed data collected between July 1999 and September 2000. The Gabra camel production system involves involuntary culling of the mature breeding females at 300 months while both fattening male and female camels are culled at 58 months. These parameters were incorporated into a range utilization model and a bio-economic model-PRY for the assessment of ecological and economic trade-offs in the utilization of Suaeda monoica for dune stabilisation and camel browsing. The results of the simulation modelling were explored and linked to the problem of sand encroachment. Sand dunes in North Horr were predominantly of the nebkha type and were preferentially aligned with the predominant wind direction during the dry season. The morphonetry, orientation and textural examinations of the nebkhas suggested that fluvially deposited sand in North Horr, had in the recent years been reshaped by aeolian activity. Empirical evidence showed a positive correlation between wind speed and sand movement potential, which varied between month and time of the day. Average monthly wind speed of 3.99±0.06 m/s, with absolute maximum wind speeds of 10 m/s, implied that wind erosivity and sand-movement potential in North Horr were high, indicating increased soil degradation. Nebkhas showed heterogeneity in their morphomettry attributed to differences in plant species cover. For instance, in terms of length, there was a decreasing order of Hyphaene coriacea (16.36±3.23m), Acacia tortilis (5.10±0.20 m) and Suaeda monoica (3.20±0.68 m). Large nebkhas were, therefore, found in the southern and western parts of North Horr settlement dominated by Hyphaene coriacea (doun palm) and Acacia tortilis. Hyphaene coriacea is, therefore, the most important tree trapping large volumes of sand. However, due to the less compact (diffuse) growth form of Hyphaene coriacea, the trapped sand is loose and therefore, highly mobile when compared with that of Suaeda monoica with a more compact growth form and a denser canopy. Percent soil organic carbon was used to evaluate fertility status. The decreasing order of fertility beneath the different trees/shrubs were: Acacia tortilis (0.24%). Hyphaene coriacea (0.21%), Suaeda monoica (0.14%), Prosopis chilensis (0.12%), Acacia goetzei (0.11%) and bare ground (control) (0.09%). Although there were no significant differences (P<0.05) in soil organic carbon between vegetation types, it nevertheless demonstrated the differential abilities of plant species for land rehabilitation in North Horr. In additional, nebkhas could probably represented a large and significant storage of nutrients within the dryland system of North Horr. Multi-temporal analysis of statelite imageries (1976, 1986, 1996 and 1998) showed that the area (in ha) covered by bushland, degraded bushed grassland, degraded grassland, denuded bushland and open bushland decreased significantly (p<0.05) by 11.38%, 0.19%, 3.22%, 0.39% and 7.54% respectively. Over the same period, the area (in ha) covered by grassland and exposed land covered with sand, gullies and rocks increased significantly (p<0.05) by 15.25% and 8.51% respectively. This indicated progressive increase in area covered with sand. The greatest increased in the are covered with sand was recorded between 1976 and 1986 (7.08%) and the lowest between 1996 and 1998 (3.34%). There were corresponding dynamics in coefficient of variation (CV) in annual rainfall betwen 1976 and 1998 with the highest and lowest variability being recorded for the period 1976-1986 (56.42%) and 1996-1998 (33.64%) respectively. Correlations between land cover and rainfall were significant (p<0.05). Empirical evidence presented in this study suggested that exogenous stochastic factors (climatic) were primarily responsible for land cover dynamics and the concomitant localized degradation in North Horr. Simulation modeling with PRY showed that camel population in Stuaeda monica vegetation complex was not viable. Therefore, stochastic forces could also be responsible for the imbalance in supply and demand for Suaeda monoica forage by camels. However, with appropriate culling policy, a sustainable balance in the economic and ecological functions of Suaeda monoica could be achieved. It was concluded that participatory nebkha-dune stabilisation would only be possible if economic aspects of the Gabra pastoralists were taken into consideration. These findings have important implications for policy in the sustainable management of natural resources in arid rangelands for both economic and ecological functions. To rehabilitate saline soils and stabilise sand dunes in North Horr, emphasis should be placed on the used of indigenous tree and shrub species. Although fencing and enclosures encourage natural regeneration of vegetation, the viability of fencing for large-scale land rehabilitation in a nomadic pastoral system is questionable. Natural vegetation regeneration could, therefore, be the most cost effective, fastest and easiest method for stabilizing dunes in North Horr. The management of important dune stabilizing plants such as Suaeda monoica, an important camel forage, through natural regeneration is, therefore, significant in ensuring that it performs both the economic and ecological functions. This option is compatible with the pastoral land use system and appears to be the most viable for nebkha-dune stabilization in the eastern part of North Horr settlement
Influence of household environment on child morbidity and mortality in slums: a case study of Mathare and Soweto, Nairobi
(2012-01-20) Keraka, M.
Child mortality and morbidity disparities continue to be observed in this era of improved expansion of the provision of health care services. Some areas have low rates while others have high. The observed patterns are attributed to uneven distribution of health facilities, which guided the choice of study sites, namely Mathare and Soweto slum areas in Nairobi. The study objective of the study was to assess the perception and awareness of slum dwellers about the influence of household environment and behaviour patterns on child morbidity and mortality, given the available health, information and education service inputs. The study hypothesis was ''Households whose women believed that their children were more susceptible to child sickness in the environment they lived in and who had a positive perception towards a healthy behaviour were likely to be negatively correlated to child morbidity and mortality''. The methods that were used to collect data were: structured questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussion (FGDs), documentary information and observation methods. The study targeted women aged between 15-49 year who had children under 5 years of age. A total of 599 women from the study area were included in the sample. The Cluster sampling technique was applied. The main methods of data analysis for estimating child mortality were the Coale and Trussel techniques, ordinary least squares regression, the binomial distribution and descriptive techniques. A key finding of the study is that the probability of a child dying at exact age 2 (q2) values for Soweto and Mathare slums were estimated as 69.9 and 64.9 deaths per thousand live births respectively, while the estimates of the probability of dying at exactly age 5 (q5) values were 105.3 and 146.7 deaths per thousand live births, for Soweto and Mathare slums respectively. These values are high compared to the national values that have a q2 and a q5 of 60 and 96, respectively. The behavioural variables that were significant and positively correlated with child loss were: self-administration of medicine, incomplete immunization, type of medical treatment sought and level of toilet cleanliness. The psycho-social variable that was significant and negatively correlated to familial risk to child deaths was the perception of household residential arrangement as consisting of wrong people and being over-crowded. Those that were consisting of wrong people and being over-crowded. Those that were significant and positively correlated to familial risk to child death include; pre-natal clinical attendance and water quality status. The household variable that was significant and positively correlated to familial risk of child deaths was household size (7+). The individual variables that were significant and positively correlated to familial risk to child loss were; households whose women were aged between 35 and 49 and did not belong to any denomination. The study findings show that those households that had higher familial risk to child loss were mainly poor and had negative attitude towards modern medicine, and generally had low hygienic standards. The study recommends that public awareness on proper hygienic standards should be advocated. Also, the government should undertake training of the required health workers who will later be deployed into these areas (slums) in order to improve the living conditions. The Nairobi City Council should mobilize social and health workers to educate slum dwellers on proper hygiene and sanitation (outreach services), while there is need for a strong legislation guiding house construction and other social amenities.
A decision support system for the management of biodiversity resources in Kenya: a case study from Kenya Wildlife Service
(2012-02-06) Amuyunzu, Charles Lwenya
Throughout the world, environmental problems resulting from human activities are causing great concern to environmental scientists and the general public. Although many of the human activities that contribute to these problems are localized, the repercussions are felt not only at the local level but also at the regional, national, supra-regional, continental and global levels. Concern about many of these problems was first expressed in the late 1960s and culminated in the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm in 1972 that led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). However, it took another 21 years to formalize the international legitimacy of these issues, which found its expression in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, and its Agenda 21-an agreement that was signed by many heads of state. Loss of biodiversity is one such problem. Over the last two decades, there has been general agreement that global biological resources are declining at an accelerated rate, mainly through species extinction. Concern for the loss of biodiversity in Kenya has resulted in a number of government policy initiatives that address the problem. The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) has been given the mandate to conserve the existing biodiversity resources in the country. Decisions related to biodiversity conservation are made at three levels: national, regional and local levels, each of which requires different levels of abstraction of information. Although the different decisions made at each level generally require specific information, similar data acquisition procedures are needed at all levels (ground truth, airborne and satellite data). Because collection of data on biodiversity resources can be very costly, a large organization like KWS needs to restrict acquisition to those data items that are essential for information to support biodiversity conservation decisions and to ensure consistency in the use of data and subsequently derived information. Research to determine how this can be accomplished was the main focus of this study and Tsavo ecosystem was used as a case study. This study was designed to define, develop and test a prototype of such a decision-support system for management of biodiversity resources on a sustainable basis. This study applied existing system analysis and information system development methodologies, tools, and techniques to develop a prototype decision support system for management of biodiversity resources in Kenya. This system has been tested using two case studies from the Tsavo Ecosystem. Results from the case studies show that modern information technology concepts and theories can be modified to provide a powerful tool for effective and efficient management of biodiversity resources on a sustainable basis. The prototype should now be tested and implemented in the whole Kenya Wildlife Service Organization.
Role of school based clubs in addressing environmental threats in the Nile Basin, case of Jinja District, Uganda
(2012-04-12) Nderitu, Ruth Wanjiru
This study sought to examine the different ways in which secondary school based clubs in Jinja District, Uganda addressed Nile basin environmental threats. The ultimate goal of the study was to enhance secondary school based clubs capacity to address the environmental threats in Uganda effectively. Primary data was collected through use of questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions (FGD), photographs and observation methods from selected secondary schools. Secondary data was gathered from records and literature in the Ministry of Education and Sports, schools, National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) Uganda, Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and internet. Appropriate descriptive and inferential analysis was done. Results indicate that there were several secondary school based clubs in Uganda. They included national clubs, subject based and religious organizations. Majority of the student respondents joined the clubs through invitation by their friends, wanted to participate in environmental issues or were curious to know what was going on in the club. The clubs collaborated with local communities, NGOs, government, other school based clubs and neighbouring schools. The clubs frequently carried out cleanups, tree planting and discussions and most club members participated in these activities. Local communities were sensitized on energy saving, deforestation, hygiene and proper waste management through seminars. The study revealed that clubs mostly addressed threats related to unclean water, deforestation and environmental diseases. However, they rarely addressed issues related to destruction of breeding sites, over fishing, damming, growth of waterweeds, reclamation' of wetlands, siltation of dams and flooding. Clubs were useful in creating awareness, advocacy, conservation, maintenance of school environment and in projects establishment. The clubs also helped to establish relationships, built leadership skills and brought unity in the schools. Major challenges to the school based clubs were financial, poor timetabling of the clubs' activities, lack of motivation and necessary facilities among others. The study recommends increased funding, training on Environmental Education (EE) and integration of EE in secondary school curriculum. Other recommendations include support from government and school administration, encouraging collaboration and partnership, motivation and positive reinforcement, adherence to time allocated for the clubs, establishment of projects to raise funds and provision of facilities and equipment such as trips and literature among others.
The performance of selected tree species in the rehabilitation of a limestone quarry at East African Portland Cement Company land Athi River, Kenya
(2012-04-12) Gathuru, G.; Mwakio Tolle; Obiero Anyango
Quarrying for limestone is an economic necessity that is not only hazardous to human but also one that invariably has deleterious effect on the environment. Information on the performance of trees species is important as plants are key in the revegetation of exhausted quarries. A comparison of field performance of Acacia xanthophloea, Schinus molle, Casuarina equisetifolia and Grevillea robusta was made in an exhausted limestone quarry, backfilled with limestone mine waste, in a semi-arid area, in Athi River, Kenya, between 2005 and 2008. The aim of the study was to assess the performance of the above tree species and to determine if these tree species had an influence on the soil physical and chemical properties. The seedlings were produced in a nursery and transplanted in plots established in the exhausted quarry site using randomised complete block design. Growth performances were estimated by measuring; tree height, diameter at the stem base (BD) , and diameter at breast height (DBH) from March 2006 to March 2008. The soils physical and chemical parameters measured were: moisture content; organic matter; pH; total Nitrogen; total Phosphorus and exchangeable cations. The study revealed that the time-species interaction was significant (p<0.001), indicating continuous tree growth for all the species. The trees species performance was varied. C. equisetifolia recorded the highest growth increments for the; height (525.3 em), BD (7.42 em) and DBH (4.94 em) and the highest growth rates for; tree height (14.24 cm/month), BD (0.23 em/month) and DBH (0.l4 em/month), indicating superior performance. This was followed by A. xanthophloea and S. molle. Grevillea robusta showed poor performance and recorded the lowest growth increments for; height (231.7 em), BD (4.41 ern) and BDH (2.0 ern) and growth rate for; tree height (5.04 em/month), BD (0.084 em/month) and DBH (0.023 em/month). These results indicate that there is species-specific response that may be due to different water- and nutrient-use strategies and growth patterns. The soil had low soil moisture content which ranged from 0.67% to 2.3%; alkaline pH, ranging from 8.0 to 8.98; low soil nitrogen content « 0.03%), related to the limited soil organic-matter content (ranging from 0.05% to 0.38%), and high to moderate exchangeable cations. All the tree species had a noticeable influence on soil chemical properties, by the end of the research period. The pH values and total Phosphorus were relatively lower in soils close to the tree row (0.5 m) and increased with distance from the trees, while the soil values for organic matter, total Nitrogen, and exchangeable cations were relatively higher close to the tree row and decreased with distance from the trees. From the study, C. equisetifolia has the best growth performance and also has a higher positive influence on the soil properties followed by A. xanthophloea. The two species are therefore recommended to be used in the rehabilitation of limestone quarries in similar semi-arid conditions.
Municipal solid waste management challenges and opportunites : a case of Kampala City, Uganda
(2012-04-24) Ojok, Julius
Municipal solid waste (MSW) raised serious concerns in Kampala in light of the rapid increase in volumes of unattended SW with the associated risks to human health, the steady increase in its handling costs and logistical difficulties, the scarce landfill spaces and the difficulty in finding suitable locations and getting public approval for new ones. The objectives of the study involved determination of the rate, quantity and composition of SW generated and its recycling potential; identify the current solid waste management (SWM) practices and challenges; determining households' willingness to pay (WTP) for improved SWM services and estimating the aggregate benefits in revenue of WTP. Purposive sampling techniques were used, thus the divisions of Kampala were stratified according to already existing parishes. Sampling areas were stratified into three income groups of low, middle and high, using the quality of housing. Public survey through prepared questionnaires was the main source of data. Information from the survey was analyzed using descriptive statistics of Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). A dichotomous choice contingent valuation technique was used to elicit households' WTP. Results revealed that the rate of SW generation for Kampala was 0.56 kg/person/day with a total of 848,155 kg/day of SW being generated. The SW composition generated was 83.6% vegetable/organic matter, 10.9% waste paper, 1.2% waste plastics, 0.3% waste metals, 0.1 % glass/cullet materials and 3.9% other materials, with high potential for recycling. Households (HHs) with access to central collection mainly used KCC skips, while those without, practiced open dump and bum (33.6%) and backyard dump and bum (26.2%). MSWM in Kampala city had many challenges, among which were: inactivity of KCC to support and mobilize effective MSW collection and disposal; inadequate equipment and SW handling facilities; inadequate funding of MSWM services; inadequate awareness of households due to inadequate sensitization; lack of cooperation among stakeholders in MSWM to solve a common problem and poor community attitude towards MSWM. 48.1 % of households in Kampala were willing to pay for improved SWM services with a mean monthly WTP of UGX 5,382 (USD 2.91). The minimum WTP amount per month was UGX 100 (USD 0.054) while the maximum was UGX 70,000 (USD 37.84). The total WTP for improved MSWM services for low, middle and high household income groups, were respectively UGX 45,635,000, 320,411,000 and 643,523,000 (USD 24,667.57, 173,195.14 and 347,850.27) per month giving a total of about 200% of the total requirement for MSWM in Kampala. The factors which influenced WTP for improved MSWM services significantly were gender (p
Effects of learning environmental management concepts on secondary school pupils in Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2012-05) Muthiani, Nelson Timothy
In Kenya, the integration of environmental concepts into the school curriculum was effected in 1985. The goal of the study was to assess and determine secondary school pupils' understanding of environmental management concepts infused in the Secondary School Curriculum in Kenya, and how they act to improve their environment. The influence of sex and the school environment on pupils' understanding of environmental management concepts was examined. The study investigated forms three and four pupils' grasp and understanding of environmental management concepts infused in various subjects in the secondary school curriculum and its effect on their attitude toward the environment. This study was conducted in Machakos County, Kenya. Random sampling was employed to select a total of 140 pupils (70 girls and 70 boys). Forty-two teachers of physical science, agriculture, geography and biology, and fourteen school heads were selected for the study from fourteen schools to determine the challenges to teaching and learning Environmental Education in the secondary schools. The instruments for data collection were structured questionnaires, Focus Group Discussion Guide and Observation Schedule. Past Kenya Certificate of Secondary Examination papers were also analysed for Environmentai Education content in deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, air and water pollution, depletion of energy resources, ecological disruption, loss of biodiversity and environmental conservation among others which revealed that not more than two Environmental Education questions appeared per year between 1995 and 2005 in science, agriculture and geography. Data analysis was done qualitatively and quantitatively. A chi-square test revealed significant differential understanding based on sex and school type (p = .05). However, the overall understanding of the environmental concepts was rated moderate, even among the teachers. The study recommended a refresher course for head teachers, in the short term, to improve the management of the school plant and enhance its role as a learning resource for Environmental Education. The study concludes that there is attainment of low to moderate understanding of environmental management concepts and environmental awareness, very positive attitude and desire to act for the welfare of the environment among secondary school pupils.
Deforestation and decimation of Biota in Kericho district of Kenya, East Africa
(2012-06-12) Kerich, Richard Kimutai; Koech, Michael K.; Njuguna, Stephen G.
Deforestation and decimition of Biota in Kericho District, Kenya. Deforestation and decimation of biota have been recognized as some of the most pressing world problems of the recent times. Today certain plants and animals are faced with a threat of extinction due to increased deforestation and decimation of biota within the natural environment. This study focuses on deforestation and decimation of plants and animals and sought answers to the following questions: a)Is the amount of land under natural forests in Kericho District the same extent now as it was twenty (or more)years* ago? b) What kind of faunal and floral changes have taken place within Kericho District since the last twenty (or over) years* ago? c) Is the productivity of soil the same now as it was twenty (or over)years* ago? and if not why? d) Is there a plant or animal whose existence in the District is endangered outside the protected areas? e) What are the major causes of increased rate of deforestation and decimation of species within the District? *Refers to twenty or over years from 1988. The study was carried out in Kericho District of Kenya, East Africa using fifty (50) randomly selected nodal or study points. The selected study points were scattered throughout the District. From each study points ten (10) interviewees were selected. Interviewees were selected. Consequently the total number of people interviewed were five hundred (500). When all the fifty nodal points are considered. The District was divided into two ecological zones and for each of the zones thirteen (13) plants and thirteen (13) animals were sampled for the study. The information required from the respondents was that which helped in the attainment of the objectives stated. Specifically, four broad areas were dealt with by the stated objectives and these are:- a) Magnitude of deforestation of the past twenty (or over) years ago as compared with the present. b) Relative abundance of named plants and animals. c) Cultural traditions and perception of environmental conservation. d) Environmental awareness and mode/rate of information dissemination. The data required were collected through the use of a questionnaire and an observation record sheet. Field observations were done by the researcher using the observation record sheet as a tool while the questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. When preparing the research tools, the objectives of this study were borne in mind. This was necessary if the set objectives were to be achieved. In summary, the study was intended to: a) determine the extent of deforestation in Kericho District. b) identify the major reasons for deforestation in the District. c) identify the conservation measures taken to safeguard the forests in the District. d) identify those floral and faunal species that are endangered within the District. e) identify major causes of elimination of plant and animal species within the District. f) identify (if any) attitudes and perceptions of the people of the District that would reinforce or go against the conventional conservation measures for soil, natural forests, and endangered plant and animal species. g) determine the state of environmental awareness of the people of Kericho District. The tools were therefore designed so as to meet the requirements of the stated objectives. Majority of the data collected were in form of stated opinions checked off in the provided Likert Scale within the questionnaire. To ease analysis and interpretation of data, responses were categorized depending on their position within the provided Likert Scale. For all the responses received in form of a Likert Scale, categorization was done accordingly. Classification of the opinions expressed made it easy to distinguish between the extreme opinions e.g. "Low" and "High". However, "decision" level was set for all responses given in form of a Likert Scale. In judging the provided responses the set "decisions" level was "moderate". Any response that was either high, or very high was categorized "high" while responses given as very low, low, or moderate were categorized "low". From the recorded opinions, frequency of responses falling into any one category (i.e. low or high) was determined using the set criteria mentioned above. As a basis for conclusion, means, percentages and absolute counts were determined for the various categories of responses received. The other set of data collected was that obtained from field observation and these include actual counts of plants within their natural environment and self assessment of the extent of deforestation within the study areas. Data derived from actual field observation were intended to confirm the information given by the respondents regarding deforestation and decimation of biota. From the assembled data relevant calculations were done depending on the parameters involved in the objective under consideration. Basically, averages, percentages and frequencies were computed and these sufficed for to conclude on set objectives. It was from the computed values that conclusions were made concerning the stated objectives. The research findings indicate that: a) Deforestation in Kericho District is currently higher than it was in the past** according to peoples views. (see table 11p.83). b) Majority of the forests within Kericho District have reduced in size by people's opinions. (see table 12 p.86). c) Due to habitat destruction (in form of deforestation) animals have greatly reduced in number everywhere within the District). d) Within Kericho District, there has been a great reduction in both plants' abundance and their species diversity. e) Cultural traditions and environmental perception of the people of Kericho District are supportive of conservation measures of plants and animals. f) Of the sampled plants Juniperus procera was found to be the least frequent outside the gazetted area and needed protection from wanton destruction. g) Acacia lahai, although still abundant within the District, was found to have experienced the greate

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