RP-Department of Pharmacy & Complementary / Alternative Medicine

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Contribution of Amaranth Grain (A. Cruentus) on dietary intake and Nutritional Status of Adults Living with HIV in Mweiga, Nyeri, Kenya
(2014) Gikonyo, N.K.; Ndungu, Zipporah W.; Kuria, E. N.; Mbithe, Dorcus
Globally, there is high prevalence of macro and micronutrient deficiency among people living with HIV (PLHIV) which can jeopardize the quality of life. Under nutrition is a major cause of death among PLHIV. Use of nutrient dense foods can be one of the interventions to deal with this challenge. Amaranth grain has high kilocalories, high biological value proteins, better amino acid and micronutrient profile than nearly all cereals. However, it is not commonly used as part of diet especially among adults. The main objective of this study was to determine the contribution of amaranth grain consumption on the dietary intake among PLHIV for improved nutritional status. Experimental design was used to conduct an intervention study which involved daily consumption of amaranth grain porridge for six months. A comprehensive sample of 66 Adults living with HIV attending Mweiga homebased care group and not on antiretroviral therapy was used. Results showed increase in mean energy consumption by 13.1% and 16.7% for males and females respectively after inclusion of amaranth grain in the diet. The proportion of respondents consuming adequate protein increased from 19.4% to 96.8% for males and from 22.9% to 97.1% for females. The proportion of the respondents who met the RDAs for zinc, iron, magnesium, and calcium increased from below 40% to over 77%. Mean weight gain during intervention was 3.35 ± 0.5 kg. Proportion of respondents who were underweight reduced from 71.2% at baseline to 7.6% at month six. Consumption of amaranth grain was positively associated with improved dietary intake among PLHIV. The porridge enabled respondents to meet the RDAs for energy, protein and micronutrients. This lead to the observed weight gain. This study recommends adoption of amaranth grain by PLHIV for improved nutritional status
Growth Disruption Activity of Polar Extracts from Kotschya Uguenensis (Fabaceae) against Anopheles Gambiae S.S. (Diptera: Culicidae) Larvae
(2008) Hassanali, Ahmed; Innocent, E.; Cosam, C.J.; Gikonyo, N.K.; Nkunya, M.H.H.
Studies on the larvicidal properties of extracts and fractions from Kotschya uguenensis Verdc. were done by long-term exposure of Anopheles gambiae s.s. larvae. The cumulative mean percentage mortalities and deformities at different concentrations for the extracts and fractions were recorded after every 24 h. Treatment of A. gambiae s.s. larvae with K. uguenensis extracts showed growth disruption by forming elongated guts and resulting in eventual death. Larvae treated with the methanol extracts from the stem and root barks, and fractions of the former extract attained complete mortality in 6–8 days at 50 and 100 ppm. More deformed larvae were observed from the methanol extract of the stem bark (40%) and methanol-soluble fraction (88%) than those treated with water-soluble fraction (22%) and methanol extract of the root bark (5%). The growth disruption may be associated with constituents in the plant that interfere with the normal endocrine system functions.
In vitro activity of aqueous and methanol extracts of Callistemon citrinus (Family Myrtaceae) against Leishmania major.
(African Forum for Health Sciences, 2014-04-29) Kinuthia, G.K.; Kabiru, Ephantus W.; Gikonyo, N.K.; Ingonga, J.M.; Kigondu, E.M.; Anjili, C.O.
Leishmania major is a protozoan parasite that causes cutaneous leishmaniasis and the standard drugs are expensive and toxic. Cheaper and safer natural drugs are therefore needed. In this study, the in vitro efficacy of crude extracts of callistemon citrinus were tested against l. Major. Controls were anti leishmanial drugs pentostam and liposomal amphotericin b. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of c. Citrinus crude aqueous and methanolic extracts were 5mg/ml and 1mg/ml respectively compared to 12.5µg/ml and 6.25µg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin b respectively. The ic50 for c. Citrinus extracts against promastigotes ranged from 297.75 to 572.69µg/ml compared to 0.26 and 0.82µg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin b. The ic50 for c. Citrinus extracts against vero cells ranged from 467µg/ml to 1314.65µg/ml. The promastigotes’ viability after treatment with aqueous and methanolic extracts was 69.58% and 75.74% respectively. At 125µg/ml, the aqueous and methanolic c. Citrinus extracts had in vitro amastigotes’ infection rates (irs) of 77.0±2.50 % and 77.5±3.50% respectively. The multiplication indices (mis) and irs of amastigotes treated with c. Citrinus crude aqueous extracts and those treated with crude methanolic extracts differed insignificantly (p > 0.05). C. Citrinus methanolic extracts stimulated production of about 20µm nitric oxide in balb/c mice peritoneal macrophages suggesting immuno-modulatory role of the extracts. The crude aqueous and methanolic extracts of c. Citrinus were therefore concluded to be relatively less toxic and possessed in vitro anti-leishmanial activity against l. Major promastigotes and amastigotes.
In Vitro and in Vivo Activities of Blends of Crude Aqueous Extracts from Allium Sativum L, Callistemon Citrinus (Curtis) Skeels and Moringa Stenopetala (Baker F) Cufodontis against Leishmania Major.
(Open Access Science Research Publisher, 2013-06-18) Gikonyo, N.K.; Kinuthia, G.K.; Anjili, C.O.; Kigondu, E.M.; Ingonga, J. M.; Kabiru, Ephantus W.
Leishmania major caused cutaneous leishmaniasis leads to painful skin sores in humans and usual drugs are expensive, toxic, and require prolonged use. The in vitro and in vivo efficacy of aqueous crude extracts from Callistemon citrinus flowers (B), Allium sativum bulbs (C) and Moringa stenopetala leaves (A) against L. major was studied. Controls were pentostam, liposomal amphotericin B, and phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Dried and ground plant materials were soaked in distilled water at 70oC for 1.5 hours, filtered and freeze dried to obtain aqueous extracts. L. major infected BALB/c mice were treated orally or intra peritoneally (ip) with blends of the extracts. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of single extracts ranged from 3 to 5mg/ml while IC50 from 297 to 575µg/ml compared to MICs of 12.50 and 6.25µg/ml and IC50 of 0.26 and 0.82µg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B respectively. Blends of M. stenopetala and C. citrinus (AB), M. stenopetala and A. sativum (AC), and C. citrinus and A. sativum (BC) at concentrations based on MICs of individual extracts were active at ratios 1:1, 1:9 and 1:1 with promastigotes’ viabilities of 33.82%, 17.41% and 60.74 % respectively. IC50 for blends AB, AC, and BC ranged from 174µg/ml to 1314µg/ml against promastigotes. The individual extracts comprising blends AB, AC and BC interacted additively and synergistically in several combination ratios. Blend AC (1:1) at 125µg/ml had in vitro infection rate (IR) of 71% and multiplication index (MI) of 48.20% for L. major amastigotes compared to IR of 67% and MI of 47.51% for pentostam at 12.50µg/ml. Oral blend BC (1:1) reduced the mice footpad lesion size significantly (P < 0.05). Both oral blends BC and AC reduced mice spleen amastigotes by 48.33% and 60.94% with total LDUs of 6.35 ± 0.66 and 4.80 ± 0.95 respectively. Oral blend AB (1:1) lowered spleen amastigotes by 6.5% with total LDU of 11.49 ± 6.84. In conclusion, aqueous blends of C. citrinus, A. sativum and M. stenopetala extracts that interacted additively or synergistically were less toxic but active against L. major.
Investigation of Selected Pathogenic Microorganisms and Toxic Elements in Herbal Materials Used in Management of Oral Health in Nairobi County, Kenya
(Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 2013) Gikonyo, N.K.; Ngari, Florence W.; Wanjau, R. N.; Njagi, E.N.M.
Traditional medical practitioners in Kenya have used herbal materials to treat oral diseases for several years.However data on contamination of the herbal medicine with microbial pathogens and toxic metals is lacking.The aim of this study was to investigate presence of selected pathogenic microorganisms and selected elemental levels of herbal materials used in management of oral health in Nairobi. Herbal materials were purchased from Nairobi County and taken to the laboratory for analysis. Microbial contaminants were analyzed by inoculating the herbal samples in selective media followed by macroscopic, microscopic and biochemical studies to identify the microorganisms. Mineral elements were investigated by Total Reflection XRay Fluorescence (TXFR). Results indicate that herbal materials are contaminated with, Escherichia coli,Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi. The herbal materials are also contaminated with aluminium,chromium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc and lead at various concentrations. The study concludes that some herbal materials in the market are not safe for use by humans orally.
Nutritional and functional properties of a complementary food based on Kenyan amaranth grain (Amaranthus cruentus)
(African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 2012) Gikonyo, N.K.; Mburu, M.W.; Kenji, G.M.; Mwasaru, A.M.
The objective of this study was to determine the nutritional and functional properties of Amaranthus cruentus grain grown in Kenya for preparation of a ready-to-eat product that can be recommended as infant complementary food. Amaranth grains were subjected to steeping and steam pre-gelatinization to produce a ready-to-eat nutritious product with improved solubility during reconstitution. The effect of processing on the functional and nutritional properties of amaranth grain was analyzed. Two blends were prepared from raw and processed amaranth grains. Standard procedures of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) were used to determine the proximate chemical composition. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) was used quantify amino acid, water soluble vitamins, α-tocopherols and phytates, while Atomic Absorption Flame Emission spectrophotometry was used to determine the mineral element composition. Fatty acid composition was determined using Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC). Tannin composition was determined using vanillin hydrochloric acid method. The overall results indicated that processing amaranth grain did not significantly affect its nutritional and physicochemical properties. Amaranth grain product was rich in protein with 0.5 g/10g of lysine, a limiting amino acid in cereals, and methionine, a limiting amino acid in pulses. The product had good amount 44.4 mg/100g of α-tocopherols important for infant development. The product was also rich in oleic acid (36.3%) and linoleic acid (35.9%) with some amounts of linolenic acid (3.4%) that are important for infant growth. It also had good amounts of minerals of importance such as potassium (324.4 mg/100g), phosphorous (322.8 mg/100g), calcium 189.1 (mg/100g), magnesium (219.5 mg/100g), iron (13.0 mg/100g) and zinc (4.8 mg/100g). Considering amaranth grain product fed to infant three times a day, at a reconstitution of 15% product, the levels of magnesium, manganese and tocopherols were far above the recommended intakes, while protein, phosphorous, iron, zinc, riboflavin and niacin were above the average requirements. Therefore, reconstituting the product with milk would enrich the deficient nutrients, especially for iron and zinc which are crucial nutrients for infants. The processing method is a practical approach aimed at combating the problem of malnutrition among infants and young children in Kenya and other developing countries. The product developed in this study would also be appropriate for use in geriatrics care and also in immuno-compromised individuals. The technique in this study can be easily adopted at both household and village levels to produce high protein-energy weaning food to help enhance the nutritional status of Kenyans.
Optimization of the Period of Steeping and Germination for Amaranth Grain
(Journal of Agriculture and Food Technology, 2011) Gikonyo, N.K.; Okoth, Judith Kanensi; Ochola, Sophie; Makokha, Anselimo
Properties of a Complementary Food based on Amaranth Grain (Amaranthus cruentus) Grown in Kenya
(Journal of Agriculture and Food Technology, 2011) Gikonyo, N.K.; Mburu, Monica W.; Glaston, M. Kenji; Mwasaru, Alfred M.
Amaranth grain (Amaranthus cruentus) is a pseudo cereal consumed in various parts of the world with potential as a source of dietary nutrients. Amaranth grain is a good source of protein and vitamins and therefore is used largely for feeding children and the elderly. Although it can be used to alleviate malnutrition, its processing and nutritional characteristics are not well established. Development of new products from amaranth will expand utilization of this raw material as cereal-based foods which play an important role in the diets of many people in Kenya. The aim of this study was to determine the nutritional and functional properties of Amaranthus cruentus grain grown in Kenya for preparation of a ready-to-eat product that can be recommended for nutritional interventions as infant complementary food. The effect of processing on the physicochemical and nutritional properties of amaranth grain was analysed. The functional properties, acceptability and stability of amaranth grain product were also determined. The treatment structure involved ungelatinized (raw) amaranth grain flour used as the control and pregelatinized amaranth grain flour referred to as the product. The product was well accepted with 20 minutes steaming period considered as the average time required to acquire a ready to eat product. The colour of raw amaranth grain was cream with a lightness (L*) value of 79.4, which slightly reduced after processing to 74.1, giving a slightly dark cream product. A notably high fat, protein and ash content was demonstrated, both in raw and processed grain. The proximate analysis mean values for raw and processed grain were moisture 10.2% and 2.4%; protein 17.2 and 16.7%; fat 7.0%, 7.0% ash 2.7 and 2.6%; crude fiber 3.8 and 3.1%; carbohydrates 59.2 and 68.3%, respectively. Amaranth grain contained good amount of unsaturated fatty acids 76.1%, with predominant ones being oleic 36.3% and linoleic 35.9%. The fatty acid profile associated with good amount of protein makes pregelatinized amaranth grain product a nutritionally balanced food appropriate for infant feeding. Amaranth grain product was rich in potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium, which were not significantly (P>0.05) affected by the processing method. The tannins significantly (P≤0.05) decreased during processing while phytates were not affected. The water soluble vitamins reduced during processing which affects the nutritional value of the product. However the product was rich in tocopherols which are essential for infant growth and development. The amino acids composition of processed amaranth grain were not significantly (P≤0.05) affected by the processing method with essential ones identified as were histidine, threonine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine and lysine. Processing affected the functional properties of amaranth grain with water absorption capacity increasing from 343.9 g/100 g for the raw grain samples to 471.3 g/100 g for the product. However the protein water solubility decreased from 44. 1% to 27.4%. The dilution factor for the amaranth grain product was found to be 15 g/100ml with an acceptable viscosity for infant feeding. Due to moisture reduction in the product the bulk density reduced from 0.7 g/ml for the raw sample to 0.5 g/ml for the product. This study achieved the objective of developing a complementary product of adequate nutritive value that can be prepared using locally available resources and technology. Steeping and steam pregelatinization of amaranth grain produced a ready nutritious product with improved solubility during reconstitution, suitable for infant feeding.
Toxicity and efficacy of aqueous crude extracts from Allium sativum, Callistemon citrinus and Moringa stenopetala against L. Major
(Kabarak University, 2015-09) Gikonyo, N.K.; Kinuthia, Geoffrey K.; Anjili, Christopher O.; Kabiru, Ephantus W.; Kigondu, Elizabeth M.; Ingonga, Johnny M.
Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) treatment involves pentavalent antimonials, amphotericin B, pentamidine, miltefosine among others. These drugs are toxic, costly, and require prolonged use. CL is a protozoan skin infection which may lead to disfiguring and stigmatization. In Kenya, CL is common in Baringo County where it is caused by Leishmania major and transmitted by infected female phlebotomine sand fly. Leishmaniases are common in poverty stricken areas where victims opt for local herbal therapies. Herbs used haven’t been tested scientifically to verify their toxicity and efficacy. The current study determines in vitro toxicity and in vivo efficacy of aqueous crude extracts of Moringa stenopetala, Callistemon citrinus, and Allium sativum against L. major. The IC50 of aqueous extracts against promastigotes ranged from 297μg/ml to 575μg/ml compared to Pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B with IC50 of 0.26μg/ml and 0.82μg/ml respectively. The viability of promastigotes upon exposure to extracts ranged from 52.55% to 60.57%. Similarly the IC50 of extracts against vero cells ranged between 467μg/ml to 2105μg/ml compared to 108μg/ml and 60μg/ml for pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B respectively. Orally administered A. sativum reduced L. major caused footpad lesions significantly (P < 0.05) when compared to control PBS. The efficacy of oral C. citrinus extracts (B) in reducing amastigotes in spleens of infected BALB/c mice was 82.99%, followed by oral M. stenopetala (A) at 66.96% and oral A. sativum (C) at 60.37% compared to pentostam and liposomal amphotericin B at 66.40% and 60.62% respectively. The difference between the mean total LDUs for aqueous oral C. citrinus extracts and control oral PBS was significant (P = 0.017). It was concluded that crude aqueous extracts of A. sativum, M. stenopetala, and C. citrinus show antileishmanial activity at low toxicity. Inclusion of garlic and moringa in the diets of people in leishmaniases foci should be emphasized.

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