PHD-School of Security,Diplomacy and Peace Studies

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African Union-Led State Reconstruction Initiatives in Somalia, 2007-2021
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Kandie, Dennis Kiptoo
The intents of military interventions across the globe on state reconstruction continue to elicit intellectual debates as scholars and policy experts weigh in on its viability and practicality. The study interrogated the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) on state reconstruction between 2007 and 2021 with the following specific objectives: to analyze initiatives employed by AMISOM on state reconstruction in Somalia; to assess the strategic partnerships between the AMISOM and UN Country Teams and other international governmental actors on state reconstruction in Somalia and; to assess challenges faced by the AMISOM in carrying out state reconstruction in Somalia. Literature reviewed was based on the themes in tandem with the study’s specific objectives. The study was anchored by state building, securitization and intervention theories. Methodologically, the study employed case study research design and targeted population entailed key informants across different strata with pertinent information. Interview schedule and observation schedule were employed as key primary data collection instruments while for the collection of secondary data, document analysis was utilized. The study established that AMISOM employed counter terrorism, civil-military co-ordination, protection of civilians, security, institutional capacity building, stabilization, gender-based, humanitarian initiatives, national reconciliation, disarmament, demobilization and re-integration as well as intelligence gathering and sharing and legitimization initiatives. The study established that strategic partnerships significantly contributed to AMISOM initiatives in form of legitimization, funding, resolutions, technical assistance, strategic air lift, coordination, logistics, humanitarian aid, capacity building, donations, liaison initiatives, counter piracy, air combat mission, training, surveillance and reconnaissance, international peace and reconstruction summits on Somalia. The study also concluded that legal and administrative obligations are vital in enhancing efficiency of strategic partnerships towards attaining state reconstruction. Further, state reconstruction should be prioritized in peace support operations. The study also established that encountered strategic, operational and tactical challenges AMISOM encountered in state reconstruction process in Somalia. The study concluded that military interventions in Somalia require adequate technical, financial, logistical, administrative, legitimate support to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in its operations. Adequate funding, conformity to the international humanitarian law and international human rights, proper training and adequate intelligence should be irreducible minimum for any mission sanctioned by UN, AU or and other legitimate actor before embarking on the interventionist agenda. Multisectoral approaches should be embraced in addressing challenges. The study further recommended that: United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in partnership within African Union Peace and Security Council (AUPSC), in the context of Africa PSOs, should come up with sustainable resolutions that corresponds with the objectives therefore ensuring state reconstruction is fully attained; the need for proper strategic partnerships that are scope-specific to state reconstruction initiatives; AU should marshal for resources that would sustain peace support operations and; AU should not entirely depend on donor community particularly from the collective west
Border Management Through Diplomacy As A Counter- Terrorism Strategy Along Kenya And Somalia Frontier
(Kenyatta University, 2025-03) Ating'a, Reuben
The terrorism issue along the Kenya-Somalia border poses a significant challenge to national security, regional stability, and bilateral relations. The persistence of these cross-border extremist threats has highlighted the limitations of conventional diplomatic approaches in effectively addressing terrorism. This study, therefore, explored the role of border diplomacy in managing terrorism along the Kenya-Somalia border, guided by four specific objectives. First, it examined the role of border diplomacy in mitigating cross-border terrorism between the two nations. Second, it explored the diplomatic methods employed by Kenya and Somalia to counter-terrorism and evaluated their effectiveness. Third, the study identified the challenges that hinder the success of border diplomacy in managing terrorism along this border. Lastly, the study offered recommendations for enhancing border diplomacy to address terrorism in this context better. Using a descriptive survey design, the research was framed within structural realism and border security theory. Respondents were selected from the study area, including residents, community leaders, government officials, border security personnel, immigration officers, traders, and businesspeople. A combination of purposive and simple random sampling methods was employed, resulting in a sample size of 300 household heads and 90 key informants. Data was collected through focus group discussions, questionnaires, and observations, while secondary data was sourced from relevant articles. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze quantitative data, with content analysis applied to qualitative data. The study found that border diplomacy, particularly through joint commissions and diplomatic meetings, positively influenced bilateral relations, though territorial disputes undermined its full effectiveness. It also revealed that the success of diplomatic approaches depended on how well Kenya and Somalia balanced security needs with regional power dynamics. Additionally, the study identified several challenges to border diplomacy, including porous borders, clan conflicts, human trafficking, and smuggling. To enhance border diplomacy, the study recommended improvements in intelligence sharing, joint patrols, establishing a Border Diplomacy Council, and creating regular diplomatic forums. Furthermore, it suggested investing in local development, engaging border communities in security efforts, and addressing the socio-economic vulnerabilities that extremists exploit. Finally, the study emphasized the importance of supporting governance improvements in Somalia to stabilize the border region and counter terrorism more effectively.
Collective Security Institutions and Stabilization of the Eastern Africa Subregion, 1990-2018
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kibochi, Robert Kariuki; Lucy W. Maina; Felistus Kinyanjui
Despite the existence of Collective Security Institutions (CSIs), the Eastern Africa subregion still experiences resurgent and protracted conflicts and hosts over 4.6 million refugees and 6 million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Between 2013-2020, over 28,000 fatalities were recorded in South Sudan and Somalia while in the last decade, terror attacks accounted for over 5,000 deaths in the subregion. The objectives of the study were to: establish contemporary security threats in the Eastern Africa subregion; analyze the extent to which Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), East Africa Community (EAC) and Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF) have managed the contemporary security threats; examine the extent of contribution of IGAD, EAC and EASF to conflict resolution in Somalia, South Sudan and Burundi and assess the structural and institutional challenges facing the CSIs in pursuit of conflict resolution. The study was guided by Neorealism, Neoliberal Institutionalism and Constructivism theories. A mixed methods research approach incorporating cross sectional survey and phenomenological research designs was adopted. The target population included 638 CSIs staff: IGAD (230), EAC (190), EASF (218) and 210 Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) dealing with peace and conflict. The study sample size comprised 226 staff from the three CSIs, 21 CSO representatives and 138 beneficiaries. Proportionate stratified random sampling procedure was used to identify the sample of strategic, operational and tactical level staff of the CSIs while cluster and purposive sampling techniques were used to obtain CSOs representatives and beneficiaries. Questionnaires, interview schedules and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) guides were used to collect data from the CSIs’ respondents, CSOs interviewees and FGD participants respectively. Content validity procedures were used to ensure instruments’ validity while reliability was tested using Split-Half technique and Cronbach Alpha coefficient. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics aided by SPSS (version 23) while thematic and content analysis were used for the qualitative data set. The study established that a myriad of contemporary security threats among them terrorism, electoral-induced violence, proliferation of SALWs, cybercrime and resource-based conflicts continue to evolve and lead to violent conflicts in the subregion. The three CSIs performed satisfactorily in conflict early warning, early response and capacity building elements of Conflict Prevention Management and Resolution (CPMR). Moderate performance was reported in peace keeping and mediation while poor performance was reported in humanitarian intervention. The CSIs performed poorly in post conflict peace building owing to being under-resourced, existence of weak legal frameworks and impediments attributed to sovereignty concerns. Comparatively, IGAD CPMR rating was higher followed by EASF and EAC with IGAD outperforming the rest in conflict early warning (95%), early response (88%), mediation (72%), peace keeping (86%) and peace enforcement (68%). Under-investment in conflict prevention and post-conflict peace building greatly undermined CSIs’ response to sub-regional conflicts. Structural and institutional challenges such as overlapping mandates, over reliance on donor funding and lack of political commitment to agreed treaties and protocols exist. The study recommends that sub-regional states designate IGAD as the CSI with the overall mandate for peace and security while EAC focuses on regional economic and political integration with EASF being primarily a military-heavy institution providing the security intervention dimension.
Commercialized Security and National Security in Nairobi City County, Kenya.
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mutonyi, Gerald Peter; Merecia Ann Sirera; Wangari Mwai
In Kenya, the maintenance of security for the citizens had traditionally been the state‟s duty. However, non-state actors have come up to offer security to those who can afford to buy it. Despite this development, few studies have examined commercialized security and national security. Using Security Governance theory and Network Analysis theory, this study sought to examine commercialized security and national security. The study adopted a cross sectional survey design, and was carried out in Nairobi amongst the adult residents classified as either consumers or providers of commercial security industry (CSI). Clustering of the County into constituencies and wards was by purposive sampling. Purposive sampling was used to select those who purchase or manage CSI services for their organizations as well as management of the CSI firms. The general public and security guards were systematically sampled. A questionnaire, interview guide and structured observation were instruments of data collection. Quantitative data was analyzed by both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics mainly frequency distributions were used to summarize the results facilitating in analysis of the key findings as well as presentation of findings. Inferential statistics specifically multiple regression analysis was used to predict the contributions of specific CSI services on national security and in drawing conclusions of overall effects. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically. Qualitative and quantitative data were triangulated to provide robust illustrations of key findings. The findings of the study revealled that CSI makes a positive significant contribution to national security: F (4, 369) = 9.42, p ˂ .001, R2 = .093. The results of the regression indicated that the model explained 9.3% of the variance. As regards the specific services, the results demonstrate that (1) Manned guarding significantly contributes to the 26 % of outcome of the CSI B = .260, β = .135, P = .007; (2) Alarm and Electronics 22.9 %; B = .229, β = .224, P = .001; (3) CVIT security service contributes significantly and positively at 10.8 %; B = .108, β = .118, P = .018. While CSI investigative service 3.6 % (B = .036, β = .084, P < = .103 although it was not significant. From qualitative data the participants narrated that the manned guarding as a service of CSI increases the visible presence of security agents in the environment a factor that discourages criminal activities and provides feelings of safety, Alarms and electronics were said to detection of criminal and harmful activities hence intervening in stopping crime, intelligence on criminal activities through surveillance, and creating a culture of security and crime awareness all which contribute to enhancing national security. However, despite valuable contributions CSI was limited in several ways which could explain the relatively low but significant contribution to the national security. The limitations include; not being armed with firearms, poor working conditions of security personnel, lack of courtesy by guards, lack of trust by the state security agencies, lack of regulation and licensing and security personnel who are not adequately trained. In relation to best practices, the study found improved working conditions of the security personnel, adequate training and development for the security personnel, cooperation with the state security agencies, after sale service, and enforcement of regulations, could help improve the CSI services hence increase their contribution to the national security. The study concludes, that CSI though motivated by profit making plays, a significant role that enhances state capacity in provision of security as well as contributes to safety of citizens. Based on the findings, the study recommends effective regularization of CSI as well collaboration between with state security agents.
Concept of Justice That Shape the Uptake of Judicial Safeguards within Maslaha Processes in Garissa County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Karanja, Joseph Kimaru; MERECIA ANN SIRERA; . JOSEPH WASONGA
Maslaha systems of justice continue to be utilized as mainstream and alternative forums in conflict resolution, adjudication of felonies and minor crimes among communities in North Eastern Kenya. Despite maslaha playing an important role in adjudication of criminal matters through established structures based on customary norms, studies report that their processes are vulnerable to abuse and may lack objectivity. This puts the victims at a disadvantage. Yet, evidence indicate that attempts to entrench safeguards through operationalization of Article 159 of the 2010 Constitution of Kenya in order to uphold fairness indicate varied adherence. Using Critical Procedural theory and Model of Informal Institutional Change, this study sought to identify salient contextual realities and social interests that shape the interpretation and application of norms, process, actors and remedies within maslaha forums. The study was guided by three objectives which were; to examine salient features of maslaha criminal justice process that influence the uptake of regulatory safeguard; to analyze judicial regulative models prioritized for maslaha criminal justice systems; to find out whether operationalization of judicial regulative safeguards was responsive to salient features of maslaha systems of justice. Phenomenological research design was adopted to study concepts of justice constructed from respondents’ experiences and interactions with contextual realties and their implication on the adherence of judicial safeguards. Multi-stage sampling was used to cluster Garissa County according to its administrative units where purposive, snowballing and convenience approaches were used to sample study sites and respondents within customary justice forums, justice practitioners, government administrators, legal officers, human rights and paralegals. Data was collected through interviews and focus group discussion. Critical discourse analysis was used to analyze data. The findings of the study show that the main salient feature in maslaha judicial system were prioritization of social harm, collective responsibility, and communal reconciliation for peaceful coexistence. These were underpinned by contextual realities of clan rivalry that could trigger retaliation, local dilemmas of criminal justice administration, power dynamics between disputing parties and concerns for peace and order respectively. In regards to emerging jurisprudence on operationalization of Article 159, findings of this study show that the main values prioritized were disputant direct participation, autonomy and third-party neutrality. These were operationalized through original jurisdiction, non-related mediator and facilitative intervention strategies. They are expected to enhance objectivity in the process. As regards to responsiveness of the judicial safeguards to the salient justice features, the findings show that operationalization of the safeguards was not accommodative to situations and scenarios when salient features of justice linked with sustenance of social harmony, peace, order and community reconciliation were priced. For example, confining mediators to facilitative roles for objectivity purposes impeded their ability to avert retaliation through evaluative, directive and coercive interventions more so when crimes occur in situations of animosity and distrust among disputants’ clans hence limited compliance. The study also shows that safeguards that promote non-interest related mediators thus displacing elders as mediators were less likely to be complied with since community members found elders to be more persuasive in pushing parties out of stalemates thereby preempting retaliations. The study also found that involvement of state justice institutions through original jurisdiction as a safeguard was limited due to institutional constraints such as complex procedures involved and witness intimidation. Thus, this study concluded that, less attention of judicial safeguards towards salient contextual realities identified affects their compliance within maslaha system of justice. Accordingly, this study recommends the need to carefully blend of regulations and with salient community justice practices.
Devolved Governance and National Security in the Context of Clannism in the North-Eastern Region, Kenya (2013–2022)
(Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Rashid, Abdi Elmi
Devolution emphasises and focuses on context-sensitive empowerment and interventions whose benefits have a domino effect on national security. In the North-Eastern region of Kenya, devolution was implemented amid a long history of clan rivalries. However, empirical knowledge on how clannism influenced devolved governance and its effect on national security is lacking. Using theories of decentralisation, institutionalism and an integrated model based on primordialist and instrumentalist theory, this study sought to analyse the impact of devolution on national security in the context of clannism in the North-Eastern region of Kenya from 2013 to 2022. The study was conducted using a mixed method approach anchored on a cross-sectional survey design. The target population were adult household members in the region. Snowball, simple random, and purposive sampling techniques were used to obtain a representative sample of 932 study participants from Wajir, Mandera, and Garissa counties. Data were collected using questionnaires, key informant interviews, and a review of relevant documents. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and presented in the form of graphs and tables. Qualitative data were analysed using critical discourse analysis and presented through narratives and verbatim quotes. The results indicated that while devolution had realised political and fiscal benefits that could enhance security, tensions created through clan-based discrimination, perceived inadequate participatory and exclusionary governance, clan-identity politics, poor resource management and corruption foreclosed the benefits with possible negative effects on security. However, the administrative aspects of devolution fostered inter-clan unity and consequently enhanced national security through infrastructure development, increased access to water, fairly effective disaster management, and the creation of a favourable business environment. Clannism was also found to have influenced the allocation of devolved power and resources, preventing those who were not close to the centre of power from reaping the benefits of devolution; thus, strained inter-clan relationships and increased the risk of insecurity in the region and the country. Additionally, evidence from the study suggests the potential capture of local governments by elites, with the monetization of politics and the entrenchment of clan-based politics, nepotism and cronyism playing a key role. Overall, clannism was found to be a central factor in the region that undermined the residents from optimally accessing the fruits of devolution, thus negating the anticipated security benefits. Moreover, elites use a hegemonic approach to whip clannism to their support to the detriment of security in the region. Based on the findings, this study recommends the implementation of frameworks that promote equity in political representation, diversity in employment, and meaningful public engagement in governance. Furthermore, it calls for more robust measures tailored to nurture inter-clan cohesion that would facilitate a common approach in addressing insecurity challenges in the North-Eastern region to enhance national security.
Dynamics in Hydro-Diplomacy in the Nile Equatorial Lakes; 1929-2023
(Kenyatta University, 2025-10) Okinda,Albert Ochieng
This study examined dynamics in hydro-diplomacy in the Nile Equatorial Lakes region. Hydro-diplomacy has been a central feature in international relations in the Nile Basin for nearly a century. The basin has been a dynamic arena for evolving hydro-diplomatic dynamics. The study explored hydro-diplomacy dynamics in the Nile Equatorial Lakes between 1929 and 2023. It analysed the key events, treaties, and negotiations that have shaped hydro-diplomacy in the region over nearly a century. The study analysed the historical factors that have shaped hydro-diplomacy efforts in the basin, the dynamics of hydro-diplomacy in the basin and particularly under the Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program among the member states and concluded by evaluating River Basin Organisations effectiveness in promoting hydro-diplomacy for sustainable-shared waters management. The study employed collective action theory to analyse hydro-diplomacy in the region by examining how multiple states with competing national interests manage and negotiate the shared use of the Nile’s water resources. The study utilised both primary and secondary data. The primary data was obtained using a key-informant interview guide and a focus group discussion guide, while secondary data was obtained by reviewing relevant journals, books, and reports. The study established that there exists a conflict in the Nile basin driven by historical water rights agreements, climate change, increasing population, unilateral actions, hydro-politics, and a lack of basin-wide institution. Various legal and institutional frameworks, like the Nile Basin Initiative, have been instituted to address these challenges at the regional and international levels. In 1999, the Nile Basin Initiative was instituted as a transitional organisation to promote basin-wide cooperation for the sustainable and equitable development of the Nile River resources. The Nile Equatorial Lake Subsidiary Action Programme, one of the Nile Basin Initiative subsidiary action programs, has been instrumental in promoting hydro-diplomacy through Water Resources Management and Development and Power Development and Trade Sub-Programs. In its pursuit of these, the subsidiary institution has faced challenges ranging from a lack of political will, hydro-hegemon politics, and limited funds. The study also established that River Basin Organisations are effective mechanisms for managing shared water resources, providing platforms for information sharing and exchange, joint development priorities and conflict prevention. While challenges persist, they are instrumental in promoting cooperation and sustainable development. This study was important because it enriches the body of knowledge on the management of transboundary resources by providing a more nuanced understanding of the complex issues surrounding the management of shared water resources.
Dynamics in Internal Security and Community Protection Initiatives in Laikipia County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Macharia, Hannah Muthoni; Hamasi Linnet; Kibaba Makokha
The purpose of this study was to explore the security experiences and the underlying forces that inform these experiences among communities in Laikipia North. In line with the security experiences, community protection measures used to deal with insecurity were examined. The underlying forces informing the use of these initiatives were teased out. The study was guided by three objectives, that were; to establish the underlying forces that informed security experiences among communities in Laikipia North; to examine the nature and forms of community protection initiatives, and to explore the determinants for the use of community protection initiatives. Three theories informed the study securitization theory, Critical Security Studies (CSS), and Theory of State-Society Relations. The study used qualitative approach and phenomenological method. The sample size for the study was 86, and data was collected using semi-structured interviews, focus groups discussions, observations and analysis of relevant secondary sources. Data was analyzed thematically in line with the objectives of the study. The study found out that the meaning of internal security differed from the state interpretation but also varied across communities. Among communities, vernacular language was the matrix from which security was defined. The study also found out there were historical and emerging issues that informed the state of security. To address insecurity, the study established that customary practices and customized practices were primary means of countering security threats. Other initiatives included hybrid systems. The study found out that the use of community protection initiatives was subject to factors such as; community perceptions of security and security agencies, nature of government interventions, bureaucratic weakness, gendering of security as well as societal beliefs of security. The research concluded that the conceptual meaning of internal security was contextual and relational while concept of internal security was misleading. Related to the contextual and relational constructs, were historical, cultural, societal, governance and jurisdiction issues that informed the security experiences. The study further concluded that, teetering of security was part of the security experience in communal conflicts areas with limited stateness. Subsequently, community protection initiatives such as customary and customized practices were the primed sources of protection. Security was also result of community partnership with the state and non-state actors. Preferences for the different approaches were informed by structural, institutional, systematic as well as by state pursuit of objective security. The study recommends that internal security needs to be debunked from purely focusing on security the state as a political entity and issues of crimes (violation of law) to addressing causal and opportunistic factors that hinder the attainment of security-felt needs of communities affected by protracted communal violence.
Electoral Process and National Security in the Informal Settlements of Nairobi City County, Kenya from 2007-2022
(Kenyatta University, 2025-12) Kilatya, Jairus Mutinda
One tool that governments utilize to affect income distribution and enhance household wellbeing is public expenditure. The United Nations emphasized in 2005 that governments would need to increase public spending in the areas of agriculture, health, infrastructure, and education if the Millennium Development Goal targets were to be realized. This was stressed even more in 2015 under the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Between 2006 and 2022, public spending on health, infrastructure, agriculture, and education grew by almost 25 per cent of total national spending in Kenya. The Constitutional mandate that allocates 15 per cent of national revenue to county governments and one-half percent to marginalized areas has reinforced agenda. Income inequality has remained high at an average Gini coefficient of 0.386 since 2015/16. In 2021, the Gini coefficient was 0.389. Compared to the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal of eradicating poverty, the projected number of impoverished individuals in 2021 was 38.6 per cent, in the field of education, the enrollment rates for primary and secondary schools were 47.8 per cent and 88.4 per cent, respectively, in 2015, falling short of the Sustainable Development Goal objective of 100 per cent target. In the health sector despite the Sustainable Development Goals' aim of fewer than 25 deaths per 1,000 live births by 2030, the maternal mortality rate remained high in 2022, with 41 deaths per 1,000 live births. Kenya will not be able to meet the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030, which include poverty eradication, healthy living and equitable distribution of income within the nation, if these trends continue. An increase in public expenditure on health and education without corresponding effects on household welfare and income inequalities has raised concerns among policymakers. Thus, the goal of the study was to ascertain how public spending affects household welfare in Kenya, as well as how it varies depending on the region's economic bloc. It also aimed to assess the effect of public spending on income distribution in Kenya. The study used a non-experimental research approach using data from the Basic Report on Well-Being, which is an extract from the Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey for the 2015–16 year. Public expenditure data at the county levels covering all the 47 counties for the period 2014 to 2016 were used in the analysis, taking the county as the unit of study. The study used Ordinary Least Squares method in analyzing objectives one and three while Seemingly Unrelated Regression technique was used to estimate consumption expenditure share equations. The study estimated Ordinary Least Squares and found empirical support that a 1 per cent increase in government spending on agriculture would enhance household welfare by 0.1 per cent and 0.3 per cent, respectively, with regard to food and non-food household consumption. In addition, the study found that household welfare would improve by 0.18 per cent in terms of aggregate household consumption when the government increases public expenditure on agriculture by one percent. However, the study established that public spending on education had a positive impact on household welfare in terms of food and total household spending, whereas public spending on health per capita only had a positive impact on household spending on nonfood items. A 1 per cent rise in government expenditure on agriculture per capita lowers income inequality in the first and second quintiles by 0.7 and 0.5 percentage points, respectively, according to the study's estimation of the Seemingly Unrelated Regression model. This implies that governmental expenditure on agriculture per capita has a favorable effect on income distribution by aiding the impoverished. The study further found that income distribution in the lowest quintiles would improve by 0.2 percentage points with a 1 per cent increase in public spending on infrastructure per capita. On the other hand, the study did not find any empirical evidence that public expenditure on health per capita have an effect on income distribution in all the income groups. Regionally, according to the study, increased public funding for infrastructure, health care, and agriculture is necessary for the Coast, South Eastern Kenya, Frontier Counties Development Council, Mount Kenya, and Aberdare economic blocs to achieve better welfare status for their population. The study concluded that both the national and county governments should increase funding for infrastructure, education, and agriculture in order for the government to improve household welfare status and income distribution among Kenyan citizens, as these specific expenditures are necessary.
French Cultural Diplomacy towards Kenya; 1958-2020
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Odhiambo, Onyango Evans; Peter Wafula Wekesa; Susan Mwangi
Cultural diplomacy has become a popular discipline of study in international relations in the post-cold war period. France has a record of accomplishment in its cultural diplomatic engagements since the 19th century. This study contributes to the growing literature on cultural diplomacy in international relations by discussing the French Cultural diplomacy towards Kenya, 1958-2020. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the basis adopted by France in her cultural diplomacy in Africa since 1958, to examine the issues that shaped the evolution of French cultural diplomacy towards Kenya from 1963-1994, to analyse the strategies adopted by France in her cultural diplomacy towards Kenya,1995-2020. The study used soft power and constructivism theories in international relations to discuss the research findings. This study was premised on the assumption that state actors and non-state actors were the dominant agents that promoted French cultural diplomacy in Africa in general and Kenya in particular. The study justification was based on the argument that there is scanty knowledge of French cultural diplomacy in Kenya. The significance of the study was to demonstrate that cultural diplomacy is an effective soft power tool to advance a nation‟s political, economic, and social hegemony. This study used a descriptive and exploratory methodological design. The study employed primary and secondary sources of data. Purposive sampling was used in selecting respondents who participated in the oral interviews and focus group discussions. The researcher observed all ethical considerations. This study established that France used several strategies to institutionalize cultural diplomacy in Kenya. The strategies included; the popularisation of the French language, provision of education to Kenyans in France, exchange programmes targeting different interest groups, development of French electronic and print media in Kenya, promotion of French cuisine, beauty products, and recreational facilities in Kenya and signing of bilateral agreements between France and Kenya. Finally, the study observed that French cultural diplomacy towards Africa in general and Kenya, in particular, created an enabling environment for France to venture into various infrastructural and other business enterprises in the African continent. Thus, cultural diplomacy was a handmaiden of French soft power in Africa.
Gender Transformation in Cattle Rustling and Its Implications on Security Management in West Pokot County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Kimani, Andrew Gitau; Pacificah Okemwa; Casper Masiga
The purpose of this study was to examine gender transformation in cattle rustling and its implications on security management in West Pokot County in Kenya. Insecurity in some sections of Kenya especially the North Rift and North Eastern, has been in the past threatened any meaningful development. Further cattle rustling has metamorphosized from a traditional practice to organized crime where lives are lost and property destroyed; which has negatively impacted people‘s livelihoods and has posed a challenge to security management. The study therefore, sought to establish gender transformation in the practice of cattle rustling and its implication for security management. The study objectives were; to explain the gender transformation in cattle rustling among the Pokot community, to determine the effects of gender relations on cattle rustling among the Pokot community, to assess the effects of transformation in cattle rustling on security management in West Pokot, to evaluate from a gender perspective the strategies put in place to curb cattle rustling in West Pokot County. The study was anchored on Social Cubism Theory and the Harvard analytical framework. The independent variable for the study was gender transformation which included: role of men, gender relations, role of women and changes in identities ; whereas the dependent variable was security management which included: Security apparatus/committees, gender equality in the security composition officers, Law enforcement agencies, disarmament initiatives and reintegration and intervening variables were Kenyan Laws/Penal code ,the two thirds gender rule ,C.o.K (2010) and Mifugo Protocol. The outcome of the variables included: peace, development of infrastructure ,security enhancement, women leadership, high literacy level ,high school transition rate by both boys and girls, alternative and diversified livelihoods. The study involved 350 respondents (210 men and 140 women) selected from adult residents of Pokot community, community elders, opinion leaders, political and administrative leaders, the local youth, women and men as well as local and international NGOs dealing with cattle rustling issues in West Pokot County. Data collection instruments included questionnaires with closed and open-ended questions, key informant interview guide, FGD guide and an observation checklist. Stratified and simple random sampling techniques were used to select men and women who participated in the study. Content and construct validity of research instruments were determined using a pilot study and review of empirical and theoretical literature respectively. The coefficient of internal consistency was used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire. Thematic analysis was used to analyze qualitative data while Descriptive and Inferential statistics were used to analyze quantitative data. The key findings included: cattle rustling was once a cultural activity with structured rules and taboos for both men and women but has now become a murderous criminal endeavor; gender relations have changed over time as a result of cattle rustling; security implications, costs and solutions to cattle rustling do not take into account the impact of gender and hence are ineffective and lastly, some of the strategies applied to curb cattle rustling were fair while a few were considered to be rather extreme. The study concluded that significant changes have taken place in the practice of cattle rustling in West Pokot. Thus, it is no longer a communal practice that ensures the sustenance of the community. Contemporary cattle rustling is a rather radical and disjointed practice that is shunned by both men and women because of its negative consequences. The study recommended that appropriate approaches that involve men and women such as peace talks, enlightenment on contemporary ways of livelihoods to help the Pokot community adopt alternative sources of livelihood. The study also recommends the use of more advanced technologies to enable cattle identification and tracking, sensitization on laws criminalizing cattle rustling and ensuring full-scale prosecution of its actors. Finally, the study gave a suggestion for further studies on cattle jacking as an emerging security concern in the region.
Human Trafficking and National Security at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport and Moi International Airport, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Karanja, Monicah Wanjiku
This study endeavored to analyze the effects of Human Trafficking on National Security with a focus on Jomo Kenyatta and Moi International Airports in Kenya. The study embraced cross sectional survey design using both qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection and analysis. The target population was security agents, mainly officers from the Directorate of Criminal Investigation and the Kenya Airport Police Unit, as well as immigration officers stationed at Jomo Kenyatta and Moi international airports. Proportionate stratified random sampling and purposive sampling were adapted to identify the participants for the study. Data collection was through thematically structured questionnaires that were in line with the study objectives, and through an interview guide. Quantitative data was analyzed through descriptive statistics using frequency distributions while qualitative data was analyzed thematically. Findings from the quantitative data revealed a significant prevalence of human trafficking at airports, with a notable gender disparity among both victims and traffickers. The results also showed that human trafficking was sustained by weak laws, involvement of human trafficking cartels, involvement of airport employees, challenges in detecting victims of human trafficking due to work permits and weak systems as well as interference by the political class. Findings from qualitative data showed that the high rate of unemployment, poverty, and discriminatory labour laws obscured the dangers associated with human trafficking, making the victims fall in the trap of the traffickers. Among other things, kidnapping, terrorism, money laundering and banditry were the biggest security risks associated with human trafficking. The findings showed that money laundering affected financial institutions and stalled economic growth of the country. Moreover, the victims of abduction engaged in heinous crimes against the nation. In addition, the study showed that human trafficking threatens national security in various ways including; undermining international cooperation, weakening governance, supporting terrorist and armed groups, supporting abusive regimes, bankrolling criminal activities, undermining community and national stability as well as fueling conflict among others. Qualitative data also revealed that human trafficking raptured the social fabric, and denied individuals, especially children, opportunities for development. Overall, the study found human trafficking to have far-reaching negative effects on national security. Based on the findings, the study recommended promotion of comprehensive approaches that involve coordinating security in all airlines and law enforcement agencies to strengthen security at the airports, and address various undercurrents that make individuals vulnerable to the persuasions of human traffickers.
Impact of Closed-Circuit Television on Police Operations in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-09) Kirui, Gideon Kipngéno
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is a key strategy that police services worldwide are increasingly using to improve the outcomes of their operations. However, little is known about the use and impact of the police-operated CCTV system in Nairobi City County since its implementation in mid-2015, making it difficult to say whether it is achieving its intended goals or wasting public resources. Therefore, this study aimed to assess how the CCTV system has aided police operations. The study had five specific objectives: to assess the impacts of the use of CCTV in monitoring public spaces on the outcomes of police operations, to analyse the impact of the use of CCTV to coordinate incident responses on the outcomes of police operations, to evaluate the impact of the use of CCTV in investigating crimes on the outcomes of police operations, to determine the moderating effect of CCTV policies on the relationship between CCTV use and police operations outcomes, and to examine the challenges hindering the effective use of CCTV in police operations in Nairobi County. Rational Choice Theory and Routine Activity Theory informed the study. The study used a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, integrating a cross-sectional survey design and a phenomenological design. It involved 403 police officers from police stations in Nairobi City County and those operating CCTV sampled using purposive and cluster sampling. A questionnaire, a focus group discussion guide and an interview schedule were used to collect data. Quantitative data were analysed using frequencies, percentages and binary logistic regression, while thematic analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. The findings revealed that CCTV has significantly helped police conduct their operational tasks, reduced crimes, enhanced road safety, improved the safety of police officers and reduced the cost of police operations. However, it has not significantly quickened police response to incidents. The findings also showed that CCTV policies do not significantly moderate (b = -.001, 95% CI [-.410, .408], p = .996) the relationship between the use of CCTV and police operations outcomes. The study also found that insufficient funding was the most significant challenge hindering the effective use of the CCTV system, followed by criminals evading CCTV detection and unrealistic public expectations about CCTV. Other significant challenges included CCTV vandalism, limited CCTV coverage, inadequate CCTV operators, lack of interest among police officers in using CCTV, and unavailability of footage in some areas with CCTV cameras. The study concluded that CCTV has improved police operations in the county, but several challenges need to be addressed. The study recommends the expansion of CCTV coverage, installation of lighting in areas under CCTV surveillance, the establishment of quick response squads, the sensitisation of police officers on CCTV policies and the effective ways and benefits of using CCTV, periodic meetings between police officers operating CCTV and those in the field, publicity of successes in using CCTV, adequate funding and maintenance of the CCTV system, and publication and regular review of CCTV policies.
Influence of Ethnic Polarization on Devolved Governance in Embu County, Kenya 1963-2023
(Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Warurii,Fredrick Kariuki
The study focused on how decentralized and devolved governance was influenced by ethnic polarization in Embu County. The pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial period applied decentralization until 2013. Devolution governance was applied from 2013. The objectives of the study were to: discuss the historical context of decentralization in Kenya and Embu County from pre-colonial period to 1963, assess the enhancement of ethnic polarization in the application of decentralization and devolution in Kenya and Embu County from 1963 to 2013 and analyze the interventions offered by devolved governance in order to mitigate ethnic polarization between the Aembu and the Ambeere in Embu County, Kenya between 2013 and 2023. The study was significant because devolution was an avenue for socio-economic development and constitutional democracy. The Hegemonic Exchange Theory by Rothchild (2016) and the Rising Expectations led to Rising Frustrations Theory by Huntington and Learner (1993), were used to interpret the findings of the study. Literature review adopted the funnel structure as guided by the research objectives. This chapter focused on the historical context of decentralization from pre-colonial period to 1963, application of decentralization and devolution from 1963 to 2013 and interventions of devolved governance to mitigate ethnic polarization from 2013 to 2023. The factors which emboldened ethnic polarization were placed under the economic, social and political categorization attached to the objective periodization. The two theoretical frameworks paid attention to relevance, divergence, research gaps and personal views. The conceptual framework provided a contrast in the structural and operational glimpse between decentralization and devolution. Descriptive research design was used in both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Data was gathered using both primary and secondary sources. The sample size was 130 respondents drawn from a target population of 608,599 (KPHC; 2019). Primary data was gathered through questionnaires, interviews, Kenya National Archives (KNA) documentations and Government reports. The sample size for random sampling totaled 70 respondents and that for purposive sampling to 60. Secondary data was sourced from books, theses, journals and articles in newspapers from public and university libraries. Online sources were used to factor in the most recent and relevant studies in governance and ethnic polarization. The study majorly relied on qualitative method of data analysis. Data presentation was portrayed using descriptive statistics such as frequency tables, verbatim captions, plates, pie-charts, bar-graphs and line-graphs where applicable for effective understanding of data analysis. The socio-economic and political architecture which was a product of historical and governance models emboldened inter-ethnic polarization for both the Aembu and the Ambeere. I contend that equitable distribution of socio-economic infrastructure and the adoption of negotiated democracy in the executive docket of the County Governor of Embu on rotational constitutional term limit arrangement was one of the robust options of ethnic communities’ parity; popularly engendered to bring about ethnic co-existence and sustainable peace in Embu County. The contribution of this research was to bring about inter-ethnic cohesion and improve the quality of legal, legitimate and accountable governance for efficient service delivery to residents of Embu County and other citizens of Kenya.
Interagency operational dynamics and collaborative disaster management in Nairobi city county, Kenya
(Kenyatta university, 2023) Zakayo, Chris Ndunda
The increasing frequency and severity of disasters is a global security concern which has led to adoption of new disaster management tools embracing collaborative disaster management (CDM). However, to achieve effective collaboration, there is need to understand how the dynamics involved interact and influence collaborative arrangements. Interagency Agency Operational Dynamics (IAOD) which influences CDM includes Organizational Dynamics (OD), Human Dynamics (HD) and Process Dynamics (PD). The study sought to assess the influence of IAOD on CDM in Nairobi City County (NCC), Kenya and specifically assessed the influence of OD, HD and PD on the effectiveness of CDM. The study was anchored on resource dependence theory, social capital theory and institutional collective action theory, it employed both cross sectional survey and phenomenological research designs. Target population was 3045 persons working with disaster management agencies in NCC and a sample size of 317 was selected where senior DMAs were purposively sampled, stratified sampling and simple random sampling was applied to select junior respondents. Data collection instruments used in the study were questionnaires and key informant interview guide. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistical procedures and inferential analysis specifically linear regression. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically. Findings of the study revealed that there is a significant positive relationship between IAOD and CDM where a correlation coefficient (R) of R=0.326 was obtained, this implied that IAOD influences CDM performance fairly with a strength level of 32.6%. Coefficient of determination (R2) was R2= 0.106: P= 0.00, this implies that 10.6% of variability in CDM is explained by IAOD. As regards influence of specific dynamics on CDM, the study revealed that a correlation coefficient of r =0.203; P= 0.001 was established for OD on CDM, this implies that OD contribute 20.3% of the outcome, for HD and CDM a correlation coefficient r = 0.288; P = 0.000 was established, an indication that HD contributes 28.8 % of outcome while for PD on CDM, a regression coefficient r = 0.191; P= 0.002 was established, an implication the contribution of PD to CDM is 19.1%. From the findings, HD had the greatest influence on CDM compared to other dynamics. The study concludes that managing diversities as a result of inevitable differences in agency cultures, structures, procedures, beliefs, values and philosophies is key to achieving successful collaboration. Regular interactions between agencies create an understanding of each other’s strengths, weaknesses, cultivate trust and help in forming and expanding CDM networks and that having a single disaster coordinative agency is key as it improves coordination process by minimizing competition over which leader or agency is taking charge during CDM. The study recommends the development of policy to guide CDM by managing diversities, creating opportunities for regular interaction through joint training, workshops and meetings and the creation of a single national coordinative agency to be replicated at all levels to offer effective leadership in CDM.
Marginalization Dynamics and their Implications on National Cohesion in Kenya: Case of Mombasa County
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Oyombra, Ochieng’ George; Joseph Wasonga; Cyprian Kavivya
Peaceful co-existences among various groups in the society is paramount for wellbeing and development. Regional, ethnic and religious inequalities and imbalances have increasingly become sources of tensions and social conflicts in many parts of the world. Marginalization, real or perceived, of certain groups and regions based on their ethnic background, place of origin, religious creed or any other distinctions, breeds hatred, erodes trust, undermines national development and may ultimately escalate into open hostilities thereby undermining national cohesion. The main objective of this study was, thus, to examine the marginalization dynamics and implications on national cohesion in Kenya with a focus on Mombasa County. The specific objectives of the study were to assess how the various communities in Mombasa County conceptualized marginalization; examine the socio-economic indicators of marginalization and their implications on national cohesion; analyse the cultural indicators of marginalization and how they are likely to impede on national cohesion; and to evaluate the implications of political marginalization on national cohesion. The study was carried out in Mombasa County, Kenya. Two theories guided the study: the Relative Deprivation Theory and the Framing Theory. While the Relative Deprivation Theory explains how inequalities among groups and regions are likely to cause conflict and undermine national cohesion in the society, the Framing Theory explains how the societal elites and/or media outlets construct frames around which a narrative is created for group mobilization to violence. The study adopted phenomenological research design using qualitative approach. Non-probability sampling techniques particularly purposive, stratified purposive and snowball techniques were used to obtain study participants from the six sub-counties that form Mombasa County. A total of 65 interviews, 19 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and 7 Key Informants (KII) were conducted. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used in the study. The data collection instruments were semi-structured interview guides and F G D guides. Data collection techniques included interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data was analysed through critical discourse analysis and presented using narratives and verbatim quotations. The study revealed that marginalization of Mombasa County was both a reality and a perception. This could explain the tensions and restlessness that sometimes characterize the relationship between the locals and upcountry immigrants in Mombasa County. Further, the study revealed that even though marginalization was a key concern for Mombasa residents, resentments and tensions that threaten national cohesion are also as a result of relative privilege and reference to some treaties signed during colonial period. The study recommends, among others, equitable sharing of state resources, more decentralization of authority and resources, and enhanced hegemonial exchange in political leadership.
Maritime security and the utility of the blue economy resources along the Kenya coast in the Indian Ocean
(Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Nkubitu, Joel Mukaria
The Indian Ocean has huge economic value and potential in terms of exploration of offshore gas and oil, short and deep-sea shipping, marine aquatic products, aquaculture and fisheries, blue biotechnology and ocean renewable energy. However, it is faced with a myriad of security threats, such as IUU fishing, transnational organized crime, and ocean dumping. The study aimed to examine the nexus between the maritime security practices and the utility of Kenya’s Indian Ocean blue economy resources. The specific research objectives were to: assess the implications of maritime security constraints on the utility of the blue economy, investigate the influence of maritime security coordination on the utility of the blue economy, determine the implications of partnerships between state and non-state actors on the utility of the blue economy, and establish the effect of involving coastal communities on the utility of the blue economy. The study applied the collaboration action theory and coordination theory and adopted a cross-sectional research design. The targeted populations were state and private security agencies, investors, and the local community since they were the key stakeholders in the development of the blue economy. To obtain a statistically suitable sample size, cluster sampling and stratified random sampling were applied to proportionately select primary respondents, whereas purposive sampling technique was utilized to select key informants to obtain a sample of 334. Primary data was collected using questionnaires and interview schedules. SPSS 24 software was used to compute descriptive and inferential statistics. Thematic analysis was also used to analyze qualitative data from open-ended questions and presented along quantitative data. The results from questionnaire and tools were triangulated so as to increase credibility and validity of the results. The findings of the study revealed that Indian Ocean had huge blue economy potential in terms of provision of livelihoods to the coastal people in addition to the investment opportunities to several onshore and offshore businesses, such tourism, transport, and mineral exploration, among others. However, this potential is faced with a myriad of security issues, such as large sea area, sophisticated piracy networks and illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing. It also noted limited maritime domain awareness structures which were also seen as a weak link in the utilization of the blue economy. Results from narrative data re-affirmed the need for maritime security actors to integrate the perspective of the state security agencies, private security, non-state actors, such as investors and local communities, as a means to improve existing maritime security management, which is key to the utilization of the blue economy resources. From the correlation coefficient (r), the association between maritime security management and the utilization of the blue economy resources was moderately positive (r=.509). Notably, multiple linear regression results indicated that coordination (β = 0.295, p < 0.001) had a strong statistically significant influence on the utilization of blue economy resources, followed by involvement of coastal communities (β = 0.179, p < 0.001) and partnerships (β = 0.187, p < 0.006). It is concluded that maritime security challenges exist, which hamper optimum the utilization of the blue economy; however, synergies between maritime security agencies, non-state actors and local communities may counter these constraints so that the blue economy achieves its potential as maritime security practices are mutually reinforcing. The study recommends the need to prioritize maritime security coordination so as to maximize the benefits of the blue economy by improving information sharing, interagency coordination, and private security integration. The study notes the need for a comprehensive capacity-building for security personnel, strategic international partnerships, and the strengthening of state-non-state collaborations. Additionally, there is need to involve coastal communities in decision-making and empowering them through training for inclusive development
Personal security and criminal victimization : case of Kajiado County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024-11) Mwai, Joseph
This study investigates why some individuals experience higher levels of criminal victimisation than others and how this affects their personal security. The specific objectives of the study were to examine the mechanisms through which individuals contribute to criminal victimisation, evaluate the individual’s risk factors that influence victimisation, assess the efficacy of personal security mechanisms and finally establish the challenges encountered in the community when reducing criminal victimisation. This study is premised on four theories of victimology that emphasise victim precipitation, lifestyle, deviant place, and routine activities, all of which explain why a person may be victimised. The target population consisted among others, adults who were directly affected by the presence or absence of personal security, as well as those who influenced their degree of criminal victimisation. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey design, which allowed the researcher to obtain information from different sets of populations at the same time. The target population was sampled both randomly and purposively. The sample distribution for the participants was determined by the 2017 voters register because the register for 2022 was still in the process of being compiled. Data collection instruments included questionnaires, key informant interview guide, Focused Group Discussion guide and observation checklist. Stratified and simple random sampling techniques were used to select the respondents who participated in the study. The content and construct validity of the research instruments were determined using a pilot study and review of empirical and theoretical literature, respectively. The study findings were that victim facilitation helps criminal victimisation, and that the residents should be educated more on the causes of crime to enable them to avoid facilitation. Additionally, individuals should understand the risk factors that contribute to their victimisation and make necessary changes to their lifestyles. Furthermore, implementing effective ways to control victimisation is essential for crime prevention. When it comes to engaging community people in crime reduction efforts, the government could emphasise the importance of individuals recognising their responsibility in lowering their vulnerability to crime. The study concluded that there was a need to consider putting in place personal security measures that are necessary to alter the nature of the environment from unsafe to safe, which were major causes of criminal victimisation. The study suggested that there is a need for further studies on crime prevention measures to enable the reduction of criminal victimisation. It is important to learn the technique applied by handlers living within the community, who play a big role in making individual persons appreciate other people’s desires by avoiding committing crime.
Radicalization of prisoners on prison security management in maximum security prison facilities in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Cheboi, Peter Komen; Stephen Handa; Casper Masiga
Radicalization is emerging as a big security threat and concern in all nations more so when it takes place in prison facilities. This raises serious concerns on the prison security management. This study therefore examined radicalization of prisoners on prison security management in Maximum Prison facilities in Kenya. The Specific objectives of the study were to establish causes of prisoners’ radicalization in prisons facilities, explore how radicalization is propagated in prisons facilities, examine the effects of prisoners’ radicalization on prison security management and determine the challenges associated with mitigating prisoners’ radicalization in prison security management in prison facilities in Kenya. The study was anchored on uncertaintyidentity theory, deterrence theory, and rehabilitation theory of punishment. The study employed descriptive survey and exploratory research designs. The study was carried out in Shimo la Tewa, Kamiti and Lang’ata Women Prisons which were selected because of their high security level to hold high and very high risk prisoners as a result of their offences. The target population was 7400 comprising of 6000 prisoners and 1400 prison officers from the three facilities were selected using both secondary data, purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Questionnaires and interview schedules were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data respectively. Quantitative data were analyzed statistically while thematic content analysis technique was applied to analyze qualitative data and presented appropriately using different methods. Key findings of this study revealed that radicalization occurred in prison facilities due to diverse factors including religious ideology, inadequate information sharing among key security agencies, social-economic factors, and laxity among the officers which pose serious threat to the prison security. Among the challenges encountered when mitigating radicalization were; lack of adequate inadequate information sharing, congestion, insufficient resources and ill-training of prison officers on handling radicalization of prisoners. The study recommends formulation of policy framework on multi-agency digitized information sharing system, improvement of infrastructure in prison facilities, improvement in general welfare of prison staff and enhanced vetting of staff to curb radicalization and enhance prison and national security management to address the various concerns raised in the study.
Regime change, police reforms and their implications on human rights practice in Kenya; 1920-2014
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Njiri, Nelson Mugweru; Susan Mwangi; Joseph Wasonga
Historically the police institution has been linked to human rights violations. With the political transformation taking place across the world to change the institutions of governance, reforms in the police institution have been considered in many countries. In Kenya a lot of efforts have been witnessed in an attempt to bring changes in the police institution from independence. However, studies have not adequately addressed the implications of regime change and police reforms on human rights practice in Kenya. This study explored the implications of regime change, police reforms on human rights practice in Kenya from independence. The study’s specific objectives were to examine the emergence and the role of the police force in Kenya from 1920s to 1978, determine the implications of the reforms in the police force on human rights between 1979 and 2002, examine the police reforms during the Kibaki’s administration and their implications on human rights practice up to 2009 and to interrogate the implications of the police reforms enshrined in the 2010 constitution on human rights practice in Kenya up to 2014. A historical design was chosen to guide the study with Lewin’s theory of change, the protest theory and the predictive model chosen as the theoretical underpinning. The specific study groups consisted of the high-ranking serving and retired constabularies, human rights lawyers, members of the community policing, human rights activists and the judiciary, criminal law professors, county government administrators, retired provincial administrators, political detainees and political scientists and former and present politicians in Kenya. Purposive sampling was adopted to select 166 study participants. Data was collected through focused group discussions, document analysis and interview guide. The qualitative data was elaborately analyzed based on the thematic content analysis. The results suggested that successive governments instituted police reforms purposely to adequately equip the police officers to secure the political interest of the political elite. During the Kenyatta administration, several amendments such as the preventive detention act were made but the changes failed to meet the expectation of the Kenyans as acts of human rights violation remained profound. During the Moi administration, there were minimal changes in the police force but increased and unabated human rights violation. The political leadership used the police to consolidate and secure power by infringing on human rights. During the Kibaki administration, instrumental changes in the police force were initiated to bring changes to the police institution. In the 2010 constitutional dispensation new laws were enacted to strengthen the police reforms. However, police brutality, impunity, complicity, extrajudicial and arbitrary executions, corruption and a widening rift between the police officers and the civilians were largely the enduring features of the police institution. The study recommended that reforms should be directed to the legal, economic, electoral and political systems which impact the police operations if meaningful police reforms can be actualized.

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