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Item Mother tongue and education in Africa: Publicising the reality(Multilingual Education, 2014-07) Njoroge, Martin C.; Kioko, Angelina N.; Ndung’u, Ruth W.; mutiga, JayneVaried realities surround the use of mother tongue education in Africa. These realities are entrenched in the attitudes and misconceptions that have gone unchallenged due to inadequate literature on the successful use of mother tongues in the classroom and beyond. The realities discussed in this paper include the frustrations of children introduced to education in a foreign language; misconceptions about the success of mother tongue education; educational benefits of mother tongue education; and mother tongues and enhanced economic opportunities. The foci of this paper are the success stories from Africa and the economic benefits in the use of the mother tongue in creative media or economies. These success stories are a way of getting to stakeholders to invest in mother tongue education for there are returns on such investment. The stories are also a way of challenging scholars to get out of the conference rooms and do something gainful with the mother tongues.Item Utilizing Resources in Linguistic Minority Communities to Enhance Acquisition of Literacy Skills among Learners: Evidence from Maasai, Turkana and Nubian Language Groups in Kenya(2014-06-17) Njoroge, Martin C.; Mwangi, Phyllis W.; Furaha, EmmanuelThe Language in Education Policy in Kenya supports the education of children in their mother tongue (MT) for the first three years of primary. However, this policy has not been implemented amongst the minority language groups in Kenya, mainly because most of the languages involved have not been developed. Consequently, some minority communities are forced to use MT materials written in the neighboring majority languages. Minority languages, just as the dominant languages, carry with them a wealth of knowledge about the local ecosystem and act as a repository of a speech community’s history, traditions, arts and ideas (Kamwangamalu, 2008). Thus when a language is lost, much more is lost than just its basic function as a tool of expression. There is, therefore, need for documentation of the available unwritten resources in minority languages because every one of the world’s languages is unique and invaluable. The issue of literacy among linguistic minorities forms the gist of the proposed colloquium. The colloquium will be based on a research done on oral literature genres in three minority languages in Kenya: Maasai, Turkana and Nubian, which were randomly sampled. Using oral literature samples from these minority languages, we shall illustrate the wealth of resources and knowledge that can be harvested, which, in turn, can be used in enhancing acquisition of literacy skills among learners. We argue that if these oral literature materials are selected carefully, they will form useful resources in the achievement of literacy for all and in instilling social values because most oral literature genres contain useful lessons where good is rewarded and evil punished.Item Negotiating Educational, Language, Religious, Ethnic and Cultural Differences Encountered by Adolescent Refugees: A Case Study of Dadaab Refugee Camp in Kenya, Africa.(2014-06-17) Njoroge, Martin C.Due to political instability in the Horn of Africa and Great Lakes regions, Kenya has witnessed an influx of refugees from surrounding countries like Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Rwanda and Congo. Most of these immigrants are accommodated in Daadab refugee camp, the world’s largest refugee camp. Though the immigrants are of different gender, religion, ethnicity, education level, culture and age, they are expected to fit into the laid down structures in the camps, their socio-cultural and religious differences notwithstanding. Focusing on 350 adolescent refugees in Dadaab Camp, the study traces the various ways in which refugees deal with the challenges they encounter in their receiving country: language barrier, a foreign education curriculum, ethnic stereotypes and attitudes, gender, religious and cultural conflicts. The study seeks to answer the following question: Do the religious institutions of the receiving country accommodate the adolescent immigrants? How does an adolescent immigrant negotiate around language bottlenecks? How does the adolescent negotiate around culture clash that is in every aspect of his or her life; may it be clothing, relationships with the opposite gender or even food and nutrition? What forms of discrimination does the adolescent immigrant face in the receiving country, especially from the peers? How does the immigrant counter ethnic stereotypes and attitudes? How does the immigrant cope with the different education system in the receiving country? What structures are put in place to facilitate the refugees’ smooth transition into the culture, education and language of the receiving country? This study utilizes the Everett S. Lee (1966) Theory of Migration to evaluate the factors causing migration: push and pull factors. The study will also make use of Krashen’s (1985) Acculturation theory to assess the process of adapting to the new cultures and to explain how the adolescent immigrants in Dadaab refugee camp deal with many conflicts that they encounter in the process. Stratified random sampling method will be used to select the 350 adolescents that will fit the sample frame: gender, ethnicity, education levels, religion and age. The study will adopt a descriptive research design and will use ethnographic qualitative techniques in data collection. The methods of data collection will be informal conversations, focus group discussions, in- depth interviews. The research instruments will be a tape recorder, an interview schedule, topics for discussion, and a questionnaire. The findings of this study are expected to highlight clearly to what extent the new environment accommodates or excludes an adolescent immigrant. It will also clearly show the existing avenues created in the receiving country to make the adolescent immigrant cope with physical, emotional, social, mental and psychological changes and growth taking place in him or her.Item Enhancing the effectiveness of collaboration between directors from the Chinese and host institution(2014-06-17) Njoroge, Martin C.The daily operations in Confucius Institutions are conducted jointly by a Local Director appointed by the host institution and a Chinese Director appointed by the Chinese partner University. Whereas the local director is familiar with the local regulations governing the institution and minor but significant aspects such as the local language, the local culture, the local infrastructure among others, the Chinese director is new to the country and requires support and help for smooth integration into the life in both the host institution and local community. On the other hand, the Local Director is new to the concept of the Confucius Institute, Chinese Language and Culture, effective running of the Confucius Institute, Cultural and language activities that the students at the Institute can be engaged in. Thus, he or she will need the help of the Chinese Director in understanding these crucial features whose understanding is necessary for the smooth operation of the Confucius Institute. The Local Director and the Chinese Director should strive to work closely to coordinate the activities at the Institute. The Institute should organize trainings on teaching methodology for the teaching staff of Confucius Institute periodically. Through the two directors, Confucius Institutes should strive to initiate and organize academic and cultural exchanges between the two collaborating Institutions. Confucius Institutes should aggressively market its programs and reach out to Chinese business communities in the local community so as to increase enrolment and raise funds for sustainability purposes. The two Directors should see to it that the Confucius Institutes engage the students more in cultural activities and also oversee the establishment of Chinese classrooms at both primary and secondary levels in the country where the Confucius Institute is located. What the above paragraphs imply is that both the Local Director and the Chinese Director should cooperate and learn from each other if the Institute is to grow and her goals realized in the long run. The two should work together for the good of the institute. This paper, therefore, addresses ways in which collaboration between Chinese and Local Directors can be enhanced to ensure successful operation and administration of the Confucius Institute.Item Enhancing proficiency in African languages: the role of study abroad programs(2014-06-17) Njoroge, Martin C.; Nyakundi, Augustus O.Research indicates that study abroad programs play a key role in promoting proficiency in foreign languages. The research on which this paper is based sought to investigate the role of study abroad programs in enhancing proficiency in African languages. The study population comprised 15 university students from United States who had traveled to Kenya in 2010 to learn Swahili for one semester. The students were exposed to various domains of the use of Swahili language and were immersed in a number of contexts where they received much input in the language. The analysis of the oral and written tests showed that learners were able to express themselves coherently, precisely and confidently in Swahili. In this the paper, therefore, the crucial role of study abroad programs in enhancing proficiency in African languages is affirmed. The paper concludes that study abroad programs are highly beneficial to learners of foreign languages.Item Acquisition of English Vocabulary among Kenyan Learners: Challenges and Implications for Classroom Teaching Practice(2014-06-17) Njoroge, Martin C.; Ndung’u, Ruth W.Item “Nihao Kenniya!” Promoting Intercultural Communication between China and Kenya: The Role of Confucius Institutes(2014-06-17) Njoroge, Martin C.The Chinese language is increasingly becoming popular because of the pride of place that China occupies globally. The popularity of the language has been rapidly facilitated by the establishment of the Confucius Institutes, which are mandated with the responsibility of introducing Chinese language and culture to non-Chinese population. The question is: has this move enhanced cross-cultural communication between Chinese and non-Chinese people. Kenya has three Confucius Institutes at the University of Nairobi, Egerton University and Kenyatta University. These three institutes offer various Chinese courses to Kenyans interested in acquiring competence in Chinese and understanding Chinese rich culture. Students who excel in these courses get a chance to proceed to China for further studies. The paper seeks to explore the role of Confucius Institutes in promoting intercultural communication between China and Kenya. 831 students of Chinese at Confucius Institute at Kenyatta University formed the target population. A sample of 120 students, selected randomly, filled in a questionnaire that was designed to help in assessing the role of the Confucius Institutes in facilitating cross-cultural communication. Data were analysed qualitatively and the results interpreted and discussed. The general finding is that Confucius Institutes are a bridge between China and Kenya and they are a useful vehicle in promoting understanding between Kenyan and Chinese cultures.Item Variations in spoken English used by teachers in Kenya: pedagogical implications(2014-06-16) Njoroge, Martin C.The research reported in this paper identifies and describes phonological and grammatical variations in the English spoken by teachers at Kenyan primary school level, correlates the variations observed with the teachers‟ amount of education completed in the English language and discusses pedagogical implications of the emergent patterns. First, the results indicate that the teacher‟s spoken English varies from the British standard variety - the model of correctness at all the education tiers in Kenya - and second, that the amount of education a speaker has completed in the English language significantly influences language variability. The findings imply that if more primary school teachers were to receive further exposure to English grammar and phonology through the continuing education programs available in Kenyan universities, their spoken English would then vary less from the standard English and international mutual intelligibility would be improved.Item Utilizing Phonological Knowledge of Previously Learned African Languages to Enhance Acquisition of Chinese Phonology: A Case Study of Learners of Chinese as a Fourth Language at Confucius Institute at Kenyatta University, Africa(2014-06-16) Njoroge, Martin C.The Chinese language has been enjoying increasing popularity in Kenya, where the first Confucius Institute in Africa was established in 2005. By the time most learners of Chinese at the Confucius Institute at Kenyatta University are being exposed to the language, they have already mastered language skills in their indigenous African languages; Kiswahili and English (the official languages); and sometimes French, German or Japanese, which are taught in Kenyan schools as foreign languages. Thus the Chinese learner is already competent in over three languages, with different phonological, syntactic and morphological structures by the time he or she is being introduced to Chinese at the Institute. The thesis of this paper is that the knowledge that the learners have acquired in these three or four languages can be a useful resource in teaching of Chinese. This paper purposes to investigate how the phonological knowledge that learners of Chinese at the Confucius Institute at Kenyatta University have garnered from their acquisition/learning of English, Kiswahili and their respective first languages can be utilized by teachers at the Institute to enhance acquisition of speaking skills in Chinese. Data on which the paper is based were collected during classroom lessons of the certificate in Chinese language class in the 2010/2011 school year. The class comprised 30 students. Data were collected through a questionnaire and observation of classroom interactions to capture the information on how the teachers and learners made use of the already acquired phonological knowledge to explain and enhance understanding of phonological phenomena in Chinese, thus promoting acquisition of speaking skills in Chinese. The tenets of Selinker’s (1972) Interlanguage theory guided the analysis of data and helped in the explanation of the emerging patterns. It is hoped that the findings have shed light on the usefulness of the already acquired knowledge of first, second or third languages in promotion of language proficiency and intercultural competency in Chinese and previously learned languages.Item The Use of Crossword Puzzles as a Vocabulary Learning Strategy: A Case of English as Second Language in Kenyan Secondary Schools(International Journal of Current Research, 2013) Njoroge, Martin C.; Ndung’u, Ruth W.; Gathigia, Moses GatambukiThis paper focuses on the application of crossword puzzles in the teaching of vocabulary in English as Second Language (ESL) classrooms. A pre-test was used to measure the learners’ previous knowledge of English vocabulary in a Form 2 class. The pre- test was marked and recorded. A comprehension passage was composed by the researchers and read by both the control and experimental classes. While the control class was exposed to the Traditional Lexical Pedagogy in the teaching of vocabulary the experimental cohort was exposed to a crossword puzzle. A post-test was administered at the end of the study to measure whether there was a significant difference in scores between the experimental and control groups. The scores were tabulated and analyzed quantitatively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences and emerging patterns discussed. Levene's Test for Equality of Variances was then employed. The general finding is that the use of crossword puzzles in the teaching of English as Second Language is an effective strategy of vocabulary instruction. The study concludes that the use of crossword puzzles is of pedagogical significance as it helps learners enlarge vocabulary and deepen their mastery of the English lexis.Item The Study of English Animal Idioms: The Nexus between Theory and Applications(2014-06-13) Njoroge, Martin C.; Gathigia, Moses GatambukiAvailable literature on English language teaching reports that animal idioms display semantic opacity and make it difficult for a second language learner to comprehend meaning. This study, therefore, set out to analyse 20 purposively sampled English animal idioms in order to establish the nexus between theory and applications of idioms. To achieve the objective of this study, the fundamental principles of the Hybrid model of idiom processing which combines both non-compositional and compositional approaches were adopted. The study adopted a survey research design because the focus was on analysing sampled English animal idioms that could be used to highlight the nexus between theory and applications. The data for this study were gathered manually from the Macmillan English Dictionary (2007 edition), Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2010 edition) and the internet. Content analysis guided the analysis of the English animal idioms in order to identify the parts of the idioms that were decompositional and those that were non-decompositional. The study found that the Hybrid model of idiom processing not only contributes a significant piece to the jigsaw of comprehension of English animal idioms, but also insights to scholars for further research in English idioms. Thus, this study recommends a shift in paradigm from traditional methods of teaching idioms to the Hybrid model of idiom processing.Item Tthe phonetic status of (r) in Gĩkũyũ, a Kenyan bantu language: an acoustic analysis.(2014-06-13) Njoroge, Martin C.; Ndung’u, Ruth W.The phonetic status of some speech sounds presents a challenge in some African languages, especially those whose phonology has not been studied extensively using speech analyzers. Issues arise over the place or the manner of articulation of such phonemes. (r) is one of the speech sounds in Gĩkũyũ that presents a challenge in terms of determining its manner of articulation. Though the occurrence of the speech sound (r) in Gĩkũyũ is undisputed, there is no consensus on its phonetic description. The question this article sought to answer is whether the speech sound is a trill, tap or approximant. The article is based on a descriptive research that adopted a qualitative design. Data were collected from forty eight native speakers of Gĩkũyũ. The variables taken into consideration were age, gender, education and dialect. Data was collected using two research instruments: a wordlist and guided conversations. The two research instruments took care of the occurrence of (r) in word initial and word medial positions. The data were analysed using the WaveSurfer speech analyser program and native listeners acoustic cues to determine the manner of articulation. The analyses were presented using graphical representation in waveforms. The findings indicate that (r) is an alveolar approximant and not a trill or a tap. The recommendation of the authors is that there is need to revise the Gĩkũyũ phonemic inventory in order to capture the correct manner of articulation. There is also need for speech research on sounds whose phonetic status is disputed such as the prenasalized stops so as to describe them accurately tooItem The Efficacy of Songs in the Acquisition of English Articles and Nouns in a Multilingual Setting in Kenya, Africa: A Case Study of Grade 4 Class in Kenyan Primary Schools.(2014-06-13) Njoroge, Martin C.; Gathigia, Moses GatambukiThis research was conducted using a pretest / posttest paradigm to test the efficacy of songs in the acquisition of English articles and nouns by learners in a multilingual setting in Kenya, Africa. Two Grade Four classes in two elementary schools, one in an urban area and the other in a rural setting, were sampled for this study. A pretest on articles and noun plural formation was administered in each school, marked and results recorded. The experimental class was exposed to a Task-Based Language teaching method that utilised songs as a tool of teaching while the control class was exposed to regular teaching. A posttest, the same test administered as a pretest, was given to the two groups. The scores recorded in both tests were analyzed quantitatively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences and analysis presented in tables and graphs. Levene's Test for Equality of Variances was then employed. The general finding is that the use of songs in the teaching of English as a second language is effective as attested by the high performance of the experimental classes in the two schools.Item The Application of Songs in the Teaching of Swahili Grammar Abstract(2014-06-13) Njoroge, Martin C.Linguists posit that children learn a second language if exposed to interesting activities like songs. Songs can be of great value in learning as they capture the children’s attention and guide them through the learning environment. In addition, songs also enhance students’ receptivity and help students understand the target language. The research on which this paper is based set explored the application of songs in the teaching of Swahili tense and negation. The data were qualitatively analyzed and the emergent findings support the claim that the use of songs reinforces acquisition of the grammatical structures. In addition, the paper discusses the findings and proposes recommendations for pedagogyItem Empowering street children in Kenya: the role of education(2014-06-13) Njoroge, Martin C.Education is an important tool that can be used to empower marginalized groups so that they can be integrated in the development of a country. This importance notwithstanding, many street children in Kenya have not been to school and are thus disadvantaged when it comes to participation in the affairs of the nation. This study set out to investigate the educational levels of Nairobi’s street children specifically focusing on their literacy and numeracy skills. It further aimed to establish their career aspirations and the foreseen challenges in the pursuit of their dreams and vision. The location of the study was Nairobi, Kenya. Judgmental sampling method and social network techniques were used to reach the required sample of 120 street children. Interview was the main data collection method. The data were later analyzed, the patterns presented in tables, followed by the discussion of the results. The findings of the study indicate that street children in Kenya use Sheng to interact with one another while on the streets. They do not have mastery of English, the official language in Kenya. Nevertheless, the street children could speak their mother tongues fluently but very few of them could write or read texts in the languages. In the acquisition of numeracy skills, the street children were able to count from one to one hundred in Kiswahili. Some of them could count in English too, and also in their mother tongues. Unfortunately, they were not able to do simple arithmetic involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. This is because they had not been to school where such skills are usually acquired. In terms of aspirations, the street children had great dreams of where they wished to be in the near future. Some wanted to become pilots, doctors, teachers, lawyers and others wished to be car mechanics, salonists and pastors. They also knew that for them to achieve their vision, they would need to receive quality education so that they could compete favorably with their age mates in the regular schools. The findings imply that there is need to address the educational needs of the street children so that they can access formal education. The establishment of an education for life center that would act as a transition between the streets and formal schools for the street children has been proposed. The study has also outlined a syllabus that can be followed in the teaching of the English language at the centerItem Harmonizing the Orthography of GĨkŨyŨ and KĨkamba(2014-06-13)Item Education as a tool for empowering Kenya's street children for realization of Millennium Development Goals(2014-06-13) Njoroge, Martin C.; Ndung’u, Ruth W.Education is an empowering process that enables those who have been marginalized in the social, economic, political and cultural spheres to claim their status as fully participating members of the society. Nevertheless, research conducted in Kenya reveal that about 300,000 street children in Kenya have had no formal education and are hardly proficient in the two co-official languages used in the country – English and Swahili- languages in which vital information leading to improved livelihoods and participation in national development is available. Drawing evidence from a study on the literacy and numeracy needs of street children in Kenya, the paper argues that street children need to be equipped with appropriate knowledge through acquisition of numeracy, language and literacy skills for them to be fully empowered to be able to participate in the country's development and by extension help the country in the achievement of the first and second Millennium Development Goals: eradicating extreme hunger and poverty, and achievement of universal primary educationItem Task based learning as an alternative approach to the teaching of languages in Kenyan schools: towards best practices(2014-06-12) Njoroge, Martin C.; Gathigia, Moses Gatambuki; Babusa, Omar HamisiAlthough language syllabuses in Kenyan primary and secondary schools encourage teachers to involve learners in their own learning, actual classroom practices reveal that this is not fully implemented for various reasons. Nevertheless, one of the approaches to the teaching of languages advocated for by language specialists is Task Based Learning (TBL), in which the central focus is completion of tasks that involve learners in language use in real life situations. In so doing, learners develop excellent communication and social interaction skills. The idea is for learners to learn the target language by being exposed to meaningful task-based activities. They perform tasks in pairs or in small groups after which they compile a report and present their findings to the class in written or spoken form. The research on which this paper is based investigated the use of TBL as an alternative to the teaching of English in Kenyan primary schools. A school in Nyeri County, Kenya, was purposively sampled. Learners in the experimental class were taught using TBL while those in the control class were taught using the Presentation, Practice and Performance (PPP) approach. A pre-test and a post test were administered before and after the teaching. Afterwards, the scores were tabulated and analyzed quantitatively and the emerging patterns discussed. The findings revealed that many benefits are derived from the adoption of TBL in the language classroom. Thus, we recommend that TBL be adopted in the teaching of languages in Kenyan schools and that language teachers be trained on this approachItem Task Based Learning as an Alternative Approach to the Teaching of Languages in Kenyan Schools: Towards Best Practices(2014-06-12) Njoroge, Martin C.; Gathigia, Moses GatambukiAlthough language syllabuses in Kenyan primary and secondary schools encourage teachers to involve learners in their own learning, actual classroom practices reveal that this is not fully implemented for various reasons. Nevertheless, one of the approaches to the teaching of languages advocated for by language specialists is Task Based Learning (TBL), in which the central focus is completion of tasks that involve learners in language use in real life situations. In so doing, learners develop excellent communication and social interaction skills. The idea is for learners to learn the target language by being exposed to meaningful task-based activities. They perform tasks in pairs or in small groups after which they compile a report and present their findings to the class in written or spoken form. The research on which this paper is based investigated the use of TBL as an alternative to the teaching of English in Kenyan primary schools. A school in Nyeri County, Kenya, was purposively sampled. Learners in the experimental class were taught using TBL while those in the control class were taught using the Presentation, Practice and Performance (PPP) approach. A pre-test and a post test were administered before and after the teaching. Afterwards, the scores were tabulated and analyzed quantitatively and the emerging patterns discussed. The findings revealed that many benefits are derived from the adoption of TBL in the language classroom. Thus, we recommend that TBL be adopted in the teaching of languages in Kenyan schools and that language teachers be trained on this approach.Item Surveying Multicultural Literacy Levels in Kenya: Comparison of Primary, Secondary and University(2014-06-12) Njoroge, Martin C.; Mwangi, Phyllis W.; Furaha, EmmanuelKenyans belong to diverse cultures but how literate are they in understanding one another’s cultures? What is the role of teaching in the acquisition of multicultural literacy? To what extent are the primary, secondary and university students literate in, for example, Turkana, Maasai and Nubian cultural issues? What is the correlation between gender, education level and multicultural literacy? Using a quantitative research design, and using a pretest-posttest paradigm, data were collected from sampled primary, secondary and university students to determine levels of multicultural literacies. A pretest comprising 30 items was given to all the 25 sampled students at each education level. The test was marked and score recorded. The students were then taught about the Maasai, Turkana and Nubian cultures. A posttest having the same questions as in the pretest was later given, marked and scores recorded. Data were then analyzed using computer based SPSS. To test the correlation, Levene’s test for equality of variances was used to establish whether the observed differences among gender and education variables were purely random or whether there were real differences between the means. The findings show that exposing students to information on the three cultures influenced performance in the posttest. Learners became more literate in multicultural issues after the teaching. We argue that incorporating multicultural content in the curriculum will expand students’ multicultural awareness and decrease negative stereotyping of individuals from other Kenyan cultures. Ultimately, the achievement of Kenya’s national goals of education will be enhanced.