MST-School of Environmental Studies

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This collections contains bibliographic information and abstracts of Master theses and dissertation in the School of Environmental Studies held in Kenyatta University Library

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Abundance and potential use of grevillea robusta in the wood carving industry. a case of Embu district, Kenya
(2012-03-30) Wamboi, Jane Franciscah; Aloo, T. C.; Ndungu, A.
Closed canopy forests cover about 2% of Kenya's total land area (Crafter, Awimbo and Broekhoven, 1997) with an annual deforestation rate of 54km2 between 1980 and 1990, but rank high as one of the country's most important national assets. Presently, there is intense pressure on forests due to increased demand for land for alternative uses like farming and high demand for tree products in the growing economy. Today, the wood resource is in a critical state of overexploitation, particularly with respect to targeted tree species in the wood carving industry (Choge, 2000). This study was carried out between September, 2000 and January 2002 to determine the abundance and potential use of Grevillea robusta in the wood carving industry. The main aim of the study was to investigate the potential contribution of Grevillea robusta towards alleviating the pressure on indigenous species in the wood carving industry. The specific objectives were to determine the volume, density and distribution of G. robusta in Embu district; to find out current and potential uses of G. robusta by farmers in Embu and to determine customer and consumer preference of wood used in carvings and the volume of G. robusta required by the carvers annually. Seven Agroecological zones (AEZ): Upper Midland 1 (UM1), Upper Midland 2 (UM2), Upper Midland 3 (UM3), Upper Midland 4 (UM4), Lower Highlands (LH), Lower Midland (LM3), Lower Midland 4 (LM4) of Embu District, where, both indigenous and exotic tree species are grown were used for this study. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used. A sample of two hundred and ten households in seven agroecological zones was drawn using random sampling technique. Data was collected by means of questionnaires, checklists and observation schedules. Tree heights and diameters were taken using a suunto hypsometer and a diameter tape respectively. Data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Carvers and traders in the wood carving industry were also interviewed using checklists. The results show that the highest number of Grevillea trees are found in UM3 this being 22% of the total number of Grevillea in the seven agroecological zones. The results further indicated that the forest department nurseries supplied the respondents with 24.3% of Grevillea seedlings. It was further found that 19% of farmers are not willing to sell their trees since they are used for soil conservation and household needs such as firewood, timber, construction and fodder. The farmers also have alternative sources of income such as the livestock. The study findings revealed a problem of lack of awareness of the option of using Grevillea robusta as a wood carving species among most farmers and carvers. The rate of cutting of the trees per month varied among the respondents. Those who cut between 1-5 trees were 67%. This may have been as a result the ban on logging in the national forests and therefore middlemen were buying Grevillea for the timber industry. It is clear from the study that Grevillea has a medium potential as an alternative wood carving species and that carving of Grevillea wood is currently minimal. From the study not even one trader sold carvings made from this tree species. The study recommends moving the carving sites close to the farmers as this may encourage carvers to use Grevillea and also reduce on the transportation cost of the logs. This may be applicable when the carvers have a specific order on carvings made from Grevillae. There is need to create awareness among buyers on the need to buy carvings made from 'good wood' species such as Grevillea so as to conserve forests for the sake of biodiversity for future generations. Such interventions will enable the government to develop workable farm forestry policies and hence achieve the goal of protecting and conserving the natural indigenous hard woods.
Actors and their contributions to solid waste management in Eldoret municipality,Kenya
(2011-08-10) Opinde, Godwin Omondi
Eldoret municipality, like any other principal urban center in Kenya has experienced phenomenal expansion over the last five decades coupled with organizational, fiscal and political problems. This has led to inability to cope up with the rapid rate of urban population growth resulting in excessive strain in service delivery including solid waste management. The inability of the municipality to effectively manage solid waste has resulted in increased pollution, potential public health problems, and ecological as well as socioeconomic impacts. This situation has necessitated a paradigm shift from state-led SWM to involvement of multiplicity of actors which has led to somewhat improvement in solid waste management. However the full potential of the actors has not been harnessed because of lack of clear operational structures and inadequate data on the activities of these actors leading to problems such as escalation of costs and unequal access to SWM services. This study sought to assess the contributions of actors to solid waste management in the municipality by reviewing policies and institutional framework governing multi-stakeholder involvement in solid waste management, assessing the activities of the actors, their capacity and suggesting measures to improve multistakeholder participation in solid waste management. The study sampled the registered Private waste collectors, NGOs and CBOs involved in solid waste management based on the lists obtained from departments of social services and environment in Eldoret municipality and Uasin Gishu district headquarters. Data collection techniques used in the study were observation with field trips, questionnaire and literature review. Eldoret municipal council, private waste collectors and CBOs provide services of solid waste management in Municipality. However they have inadequate capacity to effectively and efficiently provide solid waste management services. The Eldoret municipal council has inadequate refuse collection vehicles, unequal distribution of personnel in designated zones, in adequate personnel, in adequate equipment, poor infrastructure in peri- urban areas and they poorly enforce the laws governing solid waste management. The private waste collectors face problems of expensive and multiple licensing for service provision and poor response to payment for solid waste collection service by the households. The Community Based Organizations in Eldoret Municipality have poor organizational structure, inadequate equipment, inadequate finances for solid waste management and a weak relation with the municipal council. The NGOs have weak participation in solid waste management. The study thus concluded that the actors have positive contribution to Solid waste management in Eldoret Municipality and that the enhancement of their capacities and proper integration of their operations in an elaborate framework will enhance the efficiency and efficacy of solid waste management in Eldoret Municipality.
Adaptation Strategies to Adverse Effects of Climate Variability on Water and Sanitation Access in Mukuru Kwa Njenga Slum, Nairobi County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2018-10) Kariuki, Philip Bundi
Climate variability is an environmental pressure to urban slum dwellers economic activities in most developing countries where households have been adapting to it for years. Slum dwellers are faced with inadequate access to water and proper sanitation. This problem is partly attributed to climate change. This research project aimed at exploring the adaptation and coping mechanisms of Mukuru Kwa Njenga slum community in Nairobi City, due to poor water supply and access to basic sanitation because of climate variability. The four objectives of the study were; to determine climate variability of Nairobi over the last 35yrs, to identify the community‟s adaptation and coping mechanism strategies to poor accessibility of portable water and basic sanitation due to climate variability; to determine the factors hampering the community access to adequate water supply and basic sanitation; and to assess how low accessibility to sufficient water supply and basic sanitation affect the achievement of sustainable development. Descriptive research design and sample size of 384 were formulated. Data analysis was done by use of statistical software known as Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings reveal that majority of respondents at 94.2% agree unfavorable weather conditions contributes to sanitation issues now and possibly in the future. 59.5% of the residents in the study area experienced inadequate supply of water. Above 90% of residents store water by use of drums and jerry cans. It is also notable from the findings that the drainage systems in most parts of the study area are poor as indicated by 41% of the respondents. Implication of the findings suggests the populace should be guaranteed adequate supply of water and proper waste management by the county government and the citizenry working together to achieve a better living standard.
Adaptation to Climate Variability by Small-Scale Farmers in Jubek State, South Sudan
(Kenyatta University, 2024-02) Ananias, Diana Achuk
Agriculture provides nearly 80% of the world’s population livelihoods. This is heavily affected by climate variability. Climate variability affects agricultural production due to association with drought and floods. This effect had significant influence in South Sudan where nearly 83% of population relies on rain-fed agriculture. Hence, this has led to decline in about of 30-50% on staple crop production. Jubek State was selected for the study due to majority of the farmers’ dependency on rain-fed agriculture and over stayed there for more than eight years. Therefore, the current research aimed to examine farmers’ perception and level of awareness on the crop yield, analyze how socio-economic factors influence adaptation strategies to climate variability and evaluate suitable adaptation strategies against climate variability in Jubek State of South Sudan. The sample size was determined by Yamane formula to be 399. The study used simple random and stratified sampling, purposive sampling and multi-stage sampling procedures. Closed and open-ended questionnaires, interviews, field observations and taking notes. Secondary data and related information were obtained and reviewed from electronic depositories, libraries and institutional offices. The study adopted qualitative and quantitative analyses and the results were presented in tables and graphs. Test for significance was set at p≤0.05 for all hypotheses. The results on farmers perception and awareness showed that there was a reliable consistency of Cronbach’s Alpha (α)=0.63 with the six issues that were scrutinized and most of the farmers were aware with a weighing means scale ranging from 3.00-4.00. The descriptive statistics of socio-economic factors showed that 79% of male households head were using climate adaptation methods and females 21% only. Crop farming was the main farming practiced by the community with 47.6% total compared to pastoral farming 30.4% and mixed farming 22.0%. The majority of married households with 87.7% were using climate adaptation method compared to singles/widows with 68.8%. The majority of farmers with 57.5% work on their own farms while 42.5% had some alternatives. In the descriptive statistics of adoption to climate adaptation strategy, majority of respondents 68.8% used improved seeds as an adaptation method while 31.2% not. The study further established that, choice of farmers’ adaptive capacity to climatic variability and farmers’ socio-economic factors such gender, marital status, code of employment, size of the household and size of the farm were significantly affecting choice of adaptation to adopt p< 0.05. The study analysis deduced that climate was changing and would require adaptive methods to combat. The study recommended that; South Sudan Government should deploy more agricultural extension officers to create more awareness on climate information and to focus on awareness creation of farmers on better production techniques and climate change adaptation strategies. Also, the National Government and NGOs to promote crop insurance to farmers who are affected with floods to adapt to prone areas and establish more extension service centers for practicing good agricultural activities to increase productivity.
Adaptation to Climate Variability by Smallholder Dairy Farmers in Nyandarua County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2018) Changara, Abraham Odari
Dairy farming constitutes a significant source for livelihood to a majority of households allover the world, including Kenya. Climate variability impacts negatively on dairy farming. The smallholder dairy farmers have not appropriately domesticated the necessary adaptation mechanisms for resilience against climate variability in Nyandarua County. This study assessed the strategies and practices adopted by farmers in order to cope with climate variability and its effects on smallholder dairy farming in Nyandarua county. The aim of the study was to assess climate variability, its relationship with dairy farming and to document coping strategies for resilience against climate variability by the smallholder dairy farmers of Nyandarua County. The study adopted an integrated conceptual framework approach (combined socio-economic and biophysical) in which rainfall and temperature is seen to impact dairy systems and farmers‟ coping capacity. Data on climate variables of temperature and rainfall was obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Department(KMD), while data on dairy production was from the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB) that has the mandate of regulating, promoting and developing the dairy industry in Kenya. Primary data was collected from households using semistructured questionnairers, field observations and key informant interviews. The data collected was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and excel spreadsheet, to generate frequencies, tables, pie charts and graphs. The findings established a significant relationship between milk production and climate variability, (P=0.047) for temperature and precipitation. Further analysis shows a positive correlation of 0.784 for milk production and climate variability. The adjusted R² Coefficient of determination was found to be 0.58, implying that 58% variation in milk production could be explained by climate variability. A unit positive change in temperature would result in -0.109 change in milk production while a unit change in precipitation would have +0.398 increases in milk production. Periods with high temperature resulted in low production of milk while high precipitation gave rise to increase in milk production. Some of the strategies adopted for coping with climate variability included; the provison of adequate feeds, storage of hay and silage, rainwater harvesting, construction of cattle shades to moderate adverse weather conditions, early milking of the animals at mid-day before the animals experience high humidity and temperature stress. Majority of the respondents had access to credit during extreme climate condition as a coping strategy. The study advocates for development of irrigation infrastructure in the region so as to make water easily accessible and also augment the water harvested during the seasonal rainfall period in the County. County Meteorological Services delivery should be strengthened and enhanced so that climate forecast products may be disseminated to farmers on regular and timely basis
Adaptive Capacity and Socioeconomic Factors that Influence Small-Scale Maize Farmers Response to Climate Variability in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024-05) Busolo,Temina Arivitsa
The agriculture industry is at risk due to the worldwide challenge of climate variations. Given its excessive dependence on weather patterns, agriculture is quite susceptible to climate variability. Maize farming faces a threat due to its vulnerability to changes in climate. To lessen susceptibility and increase farmers' ability to adapt, intentional actions must therefore be pursued. The choice of adaptation strategies is paramount among other factors in cushioning maize farmers from adverse climate variability shocks. The study aimed to find out how socioeconomic variables affects small scale maize farmers selection of adaptation tactics, which in turn affects their ability to adjust to climate variability in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. The objective of the study sought to examine rainfall and temperature trends from 1989–2019 in Uasin Gishu County. The study also identified the methods small-scale maize farmers employ to adapt to climate unpredictability in Uasin Gishu County. The study looked at the socioeconomic variables that affected farmers’ choices of adaptation strategies. Additionally, the determinants of the adaptive capacity of small-scale maize farmers were assessed. The study employed a descriptive survey design, collecting data through the use of questionnaires. There were 394 small-scale maize farmers in the study's sample. The Kenya Meteorological Department provided temperature and rainfall data from 1989 to 2019 to determine variability. Decadal rainfall (F = 1.994767, p = 0.155599), mean maximum temperature (F = 2.537521, p = 0.097758) and mean minimum temperature (F = 3.089715, p = 0.061899) varied, according to the findings of the ANOVA test. Linear regression indicated an increase in rainfall (R2 = +0.1417) and increased temperatures (R2 = +0.0484). The hypothesis that stated H01: There is no significant variation in rainfall and temperature from 1989–2019 was accepted since there was no statistically significant change in rainfall and temperature patterns. Agroforestry, dry planting, water harvesting, conservation of soil moisture, adjusting crop varieties and planting dates, among other adaptation strategies were employed by the respondents. Nonetheless, adjusting planting dates was the most chosen adaptation tactic. Multivariate linear regression analysis showed land size (p = 0.010), education (p = 0.05), gender (p = 0.003) and age (p = 0.006) having a statistical significance to the choice of adaptation strategies. The hypothesis that suggested H02: there was no significant association between socioeconomic status and the choice of climate variability adaption tactics was disproved. Gender (p = 0.036) and land size (p = 0.00) influenced the remittances received. Access to labour had a significant relationship with household size (p = 0.013) and income (p = 0.010). Education level (p = 0.002) was significantly related to the maize variety chosen. The area of land owned and the number of years spent on farming influenced access to disaster relief and aid. There was a notable weak institutional capacity where government subsidies and disaster relief were lacking. In order for small-scale farmers to effectively adjust to the consequences of climatic variability, investments in enhancing their adaptive capacity are required. To strengthen their ability and to give farmers appropriate institutional support, the study recommends more collaboration between relevant government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and community-based groups.
Adaptive Capacity of Pastoralists to Climate Variability in Ngaremara, Isiolo County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Nkonge, Lisper Gakii; Felix Ming’ate; Joseph Kurauka
Pastoralism is practiced for subsistence, commercial and cultural purposes. It’s a sustainable way of utilizing ASALs and contributes to 4% of Kenya’s GDP. Climate variability, population explosion, and poverty have lowered the adaptive capacity to climate variability of Ngaremara pastoralists in Isiolo County. Therefore, this study was carried out to examine the adaptive capacity of pastoralists to climate variability in Ngaremara, Isiolo county. The study’s main objective was to evaluate the ability to adapt socially, physically, and economically to climate variability among the Ngaremara pastoralists in Isiolo County. The specific objectives were establishing the existing indigenous adaptive strategies, presenting the climatic trends for the past ten years in Isiolo County, to establish climate variations occurring over shorter timeframes as opposed to climate change that persists for more than decades, and determining adaptive capacity's internal and external hindrances. The study also aimed to deduce the strategies that enhance the willingness of the Ngaremara pastoralists to adapt to new climate variability adaptive strategies. The study used a cross-sectional research design. Systematic, simple, and purposive sampling methods were used to sample the population. Direct observation method, household interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions were used to collect primary and secondary data using interview schedule and questionnaires. Qualitative data from household interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions were analyzed according to the study’s objectives and collected using the KMacho App. The KMacho APP was used because it allows researchers to collect geographical location-specific information to monitor incidences, integrates data in the cloud database, and saves on time and cost. Quantitative data collected from household interviews and secondary sources were collected using the KMacho App and analyzed further using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SPSS v.22 and Microsoft Excel. Data was imported from KMacho App and automatically grouped into titles, labels, and names using SPSS summarized into categories and tabulated to calculate the frequency of specific themes. Data presentation is in the form of tables, figures, and graphs. The expected output was that low socioeconomic development among Ngaremara pastoralists in Isiolo County increased vulnerability to climate variability. The study proves that there is reduced adaptive capacity and their traditional methods to cope with climate variability are futile. Their living standards are deficient because their livelihood sources solely rely on pastoralism, which has been affected by climate variability. Moreover, fluctuating rainfall of between 250mm and 400mm and an annual average temperature of 290C have exposed pastoralists to drought, floods, famine, and pastoral conflicts. Still, they are willing to adopt new coping strategies for climate variability. The impact of the study will enable informed decision-making by external agencies such as policy makers, NGOs, Isiolo County Government, and the community to improve the adaptive capacity to climate variability by developing coping strategies, creating information avenues such as Early Warning Signs, and enhance development by introducing various projects to diversify livelihoods. Future research should look into dimensions of food insecurity in Ngaremara and the effects of climate variability on human health.
Adoption and use of self-sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags in Kibera slums, Nairobi County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015-10) Nderitu, Faith Wanjiku
The problem of how to dispose human waste has remained a global challenge in a world that is increasingly bound by constraints of resources population growth, rapid urbanization and corresponding levels of poverty and disease, the pressure for appropriate and sustainable solutions is mounting. Despite continued efforts to promote sanitation, a significant number of the world‟s population is still without basic sanitation. Kibera slums suffer from lack of improved sanitation facilities, including toilet, showers and sewage disposal. With few toilets and pit latrines, this has resulted in growth of “flying toilets” due to inaccessibility of toilet facilities during late hours owing to lack of even distribution and lack of convenience unresolved to insecurity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the adoption and use of self- sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags in Kibera slums, Nairobi County. Specific objectives focused on: community perception on adoption; level of awareness of the use and socio-economic and environment impact of adopting single use self-sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags. The findings may provide information to national policy makers, civil society and research organization in making informed decisions on relevant interventions on sanitation to communities living in informal settlements. The study adopted a descriptive research design using survey criteria. The study focused on the descriptions, which had a capacity to gather more information. The study was carried out in Kibera Slums, Nairobi County in two villages Silanga and Laini Saba. The study employed a number of sampling techniques including simple random and purposive sampling targeting key informants. The target population comprised 7363 and 8182 community residents‟ in both Silanga and Laini Saba respectively. Determination of the sample size was done using Fischer et al., (1998) formula. A sample of 376 was considered appropriate for the study as supported by Cresswell (2005). Data was collected by use of questionnaires, observation list and focus group discussions. The data collected in this study was entered, edited and analyzed by use of descriptive statistics. The study found that people are not entirely comfortable being seen handling the bags. Educating the community, advertising the toilet bags more aggressively, door to door campaigns among other strategies can help inform more people and encourage others to begin using the bags. The study revealed that users had to contend with poor hygiene, insecurity especially at night for women and girls, overcrowding in public toilets, inaccessibility of toilets, the high cost of using toilets and difficulty disposing human waste. The study concluded that toilet bags indeed have a positive socioeconomic and environmental impact on the community; evidenced by new sustainable ways to handle waste. The study identified gaps in community level of awareness of the use of single use self-sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags. The study recommended the Peepoo management in partnership with the government and other NGOs to enhance continuous community hygiene education awareness programs along with physical access to water supply and sanitation to positively influence change in hygiene behaviour and decrease the prevalence of risks associated with poor hygiene conditions. The study recommended an investigation on gender and sanitation programs in order to evaluate integrating gender into community sanitation programs and the perception challenges.
Adoption of Biogas Technology and Its Contribution to Livelihoods and Forest Conservation in Abogeta Division, Meru County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2018) Mwirigi, Erick K.
Fuelwood is the predominant energy source for cooking in rural households of Abogeta division in Meru County. Previously most wood was sourced from Mt. Kenya forest reserve. However, since enactment of a legislation prohibiting cutting of trees in the national forest reserves in the year 2005 by the Government of Kenya, there has been a serious shortage of wood fuel in Abogeta hence need for an alternative energy source. Biogas technology can greatly impact peoples’ livelihoods particularly in rural areas through creation of local jobs, improving agricultural production, financial diversification and provision of clean source of cooking energy. The main objective of the study was to determine the factors influencing adoption of biogas technology in rural households of Abogeta division in Meru County and assess how rapid adoption could support local livelihoods and conserve forest. Three objectives guided the study; (1) to determine factors influencing adoption of biogas technology in Abogeta division, (2) to determine the contribution of biogas to financial and time savings and how these savings are important to households in improving their lives and (3) to determine how adoption of biogas technology reduces wood fuel demand and contribute to tree cover enhancement in Abogeta division. To achieve these objectives, 230 dairy farming households were sampled. Biogas adopters were purposively selected from 68 households that had already installed the systems while 163 non-adopters were randomly selected from the study population based on administrative boundaries. Primary data were derived from field surveys using questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions. Analysis of the data was done by use of Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Descriptive statistics, tests of significance (t-tests) at 0.05 confidence level as well as multiple linear regression were used to establish relationships between variables. The study revealed that household income and education level significantly influenced the technology uptake. On the impacts of biogas technology on livelihoods, significant financial savings were realized with an average adopter household saving up to about KSh 3,000 per month upon shifting to biogas energy. Adopter households also used 3 hours less per week in firewood gathering as compared to non-adopter households. Both financial and time savings were used to improve household livelihoods by engaging in extra income generating activities and in social activities. There was also a significant decrease in wood fuel consumption with adoption of biogas. Approximately 150 Kg/household/month and 30 Kg/household/month of firewood and charcoal respectively were saved every month by adopter households. Therefore, if all the 12,100 households in the study area adopted biogas, 180 tonnes of firewood and 32 tonnes of charcoal would be saved every month which would in turn help in conserving murama (Combretum molle) and mwiria (Prunus africana) tree species which are the most preferred species for wood fuel in the study area. In conclusion, the potential of biogas technology in improving people’s livelihoods and conserving forest was found to be significant. However, household income education level and lack of affordable credit facility were found to be the key barriers to rapid adoption.
Adoption of biogas technology as an alternative energy source in Gakawa Location, Nyeri County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2018-02) Ikonya, Samuel Ndung’u
ABSTRACT This study aimed at evaluating the factors influencing the adoption of biogas as an alternative energy source in Gakawa location, Nyeri County. The study delved into the socio cultural factors which influence the adoption potential of biogas technology; the attitude towards adoption of biogas technology among the small scale farmers and the role of formal and informal institutions in the use of biogas as an alternative energy source. Using multi stage sampling a sample of 351 households was sampled to capture the experiences of biogas adopters and other potential adopters. Primary data was collected through a questionnaire consisting of both open ended and close ended questions. Secondary data was accessed from key informants such as agricultural extension officers, heads of local cooperative dairy society, and Non-Government Organization coordinators, involved in the energyenvironment landscape. Data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences and results presented in frequency tables. The study reveals that the household characteristics contributed to the attitude towards adoption. The result showed that, Biogas Technology adoption was significantly affected by the age, gender and educational level of the farmer (R2 = 0.045, 0.077 and 0.094 respectively), P < 0.05. The study revealed that 66.7 % of the respondents have poor understanding of biogas technology. The results indicated the ineffectiveness of community development officers (46.2 %), and extension officers’ failure to spend time with the farmers (48.4 %), as the main reasons that hinder adoption. The study thus revealed great gaps in the extension services envisaged to provide the requisite information r=.0.228, P=0.0001. The study recommends a participatory approach with all stakeholders towards improving rural incomes and access to affordable credit facilities. The study recommends the revitalization of the extension services in the concerned department and the strengthening of community resource groups that sensitize the local community to engage in other livelihood strategies that do not destroy the environment. This is with the aim of making adoption of biogas as an alternative energy source.
Adoption of Climate-Smart Technologies and Their Effect on Income among Agro-Pastoralists in Marsabit County, Kenya
(kenyatta university, 2023) Gudere, Ann Ngauri; Evelyn Wemali; Ezekiel Ndunda
The world is facing variable weather events and gradual climatic change and Kenya’s arid lands where pastoralism is a viable livelihood option are not exceptional. Marsabit County, inhabited by diverse pastoral and agro-pastoral groups, faces extreme climatic events that affect local livelihoods. Despite the government and development organizations disseminating climate smart technologies and practices, the communities still rely on emergency food aid which is unsustainable. Given climate-induced uncertainties, climate-smart technologies may offer viable adaptation options for agro-pastoralism based economies that enhances resilience, increases productivity and reduces greenhouse gases. This study was conceptualized in line with the action theory of adaptation to climate change leading to four objectives; analyze temperature and rainfall trends in Saku Sub-County (1980-2020), identify livestock-crop smart technologies adapted, analyze determinants of climate-smart technologies adoption and assess the impact of adoption of smart technologies on household income. The research design was a survey with a sample size of 373 households in Karare, Marsabit Central (Dakabaricha) and Sagante/Jaldesa wards. Stratified sampling was used in selecting the study sites while systematic random sampling was applied in selecting the households of the agro-pastoralists. The data was collected using questionnaires installed in Kobocollect that were administered through face-to-face interviews with agro-pastoralists, interview schedules administered to 10 key informants and focus group discussions held with 6 groups. Climate data on temperature and rainfall trends were analyzed with Mann Kendall and Sen's slopes, descriptive statistics were generated for the socio-demographic characteristics of the sampled households while determinants were assessed through multivariate probit regression and propensity matching score on the impact of climate smart technologies adoption on income. Decreasing rainfall and increasing maximum temperature trends were significantly in August and September while the minimum temperature trend was significantly increasing in all the months. Agro-pastoralists practiced crop and livestock climate smart technologies and the most adopted categories were improved and traditional crop varieties and soil fertility management (92%), followed by water and water use management (85%) while the least used was livestock management (15%). Agro-pastoralists age, household size, gender, education status, marital status, average income per month, access to credit, training, extension services and weather information influenced the adoption, with agro-pastoralists who adopted multiple climate smart technologies showing significantly higher income. The study recommends that agro-pastoralists should have timely access to weather information in order to make important decisions for adoption of climate smart technologies. Governments, research institutions and non-governmental institutions should closely work together in training and providing extension services to agro-pastoralists on livestock and crop husbandry best practices. The governments and development partners to consider socioeconomic and institutional factors when disseminating multiple crop-livestock climate-smart technologies and practices for enhanced income and more resilient communities.
Adoption of Climate-Smart Technologies and their Effect on Income among Agro-Pastoralists in Marsabit County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-10) Ngauri, Gudere Ann; Evelyn Wemali; Ezekiel Ndunda
The world is facing variable weather events and gradual climatic change and Kenya’s arid lands where pastoralism is a viable livelihood option are not exceptional. Marsabit County, inhabited by diverse pastoral and agro-pastoral groups, faces extreme climatic events that affect local livelihoods. Despite the government and development organizations disseminating climate smart technologies and practices, the communities still rely on emergency food aid which is unsustainable. Given climate-induced uncertainties, climate-smart technologies may offer viable adaptation options for agro- pastoralism based economies that enhances resilience, increases productivity and reduces greenhouse gases. This study was conceptualized in line with the action theory of adaptation to climate change leading to four objectives; analyze temperature and rainfall trends in Saku Sub-County (1980-2020), identify livestock-crop smart technologies adapted, analyze determinants of climate-smart technologies adoption and assess the impact of adoption of smart technologies on household income. The research design was a survey with a sample size of 373 households in Karare, Marsabit Central (Dakabaricha) and Sagante/Jaldesa wards. Stratified sampling was used in selecting the study sites while systematic random sampling was applied in selecting the households of the agro-pastoralists. The data was collected using questionnaires installed in Kobocollect that were administered through face-to-face interviews with agropastoralists, interview schedules administered to 10 key informants and focus group discussions held with 6 groups. Climate data on temperature and rainfall trends were analyzed with Mann Kendall and Sen's slopes, descriptive statistics were generated for the socio-demographic characteristics of the sampled households while determinants were assessed through multivariate probit regression and propensity matching score on the impact of climate smart technologies adoption on income. Decreasing rainfall and increasing maximum temperature trends were significantly in August and September while the minimum temperature trend was significantly increasing in all the months. Agro-pastoralists practiced crop and livestock climate smart technologies and the most adopted categories were improved and traditional crop varieties and soil fertility management (92%), followed by water and water use management (85%) while the least used was livestock management (15%). Agro-pastoralists age, household size, gender, education status, marital status, average income per month, access to credit, training, extension services and weather information influenced the adoption, with agro-pastoralists who adopted multiple climate smart technologies showing significantly higher income. The study recommends that agro-pastoralists should have timely access to weather information in order to make important decisions for adoption of climate smart technologies. Governments, research institutions and nongovernmental institutions should closely work together in training and providing extension services to agro-pastoralists on livestock and crop husbandry best practices. The governments and development partners to consider socioeconomic and institutional factors when disseminating multiple crop-livestock climate-smart technologies and practices for enhanced income and more resilient communities.
Adoption of energy-conservation technologies by rural households in Kathiani division Machakos district.
(2012-04-04) Karanja, Lydia Njeri
The crisis of declining availability of domestic fuel and its perceived link with environmental degradation continues to influence extensive investment in the design of energy-conserving technologies and the promotion of new forms of forestry management. These initiatives have drawn strength and impetus from the growing awareness of gender issues, along with the recognition that women tend to be affected first and most strongly by fuel shortages. Although numerous programmes have been started in Kenya to increase supply of domestic fuel, namely, planting woodlots, agro forestry, improvement of the efficiency of kilns, and use of energy-saving stoves, fuel shortages continue to be severe especially in arid and semi-arid areas. This study set out to determine factors influencing adoption or non-adoption of energy-conserving technologies in a rural setting of Kathiani Division of Machakos District. Using random sampling, a sample of ninety households was drawn to establish the said factors through the analysis of data collected by means of questionnaires. Interviews were also conducted to gather information from key informants, namely, the Home Economics Extension Officer, and the Rural Afforestation Officer of Kathiani Division. The survey data analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). This study established that factors such as: age, educational level, income level, family size, time, and occupation influence energy sources used. The findings also showed that adoption of energy-conserving technologies was influenced by age, educational level, occupation, time, income level and distance traveled to energy source in the study area. For instance, respondents from low-income households who cannot afford to buy energy-saving devices tend to use technologies that do not efficiently conserve firewood, compared to those from high-income households who adopted more efficient energy-saving devices, such as the Kuni Mbili, Maendeleo and Kenya Ceramic jikos. From the study findings, it is evident that rural households acknowledge advantages of using energy-saving devices, namely, the conservation of heat (otherwise lost by open-fire), which leads to the reduction of firewood used. However, an equally high number of the respondents used technologies that did not conserve fuel, such as, the Charcoal Metal Jiko and the Traditional three-stone fire. Not only is the adoption of energy-conserving technology low, but also the sustenance of the already adopted technologies is equally low. Non-adoption was attributed to a combination of factors. The study findings revealed a problem of lack of awareness of energy-saving technologies and recommends the need to train more extension workers to create awareness and encourage the adoption of energy-saving devices, through demonstrations, persuasions, workshops and seminars. Also rural households should be assisted to purchase clay-liners for effective construction of Kuni mbili and Maendeleo Jikos. On the issue of energy policy, the study established that if existing policies were properly implemented, then there could emerge opportunities to promote the dissemination of energy-conserving technologies. For instance, the provision of credit facilities for households to construct Kuni Mbili and Maendeleo Jikos and use of demonstration centres to educate rural households on the importance of energy-saving devices. On future research options, there is need to investigate wood production and consumption patterns under a rural scenario and to introduce alternative sources of energy. These include, solar energy in rural areas, which are not connected to national power grid line, biogas for domestic energy and tree-planting programmes for sustainable environmental protection. Such research could enable the government to develop workable renewable energy policies and achieve the goals of sustainable development.
Adoption of energy-efficient woodstoves and contribution to resource conservation in Nakuru County, Kenya
(2012-04-03) Njogu, Paul Kuria
Biomass energy provides 68% of Kenya's national energy requirements and it is expected to remain the main source of energy for the foreseeable future. The current biomass demand in Kenya is estimated at 40.5 million tonnes against a sustainable supply of 16 million tonnes. Many of the rural households use traditional stoves which have low energy efficiency leading to using more woodfuel, increase in indoor air pollution and also putting alot of pressure on the biomass sources. There have been efforts to promote use of woodfuel conservation technologies. This programme has been spearheaded by the ministry of energy, Ministry of agriculture, and many NOOs. There are technologies promoted in Kenya that can reduce the consumption of biomass energy by 80%. They include the improved charcoal stoves (KCJ) which can save upto 50%, the improved fuelwood stoves (e.g Kuni Mbili) which can save upto 50% and the fireless cookers that can save upto 50%. This study was carried out to assess the levels of acquisition and use of these technologies in Lanet Division (Urban area) and Dundori Division (Rural area) both in Nakuru County, determine the social economic factors influencing adoption as well as assess the levels of awareness of weather changes and the need for environmental conservation among the people in the study area. The research study used questionnaires, interview schedule, photography and observation in data collection. Analysis of the data was done by use of SPSS. Data was analyzed by use of; Bar charts, percentages, means and standard deviation, tTest, Pearson and Spearman Correlation test as well as multiple regression analysis. It was found out that the level of adoption of improved charcoal cookstoves (KCJ) was higher in the urban (93%) than rural areas (81 %) while the level of adoption of improved firewood stoves was quite low both in rural (9.18%) and urban (1.08%) areas. Adoption of fireless cookers was also found to be low for both rural (1.53%) and urban (8.06%). Income of the household (r-0.230) and level of education (r-0.232) were positively correlated to acquisition and use of the energy saving technologies. While the numbers of dependants (t value- -3.365), cost of improved fuelwood stoves (t-value 6.658), cost of improved charcoal stoves (t-value -7.161) and the cost of fireless cookers (t-value -11.385) all with a p-value of 0.000 were found as some of the social economic factors influencing adoption of these technologies. The level of awareness on drastic changes in weather was found to be high (90%). There is need for various stakeholders to increase diffusion of quality charcoal cookstoves at an affordable price as well as intensify promotion of firewood improved stoves especially in the rural areas where majority of the people depend on firewood as their main source of fuel. There is also need to invest in the development and promotion of other renewable energy technologies such as biogas and solar energy whose uptake was negligible in the study area.
Adoption of Human Waste Biogas Technology by Rural Households in Kiganjo Division Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2017-11) Mumbi, Mugambi Rahab
Biogas can be produced from biological waste materials which include waste from humans. Human waste can be transformed to eco-friendly and sustainable fuels that can help to reduce deforestation and methane emissions through anaerobic digestion process. This study investigated the factors that influence adoption of human waste biogas technology among households in the rural areas of Kiganjo division, Kiambu County. The objectives of the study were: to assess the level of awareness on human waste biogas technology in the community, to determine community perception towards this technology and to identify socio-economic factors that influence the adoption of this technology in Kiganjo division. Descriptive research design targeting 2,323 households in Kiganjo division was employed. Systematic random sampling was used to select 130 household heads from three locations in Kiganjo division (Mundoro, Kiamwangi and Kiganjo). A structured questionnaire was administered to acquire data on awareness, perception and opinion on adoption of human waste biogas technology. The data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Statistical package for social sciences was used to statistically analyze the quantitative data where frequencies, correlation coefficients, percentages, measures of central tendency and Chi- square were obtained. Microsoft excel was used to display the results in tables and graphs. The study established that none of the households had adopted the human waste biogas technology. The major factors that hindered adoption of this technology were identified as; low level of awareness due to inadequate information (r=0.121, p=0.169, n=130), negative perception towards the technology (r= -0.776, p=0.000, n=130) and inadequate funds for installation due to low income (r=0.311, p=0.000, n=130) of the household heads. Factors identified to be of no hindrance to adoption included; education level, age and gender. The study further established that government institutions, Non-governmental organizations and other agencies that promote biogas technology had not engaged themselves in the promotion of human waste biogas technology. This had implications on the dissemination of information, motivation and credit accessibility to the household heads. Based on the finding of the study, the ministry of energy in collaboration with Non-governmental organizations and agencies that promote biogas should sensitize local community on human waste biogas technology by providing the required information, construction of demonstration centres in highly concentrated areas like schools and market places. Also the government in conjunction with financial institutions should assist local communities with funds at subsidized interest rate for the installation of the human waste biogas units, and this will help enabling use of the technology and enhance adoption of human waste biogas technology to save forests and clean up the environment.
Adoption of Sustainable Bamboo Farming to Mitigate the Effects of Soil Degradation and to Improve Livelihood in Kinale, Kiambu County, Kenya
(kenyatta university, 2023) Maina, Joy Wamahiga; Samuel O. Ochola; Joyce Mwaniki
Bamboo is a perennial flowering plant with a distinctive life cycle: many bamboo species remain in the vegetative phase for decades, followed by mass synchronous flowering and subsequent death. Bamboos are grasses (Poaceae) that are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions with the potential to increase forests cover owing to their morphological fast growth. This study aimed at i.) identifying the level of use in sustainable bamboo farming curbing effects of soil degradation, ii.) evaluating the level of community awareness on bamboo farming and its environmental benefits, and iii.) assessing the importance of Bamboo as non-wood plant to sustain and improve community livelihoods. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 192 respondents within Kinale region, Kiambu County during a survey to gather information on bamboo farming and its impacts in curbing soil degradation. The data was analyzed on IBM® Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), Version 21. Results showed that 56.2% of the respondents in Kinale region Kiambu County were involved in bamboo farming whereby the odds were about twice (1.821, 95% CI, Lower limit =1.11; Upper limit=2.997) as great as the odds of their counterparts. Among respondents involved in bamboo farming, the highest variance of 35.8%, 29.4% and 21.33% were from respondents that considered bamboo as a sustainable alternative to trees, aware of deforestation and degradation and bamboo farming for income generation, respectively. A respondent considering bamboo as a suitable alternative to trees was twice more likely to be involved in bamboo farming [Exp (B)= 1.963, 95% CI: 0.179, 7.307; p=0.032] whereas that who considered bamboo for income generation, was thrice [Exp (B)= 3.058, 95% CI: 0.433, 2.005; p=0.025]. Bamboo farming awareness was through Agricultural Extension Officers, Community Based Organizations and Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) as reported by 46.9%, 40.1% and 13%, respectively. Majority of 83.4% practice bamboo farming for monetary benefits compared to 16.6% that is for environmental benefits. Notably, 43.2% of the respondents reported environmental improvement associated with bamboo farming. Among the bamboo farming products, posts, chairs and baskets were reported by the majority of 30.9%, 27.2% and 20.2% of the respondents, respectively. A K-mean analysis revealed two clusters based on variables environmental-related and economic sustainability livelihood-related. In the first cluster, both variables: a sustainable alternative to trees and Land improvement or reclamation had a significant impact on its aggregation. However, in the second cluster, variables: bamboo as a source of income, household size and literacy level had a significant impact on its aggregation whereas variable: main source of income has none. The majority of 77.8% of the respondents involved in bamboo farming were in Ksh. > 2,000 - < 8,000 earning categories. Therefore, the study had shown the potential of bamboo farming in mitigating soil degradation, sustain and improve community livelihoods.
Adoption status of multi-storey gardens and opportunities for vegetables production in Pumwani division, Nairobi
(2011-08-01) Karimi, W. Julia; Waswa, F.; Abwao, Peter
Pumwani division is one of the areas that have been affected by the high rate of urbanization in Nairobi. Land for agricultural production has greatly reduced posing a threat to food security among the urban poor. The contribution of urban agriculture to food security and nutrition is critical. In the recent past, the government and other stakeholders have enhanced the growth of vegetables by using multi-storey gardens. However the adoption rate among potential users remains low. This research focused on the adoption status of multi-storey gardens in the division with the aim of contributing to scaling-out this technology for increasing vegetable production. A descriptive survey with both quantitative and qualitative aspects was adopted as the research design. Data were gathered using questionnaires, observation and photography from 90 households who live in both formal and informal settlements. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that 80% of the respondents were aware of multi-storey garden farming system but the adoption rate was 60%. This was attributed to the various challenges faced by respondents such as inadequate land size, income and lack of technical skills. It further revealed that those who adopted the technology 65% grew exotic vegetables where 40% used no organic fertilizers. Social factors such as education, age, attitude and customs played a major role in the consumption of the indigenous vegetables in the division. The conclusion drawn from the results of the study was that multi-storey gardens systems were not fully adopted by the community. Most of the farmers grew exotic vegetables and organic fertilizers were not utilized to increase production. Scaling-up and out the multi-storey gardens by planting indigenous vegetables and use of organic fertilizers to increase vegetable production. This would contribute to better health and achieve food security in the division. The researcher recommends that the extension staff on the ground should continue to educate the community on the nutritive importance of indigenous vegetable and need to increase production and consumption. Further they should sensitize and train the community on the available resources that can be utilized to make organic fertilizers locally. City by-laws that do not allow farming should be revised to incorporate urban farming as a mean of improving food security in the urban setting. There is need for further study to assess the effectiveness of extension services in improving food security in the division. More should be done on vegetable value addition to ensure continuous supply throughout the year.
Agrobacterium Tumefaciens-mediated transformation of three sweet potato varieties with xerophyta viscosa Peroxiredoxin 2 gene conferring drought stress tolerance
(2011-11-11) Kamwendo, Phillip Mike; Machuka, Jesse; Kwapata, M.
Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam] is an important food crop and belongs to the family Convolvulaceae. It is a creeping herbaceous perennial vine that is cultivated as an annual crop in the world. Sweet potato is ranked fourth in terms of importance as staple food mostly in the developing world. Countries in Eastern and Southern Africa account for 76% of sweet potato production in Africa. Drought is one of the major abiotic constraints to production of many arable crops with yield losses estimated at 20% although values as high as 100% have been documented under severe conditions resulting into total crop failure. Although several strategies such as conventional breeding, crop introduction, hybridization have been employed in the past to improve drought tolerance, these efforts need to be complemented. Biotechnology offers alternative tools to the development of drought tolerant cultivars via techniques such as genetic engineering. In this study, three test cultivars of sweet potato namely KSP 36, PIPI and Zambezi were regenerated and transformed for drought tolerance via Agrobacterium tumefaciensmediated transformation system using a drought tolerant Xerophyta viscosa peroxiredoxin 2 gene (XvPrx2) isolated from "the resurrection" plant Xerophyta viscosa. The three cultivars were subjected to transformation experiments where Agrobacterium strain EHA101 bearing a standard plasmid was used to infect the transgene into the selected leaf and stem explants in a factorial design. It was established that any time interval from 30 to 60 minutes is sufficient for infection as there were no significant differences (p:0.15) in infection time regimes. Response to Agrobacterium infection, transformation and regeneration was genotype dependent. A total of 10 plantlets were regenerated from over 300 calli used giving regeneration frequencies (RF) of 0.02 for KSP 36, 0.04 for both Zambezi and PIPI. The survival rate of calli on selection was used to calculate the transformation frequencies (TF) which varied significantly (p:_0.001) among the three cultivars as follows KSP36 (0.26), PIPI (0.66) and Zambezi (0.75). Using 0.25mg/L zeatin and lmg/L Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) only promoted root formation. but when kinetin (2mg/L) and IAA (l mg/L) were used shoot formation was promoted. Leaf explants recorded 87% calli formation whereas stems recorded less than 20%. There were significant differences in cultivar response to regeneration and transformation at p:_0.001 with Zambezi giving the best response. Seven putative transformants from Zambezi cultivar were identified to have been transformed through PCR giving a transformation frequency of 3.3% and transformation efficiency of 2.67%.
Analysis of emission profiles from charcoal produced from different tree species by different pyrolysis methods.
(2015-05) Shikorire, T. J.; Ng’ang’a, M. M.; Kirubi, G.
Charcoal is a major form of biomass fuel for approximately 80% of the Kenyan population. However, the use of charcoal is associated with indoor air pollution where charcoal users are continually exposed to compounds of incomplete combustion which are known to have detrimental effects to human health. This study analyzed the emission profiles of different types of domestically used charcoal produced by different pyrolysis methods. Charcoal samples from three tree species Acacia polyacantha, Acacia xanthophloea and Eucalyptus grandis, produced by both efficient and traditional pyrolysis methods were collected from charcoal producers in Thika, Machakos and Kitengela. The volatiles were collected using a fabricated chimney placed on clay cook-stove such that smoke was vented to a glass canula where it was condensed. Extracted volatiles were then analyzed by gas chromatography-linked mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 22 PAHs were identified together with other groups of compounds that included ketones, aldehydes, phenols, alkanes, alkenes, carboxylic acids, phthalate, esters, and alcohols. The major compounds found in the smoke extracts with known health effects included naphthalene (3), 1-methylnaphthalene (14), 2-methylnaphthalene (5), fluorene (6), phenanthrene (9), anthracene (11), 1-methyl-phenanthrene (14), fluoroanthene (10), benzo(a)anthracene (12) and chrysene (13).There were significant differences (P˂0.05) in the concentrations of fluorine, naphthalene and pyrene emitted from A. polyacantha and A. xanthophlea prepared by traditional pyrolysis. From A. polyacantha concentrations were naphthalene (110.00μg/g), fluorine (72.00μg/g) and pyrene (60.00μg/g) while from A. xanthophlea, concentrations were naphthalene (140.42μg/g), Fluorene (97.35μg/g) and pyrene (71.82μg/g). The volatile emissions from charcoal prepared by traditional pyrolysis had higher concentration of PAHs relative to the accepted levels of 0.1 - 0.2mg/m3. Charcoal prepared by traditional pyrolysis emitted the highest number of PAHs at 6.25mg/m3 while those prepared by efficient pyrolysis produced the lowest concentration at 0.73mg/m3 both from A. xanthophloea. Therefore, there is need to use efficient pyrolysis methods of charcoal production. This will ensure the production of charcoal with low volatile content that are less harmful to the end users.
Analysis of spatial variation of soil fertility gradients in Vihiga and Siaya districts of Western Kenya using geostatistical techniques
(2011-12-15) Okeyo, J.M.; Wamicha, W. N.; Shisanya, C.A.
In western Kenya, several soil fertility management technologies have been developed in specific benchmark areas and then recommended to the rest of the farmers. Adoption of such technologies has been minimal at best, and, one of the reasons given for this low rate of adoption is that they did not take into consideration the existing spatial variations in biophysical and socio-economic conditions within which the local smallholder farmers operate. Against this background, a study was carried out to quantify the variability of soil fertility at different spatial scales and formulate domains for better targeting of soil fertility management recommendations. Farms were selected using a hierarchical Y-frame sampling design and in each farm information on the main biophysical factors collected. Field measurements, observations and sampling were used to collect data on the biophysical conditions, while participatory rural appraisal (PRA) was used to collect socio-economic data. All fields in each farm were characterised and top soil samples collected at a depth of 020 cm. All the sample collection points were georeferenced using a GPS system. Exploratory data analysis techniques were used to assess the effects of biophysical and socio-economic parameters on soil fertility. Geostatistical techniques of semivariography and kriging were used to explore the spatial structure of soil fertility gradients. Mixed effects modelling was used to confirm relationships, while accounting for spatial correlation structures, and understanding the variance of predicted soil organic C at different spatial scales. Predicted soil organic C was found to be spatially correlated and the spatial structure was modelled using experimental semivariograms fitted with spherical, exponential and ratio quadratic models. At the Y-level, using the exponential semivariogram model, spatial structures ranged from weak in Y3 (nugget/sill ratio > 0.75), moderate in Y2, Y5, Y7, Y8 and Y9 (nugget/sill ratio 0.25 < r < 0.75) to strong in Y 1 and Y4 (nugget/sill ratio < 0.25). On average all the three variogram models gave a nugget/sill ratio of between 0.5-0.6 indicating moderate spatial correlation. The maximum range at which this spatial structure can be reliably predicted is up to 60 m beyond which correlation errors increase significantly. All the three model variogram estimates had high nugget variances which imply that the micro-scale variation (i.e. variation below the minimum sampling interval) was large. Analysis of the estimated variance components showed that the field (residual) effect accounted for the greatest percentage (62.5%) of the variation associated with random effects. After accounting for spatial variability all the other measured parameters (fixed effects) failed to explain the large local variability, thus, posing a challenge to making soil fertility management recommendations. Future soil fertility management strategies in western Kenya should target at explaining the large spatial variability of soil fertility within the smallholder farms.