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Item Human Footprint and Rainfall Shape Masai Giraffe’s Habitat Suitability and Connectivity in a Multiple-Use Landscape(ECOSPHERE, 2024) Muthiuru, Amos C.; Crego, Ramiro D.; Simbauni, Jemimah A.; Muruthi, Philip M.; Waiguchu, Grace; Lala, Fredrick; Millington, James D. A.; Kairu, Eunice W.Giraffe populations have declined by around 40% in the last three decades. Climate change, poaching, habitat loss, and increasing human pressures are confining giraffes to smaller and more isolated patches of habitats. Masai giraffes (Giraffa tippelskirchi) have been subjected to habitat loss and fragmentation, diseases, poaching, and unpredictable calamities such as wildfires and climate change. In this study, we aimed to identify (1) suitable Masai giraffe habitats within the transboundary landscape of Tsavo-Mkomazi in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania; and (2) key connecting corridors in a multiple-use landscape for conservation prioritization. We combined Masai giraffe presence data collected through a total aerial survey with moderate resolution satellite data to model habitat suitability at 250 m resolution using species distribution models (SDMs) implemented in Google Earth Engine (GEE). Model accuracy was assessed using area under precision recall curve (AUC-PR). We then used the habitat suitability index as a resistance surface to model functional connectivity using Circuitscape theory and cost-weighted distance pairwise methods. Human habitat modification, rainfall, and elevation were the main model predictors of Masai giraffe habitat and corridors. On average, our 10-fold model fitting attained a good predictive performance with an average AUC-PR = 0.80 (SD = 0.01, range = 0.79–0.83). The model predicted an area of 15,002 km2 as potential suitable Masai giraffe habitat with over 17% outside protected areas within the landscape. Although Tsavo West National Park formed a key habitat and a key connecting corridor, nonprotected community ranches connecting Tsavo West and Tsavo East National Parks are equally important in maintaining landscape connectivity joining more than two Masai giraffe core areas with low resistance and high permeability. To maintain critical Masai giraffe’s habitats and landscape functional connectivity, especially in multiple-use landscapes, conservation-compatible land use practices, capacity building, and land use planning should be considered at the outset of any new infrastructure development and land use changes. This modeling shows the potential of utilizing remotely sensed information and ground surveys to guide the management of habitats and their connecting corridors across important African landscapes, complementing existing efforts to identify, conserve, and protect wildlife habitats and their linkage zonesItem Mapping Resource Demand and Extraction Patterns Around Chyulu National Park: Implications for Sustainable Conservation(Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS), 2025-08) Muendo, Nicholas Mwongela; Mahiri, I. O.; Osebe, D. A.Effective participatory conservation, a cornerstone of modern biodiversity management, requires a clear and granular understanding of the complex resource pressures that protected areas (PAs) face from adjacent local communities. This study provides a data-driven analysis that maps the demand for and the actual extraction of vegetative resources around Chyulu National Park (CNP), Kenya, with the aim of generating actionable insights for sustainable and equitable co-management. Employing a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, the research surveyed 210 households to quantify resource demand and utilized systematic boundary transects to spatially map and measure actual extraction activities, including tree cutting, livestock grazing, and charcoal production. The results reveal a significant and deeply problematic disconnect between official conservation policy and local reality. The communities expressed high and non-negotiable demand for essential resources, including firewood (63%), construction poles (59%), and, most critically, grazing land (77%), which directly translated into observable and spatially concentrated extraction hotspots. On average, 5 trees were found to be illegally harvested and 6 active charcoal kilns were identified per kilometer of the surveyed park boundary. Extraction patterns were spatially concentrated in areas with low ranger patrol frequency and proximity to market access points, indicating a rational, risk-averse pattern of exploitation. Critically, the study identified a major institutional failure: an astonishing 70% of respondents were entirely unaware of the existence of any formal conservation agreements with the park, such as Resource Access Agreements, rendering the existing participatory structures largely ineffective and irrelevant to the community. The study concludes that the sustainable management of protected areas requires a fundamental shift away from the mere existence of formal agreements towards a data-driven, adaptive management approach that maps resource hotspots and directly addresses the specific livelihood needs that drive demand. The profound lack of community awareness highlights an urgent and critical need for improved institutional outreach and genuine communication to transform communities from passive subjects into genuine partners in conservation. Ultimately, conservation interventions must be spatially targeted, socially nuanced, and economically aligned with the realities of park-adjacent populations to have any chance of success.Item Socio-Economic Determinants of Public Participation in Protected Area Management: A Case Study of Chyulu National Park, Kenya(Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS), 2025-08) Muendo, Nicholas Mwongela; Mahiri, I. O.; Osebe, D. A.The global shift towards participatory conservation assumes that meaningful community involvement enhances the management and sustainability of protected areas (PAs). However, the success of such initiatives is often constrained by the complex socio-economic contexts of adjacent local communities. This study investigates these determinants at Chyulu National Park (CNP), Kenya, establishing a critical link between community characteristics, their engagement in formal participatory structures, and their actual, measured patterns of resource extraction. Employing a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, the research surveyed 210 households using structured questionnaires and integrated this quantitative data with qualitative insights from in-depth interviews and direct, systematic observation of resource use along a 30 km stretch of the park boundary. The findings reveal a critical and deeply rooted paradox. While key socio-economic indicators such as household income and level of education showed no statistically significant relationship with formal participation in conservation programs like Resource Access Agreements, these same factors were identified as the primary drivers of informal and often illegal resource use. High levels of poverty and dependence on subsistence agriculture directly correlated with significant extraction of fuelwood, construction poles, and grazing resources from the park. Furthermore, the patterns of resource extraction were found to be socially differentiated, with gender significantly influencing the types of resources collected, reflecting traditional divisions of labor. The study concludes that formal participatory structures are rendered largely ineffective when they fail to provide tangible, household-level economic benefits that address the root causes of resource dependency. For conservation to be sustainable, management strategies must urgently move beyond tokenistic forms of participation and create direct livelihood incentives that transform communities from mere stakeholders into genuine partners in protecting PAs. Consequently, conservation policies must be socially nuanced, recognizing and responding to the fact that different segments of the community interact with, and depend upon, the park in fundamentally different ways.Item Toward Sustainable Implementation of Geothermal Energy Projects; the Case of Olkaria IV Project in Kenya(IntechOpen, 2022-11-07) Kong’ani,Lilian Namuma S.; Kweyu, Raphael M.In this chapter, we demonstrate how geothermal has the potential to solve climate change. Geothermal is part of green energy, which contributes toward the achievement of sustainable development goals, that is, SGD 7, on affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all, SDG 13, on climate actions, and the Paris Agreement. We present the potential of geothermal energy in Kenya and link it to its ability to provide solutions for Africa and Kenya considering current geopolitics, including Brexit, climate change, the Russian-Ukraine war, and COVID-19. However, this chapter argues that geothermal energy production should be developed within a sustainability framework. Environmental conflicts occasioned by the implementation of developmental projects are on the rise. Geothermal projects are likely to introduce new conflicts between the government and the communities. Therefore, natural resource conflict resolution should be part of the development of geothermal energy. This chapter draws inspiration from a study on conflict types and their management in the Olkaria IV geothermal development project in Kenya. From the study, it is apparent that mediation is one of the sustainable environmental conflict management strategies. The chapter concludes that geothermal energy production has the potential to contribute to the prosperity of Kenya economically.Item Effects of Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Population in Urban Centers on Land Use Arrangement: A Case of Nakuru Town, Kenya(The Cradle of Knowledge: African Journal of Educational and Social Science Research, 2022) Annan, Mogire Dennis; Kagendo, Jane; Kweyu, RaphaelThe study addressed the effects of spatiotemporal dynamics of urban of human population on land use arrangement in Nakuru town. Nakuru town attained its municipal status in 1952. Since then, its population has been growing steadily from 152289 in 1991 to 472126 in 2021 posing pressure on already limited urban land use arrangement. The study was guided by Hoyt Theory which assumes that urban land use arrangements are influenced by historical, economic and concentration of similar land use. The researcher used descriptive research design. Through Remote sensing, the study showed that area under settlement use increased from 7.66 to 54.78 km2, Lake increased from 36.02 to 44.01 km2 while area under Agricultural use decreased from 117.94 to 112.01 km2 and area under'Others' decreased from 163.38 to 114.20 km2. Field data from A sample size of 400 households showed that Settlement increased from 32. 67 to 42.34 km2, Lake increased from 36.02 to 44.01 km2, 8Others9 decreased from 35.44 to 29.42 km2 and Agricultural decreased from 195.95 to 158.72 km2. Fragmentation and zonal use mix-ups were cited by 24.9% and 46.9% of the respondents respectively. Pearson9s Correlation between spatiotemporal dynamics of urban human population and Urban Land Use Arrangement disruptions was r= 0.94. The study concluded that urban population affects urban land use arrangements. The study recommended that human population in urban centres should be checked in order to promote sustainable urban land use arrangements. In addition, there is a need to eliminate factors that affecting urban zoning policy implementation.Item Gendered Vulnerabilities to Climate Change: Insights from Bor County, Jonglei State of South Sudan(Open Access Library Journal, 2025-05) Miruka, Okumba; Shisanya, Chris A.Documented evidence suggests that South Sudan is one of the most vulnerable countries regarding climate change. The vulnerability varies in different disaggregated groups of people, based on their societal position in a socially and gendered structure within a spatio-temporal space. This underlines the importance of understanding what may be referred to as “contextual conditions” that underpin the gender experiences of vulnerability to external shocks. This paper draws on evidence obtained from a field study in Bor County of Jonglei State of South Sudan and secondary data. It takes the position that not only is gender a powerful and pervasive contextual condition, but it also intersects with other existing factors. Therefore, manifestations of gendered vulnerability to climate change are the results of complex and interlinked factors. The paper offers some insights into understanding gendered vulnerabilities in Bor County. It concludes that gendered vulnerabilities to climate change and conflict are embedded in gender roles, traditional livelihoods, cultural norms, marital practices and resilience mechanisms. It recommends modernization and incorporation of indigenous knowledge in climate resilience action, measures to ensure that livelihood opportunities do not benefit men at women’s expense, identification and maximization of economic opportunities in women’s traditional domains such as milk processing and community conversations on cultural norms and practices that perpetuate women’s subordination.Item Dry-Season Variability in Near-Surface Temperature Measurements and Landsat-Based Land Surface Temperature in Kenyatta University, Kenya(Computational Urban Science, 2022) Macharia, N. A.; Mbuthia, S. W.; Musau, M. J.; Obando, J. A.; Ebole, S. O.Understanding thermal gradients is essential for sustainability of built-up ecosystems, biodiversity conservation, and human health. Urbanized environments in the tropics have received little attention on underlying factors and processes governing thermal variability as compared to temperate environments, despite the worsening heat stress exposure from global warming. This study characterized near surface air temperature (NST) and land surface tempera ture (LST) profles across Kenyatta University, main campus, located in the peri-urban using in situ traverse tempera ture measurements and satellite remote sensing methods respectively. The study sought to; (i) fnd out if the use of fxed and mobile temperature sensors in time-synchronized in situ traverses can yield statistically signifcant tempera ture gradients (ΔT) attributable to landscape features, (ii) fnd out how time of the day infuences NST gradients, (iii) determine how NST clusters compare to LST values derived from analysis of ‘cloud-free’ Landsat 8 OLI (Operational Land Imager) satellite image, and (iv) determine how NST and LST values are related to biophysical properties of land cover features.. The Getis–Ord Gi* statistics of ΔT values indicate statistically signifcant clustering hot and cold spots, especially in the afternoon (3–5 PM). NST ‘hot spots’ and ‘cold spots’ coincide with hot and cold regions of Landsat based LST map. Ordinary Least Square Regression (OLS) indicate statistically signifcant (p<0.01) coefcients of MNDWI and NDBI explaining 15% of ΔT variation, and albedo, MNDWI, and NDBI explaining 46% of the variations in LST patterns. These fndings demonstrate that under clear sky, late afternoon walking traverses records spatial variabil ity in NST within tropical peri-urban environments during dry season. This study approach may be enhanced through collecting biophysical attributes and NST records simultaneously to improve reliability of regression models for urban thermal ecologyItem Challenges affecting adoption of e-learning in public universities in Kenya(SAGE, 2016) Mutisya, Dorothy N; Makokha, George LPublic universities in Kenya are, today, turning to the use of e-learning in an attempt to cope with the rapidly increasing demand for university education. This research was conducted between February 2012 and February 2014 to determine the challenges affecting the adoption of e-learning in these institutions of higher learning. Data were collected using questionnaires administered to 420 lecturers and 210 students, and analysed through the use of simple descriptive statistics. Lecturers ranked heavy workloads the most serious challenge affecting the adoption of e-learning, followed by: insufficient Internet connectivity, denial of copyrights for their developed e-learning modules, limited information and communication technology (ICT) skills, lack of incentives, short age of computers/laptops, inadequate computer laboratories, and insufficient time for online interaction. Students, on the other hand, ranked insufficient Internet connectivity the number one challenge, followed by: lack of computers/laptops, inadequate computer laboratories, limited ICT skills, and insufficient time for online interaction. The paper concludes that as a result of these challenges, the adoption of e-learning is slow and still at its infancy stage in public universities in Kenya. It recommends that universities should invest heavily in the improvement of e-learning infrastructure, e-learning content development, capacity building, attitude change, and enhance ment of e-learning awareness.Item Challenges to Adoption and Sustained Use of Modern Bee Hives in Kitui County, Kenya(IJRISS, 2025-02) Kiiti,Michael Kiingwa; Muiruri, Philomena; Khaemba,Protas FwambaIn Kenya, beekeeping is a feasible livelihood diversification economic activity especially in the arid and semiarid regions facing substantial rainfall variability since beekeeping is not fully depended on rainfall amounts and distribution. However, most of the beekeepers in Kenya use the traditional log hive which is less productive. Therefore, beekeeping is yet to improve the socio-economic welfare of most farmers. Traditional log hives produce honey of low quality and quantity. Failure to adopt the modern bee hives suggests existence of challenges limiting the adoption. The main objective of this study was to determine the challenges to adoption and sustained use of modern bee hives in Kitui county, Kenya. During the study a total of 110 beekeepers (42 adopters and 68 non-adopters) from the five selected locations of Mwingi Central subcounty namely; Waita, Nuu, Kivou, Mwingi and Mui were administered with questionnaires. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Version 20) was employed in data analysis. Based on Chi-square statistics the study proved the hypothesized challenges; unavailability of modern bee hives, unsuitability to local bees and lack of skills in modern beekeeping as statistically significant challenges to adoption of modern bee hives. On challenges to sustained use of modern bee hives, marketing, absconding of bees and drought were found significant. It was concluded that the challenges were limiting the adoption and sustained use of modern bee hives. The study recommends; establishment of more honey collection centres in rural areas, construction of more earth dams by county government and more modern beekeeping training organized by county government to train beekeepers on modern apiculture.Item Urbanization and Hydrological Dynamics: A 22-Year Assessment of Impervious Surface Changes and Runoff in an Urban Watershed(Frontiers in Water, 2024-12) Ongaga, Cyrus Omwoyo; Makokha, Mary; Kennedy Obiero; Kipkemoi, Isaac; Diang’a, JustusThe frequency and intensity of flooding have been increasing in urban watersheds. Urbanization disrupts natural landscapes by replacing vegetated areas with impervious surfaces, reducing infiltration and increasing runoff. The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship between change in impervious surface area and runoff amount of Mihang’o watershed located in the outskirts of Nairobi for the period 2000–2022. The specific objectives of this study were as follows: To determine the change in the impervious surface area of Mihang’o watershed, the trend of precipitation amount in the watershed, and the trend in runoff amount, a major source of flood water from the watershed. Supervised classification was performed on land satellite (Landsat) images to determine percentages of impervious surface cover for the study period, and linear regression analysis was used to establish the trend. Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS) rainfall data were retrieved from Google Earth Engine, then processed to produce monthly and annual rainfall totals, and Mann–Kendall trend tests were used to establish the rainfall trend for the watershed. The Hydrologic Engineering Center’s Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) model was used to simulate runoff from the watershed with the rainfall data and impervious surface area percentages as inputs; then, linear regression analysis was performed to establish the runoff trend. The impervious surface area increased by 87.03% from 2.88% (0.49 km2 ) of the total surface area of the watershed in 2000 to 22.21% (3.91 km2 ) in 2022, demonstrating an approximate increment of 3.96% (0.88 km2 ) each year. The Mann–Kendall trend test results (Sen’s slope results [β = 0.832], Kendall’s tau results [τb = 0.146], and p-value [0.625]) confirmed that there is no significant change in rainfall amounts. Runoff increased by 84.75% from 0.18 mm in 2000 to 1.18 mm in 2022; otherwise, an approximate increment of 3.85% (0.045 mm) was evident each year. Besides the impervious surface area, the HEC-HMS model factors in the length of slope, length of reach, soil type, size of subbasins, and longest flow path, thus producing accurate runoff estimations.Item Trends in Rainfall and Discharge over Zaaba Sub Catchment, Vihiga County, Kenya(Open Access Library Journal, 2024-10) Aholi, Joel Philip; Makokha, Mary; Obiero, KennedyTemporal variation of rainfall has a direct influence on discharge of a river; however, considerable land cover changes through conversion of natural veg etation to agricultural land, settlement and commercial usage like urbanization have led to encroachment into forested, river riparian and other wetland areas therefore altering runoff generation through variation of rates of vegetal inter ception, infiltration, evapotranspiration and surface detention. This study determined rainfall trends and discharge from 1991 to 2020 and factors de termining response of streamflow to rainfall variability in Zaaba river sub catchment in Vihiga County, Western Kenya. Rainfall data was sourced from Kenya Meteorological Department, discharge data was sourced from Water Resources Authority and land cover data was downloaded from USGS website http://www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov/. Trend analysis was determined by Z-Test, p-value and Sen’s slope estimator. Regression analysis determined the correla tion between rainfall and discharge. Data from Key informant interviews, ques tionnaires and Focus Group Discussions was analysed through SPSS by com puting totals and percentages and drawing charts. Rainfall trend analysis at α = 0.05 revealed rainfall was variable at monthly (p-value = 0.037 and Sen’s slope = 0.182), seasonal (Sen’s slope = −0.030 and p-value = 0.043 for MAM and Sen’s slope = 0.136 and p-value = 0.046 for OND) and annual (Sen’s slope = 1.081 and p-value = 0.010) time steps. Discharge trend analysis at α = 0.05 re vealed existence of trend on seasonal (Sen’s slope = 0.51 and p-value = 0.009 for MAM and Sen’s slope = 0.521 and p-value = 0.008 for OND) and annual (Sen’s slope = 0.085 and p-value = 0.001). Regression analysis revealed insig nificant seasonal correlation (MAM and OND with r = −0.124 and 0.067) and annual correlation (r = 0.051). Statistical analysis revealed that major land cover changes were agricultural area that decreased from 50.05% (2001) to 41.07% (2011) and 32.8% (2020) and increased buildup areas from 5.06% (2001) to 9.29% (2011) to 17.68% (2020) attributed to increased population, expansion of urban areas and encroachment into river riparian that decreased from 5.18% (2001) to 1.18% (2011) and 0.87% (2020). These findings would encourage ca pacity building on increasing rainfall trends and take measures to control floods.Item The impact of land use and cover changes on river flows in Wundanyi Catchment of Taita Hills, Kenya (1970–2030)(2024) Obando, Joy A.; Luwesi, Cush N.; Akombo, Rose AdhiamboTaita hills are one of the most important biodiversity hotspots of Kenya but experiencing a high rate of deforestation due conversion of its original forestland to agriculture and settlement during the last century. These landscape dynamics coupled with rainfall fluctuations in these critical ecosystems may significantly affect water resource distribution and food security in Taita Taveta County and its environs. This study aimed to establish the trends of land use/cover change (LUCC) in Wundanyi catchment from 1970 to 2030 and predict their specific and combined effects on surface runoff and stream flow in the same period. The analysis was based on statistical trend analysis and dynamic landscape modeling using both historical and primary data from Wundanyi catchment, and Landsat TM and ETM+ imagery of Taita Hills for 1990, 2000, and 2010. Results show highly variable mean seasonal and annual values of discharge in Wundanyi catchment probably attributed to environmental changes affecting Taita Hills in general and Wundanyi catchment in particular. Compared to 1990, major land use/cover changes in 2010 were featured by the expansion of built-up area (250%), plantation forest (23.7%), broadleaved forest (17.4%), and thicket (15.9%). Was also notable the decrease in woodland (−30.3%), cropland (−21.6%), and shrubland (−0.8%)...Item Scaling-Up Sustainable Land Management in the Drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa(Frontiers, 2024-06) Shisanya, Chris A.This Research Topic of Frontiers in Environmental Science focuses on different innovation aspects related to sustainable land management (SLM) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), within a framework of different but related thematic areas, whose long-term goal is to scale up these promising SLM technologies for impact at the local levels. SLM constitutes an array of activities that sustain land and its given ecosystem functions (Critchley et al., 2023). Considerably, SLM is generally accepted as playing an important function in soil and water conservation (Liniger et al., 2019). Currently, it is acknowledged as a key driver of “land-based solution” in achieving climate change (CC) mitigation through carbon sequestration and reduction of ...Item Modeling of Soil Erosion Risk in a Typical Tropical Savannah Landscape(Elsevier B.V, 2023-12-17) Asempah, Mawuli; Shisanya, Christopher Allan; Schütt, BrigittaTropical savannah landscapes are faced with high soil degradation due to climate change and variability coupled with anthropogenic factors. However, the spatiotemporal dynamics of this is not sufficiently understood particularly, in the tropical savannah contexts. Using the Wa municipality of Ghana as a case, we applied the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model to predict the potential and actual soil erosion risk for 1990 and 2020. Rainfall, soil, topography and land cover data were used as the input parameters. The rate of predicted potential erosion was in the range of 0–111 t ha− 1 yr− 1 and 0–83 t ha− 1 yr− 1 for the years 1990 and 2020, respectively. The prediction for the rate of potential soil erosion risk was generally higher than the actual estimated soil erosion risk which ranges from 0 to 59 t ha− 1 yr− 1 in 1990 and 0 to 58 t ha− 1 yr− 1 in 2020. The open savannah areas accounted for 75.8 % and 73.2 % of the total soil loss in 1990 and 2020, respectively. The validity of the result was tested using in situ data from a 2 km2 each of closed savannah, open savannah and settlement area. By statistical correlation, the predicted soil erosion risk by the model corresponds to the spatial extent of erosion damages measured in the selected area for the validation. Primarily, areas with steep slopes, particularly within settlement, were identified to have the highest erosion risk. These findings underscore the importance of vegetation cover and effective management practices in preventing soil erosion. The results are useful for inferences towards the development and implementation of sustainable soil conservation practice in landscapes with similar attributes.Item Assessment of Water Supply and Demand in Walatsi Sub-Catchment, Busia County, Kenya(SCIRP, 2024-05) Diang’a, Justus; Obiero, Kennedy; Makokha, MaryOverexploitation of water supplies remains the most serious constraint on its sustainability, and many authorities are confronting serious problems in its management because of growing competition for the ever-dwindling natural resource. The study aims to assess the supply and demand for water in the Walatsi sub-catchment from 2022 to 2030. Data from key informants, experiment, direct observations, and GIS analyses were utilized and analyzed through QGIS software and Microsoft Excel, and a decision support system - WEAP model was adopted for scenario analysis and simulations. Using WEAP’s built-in supply and demand database, available water supply, present and future water demand, and water balance were determined, and a correlation between simulated water balance and demand was established to interpret water balance results further. Results from the study indicated an annual supply between 31.63 and 31.65 Million cubic meters (Mm3 ) and a monthly supply ranging from 0.48 to 6.80 Mm3 . An annual increase in water demand by 27.59% from 6.45 Mm3 in 2022 was observed, which further revealed a declining annual water balance by −7.07% from 25.18 Mm3 in 2022 and an increasing annual monthly water deficit in February from −0.02 to −0.15 Mm3 . The −0.999 coefficient explained the unmet demand gap from 0.24% to 1.85%. Variations in monthly supply annually are due to the bimodal dry and rainy seasons, and annual supply is due to regular and leap years. The positive trend in demand is likely to put pressure on available water supplies. An increasing deficit indicates pressure on water sources and exploitation of the reserve. This study, therefore, indicates a water scarcity sub-catchment.Item Socio-Economic Drivers of Agroforestry Practices in Kaiti Watershed, Makueni County, Kenya(EANSO, 2024-05) Ngila, Vallary Mutave; Kweyu, Raphael Mulaha; Mbuthia, Susan WanjiruForests and trees are essential resources for sustainable provision of goods and services. However, trees have not only been depleted in reserved forests but also on agricultural lands. Several measures have been formulated to improve forest cover in Kenya and one of such strategies is agroforestry. This study aimed to examine agroforestry practices, tree density on farms and determine the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and tree density on farms in Kaiti watershed, Makueni County, Kenya. Quadrats were used to determine tree density and tree species diversity on farms while questionnaires were used to record socio-economic characteristics of households. Data files were prepared in the Microsoft Excel and SPSS version 20 software where descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The study found 8 agroforestry practices. The results of One-Way ANOVA for both Shannon Diversity Index and Simpsons’ Index of Diversity showed significant difference in species diversity in Kaiti watershed with p-value of 0.00023 and 0.00012, respectively. The mean of tree density was 104.5 trees per acre where 54% of farms had less than 40 trees per acre while 46% of farms had more than 40 trees per acre. Further, the study found significant relationship between socio-economic characteristics of households and tree density on farms. Household income was the most significant with p-value of 0.000. The study recommends sensitization of farmers about importance of trees and suitable tree species for growing in arid and semi-arid areas. Further, supply of certified seedlings close to farmers and at affordable prices would improve tree species diversity and tree density on farms. There is also need for private land ownership for households to promote sense of ownership of trees.Item Demographical Factors and their Hindrances to Metropolitan Land Zone Use Policy Adherances(AJGR, 2024-01) Mogire, Dennis Annan; Kweyu, Raphael; Francis, Jane KagendoThe appropriate application of metropolitan land zone use policies and regulations may help in resolving metropolitan land zone use hitches such as undesirable zonal fragmentation, zonal use mix-up and zonal encroachment. This research aims at contributing to acquaintance required to enhance adherence to metropolitan land zone uses in metropolitan land zone use planning. This paper focused on the hindrances to metropolitan land zone use adherence in Nakuru City. Human population in Nakuru city has been on upward trajectory over the past thirty years. Just like any other modern metropolitan area in the world, Nakuru city’s land use is mainly divided into residential, industrial, commercial and agricultural zone. The size of Nakuru city (municipality) has remained unchanged since 1974. However, there is a proposal to expand its size following its upgrading into a city. This has pressurized the already limited metropolitan land use zones. The study adopted Hoyt Theory which says that metropolitan land use zones are swayed by financial factors. Precisely, the study’s main objective was to assess socio-economic aspects of metropolitan demography as hindrances to metropolitan land zone use adherence. This paper employed descriptive survey design. Field data from a sample size of 400 respondents from eleven sample units were collected. All demographical factors (ignorance, political interference, nature of implementation, corruption, availability of capital, and population influx) under study had positively correlated with metropolitan land zone use policy adherences since they had a correlation coefficient of 0.82, 0.90, 1.00, 0.80, 0.92 and 0.98 respectively. The average t-test of all demographical factors under investigation was 0.02. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected at p-value of 0.05. Information from Key informants were also incorporated. This research suggested that these hindrances should be minimized through incorporation of all stakeholders, integrity, checked urbanization and proper implementation and adherence to all metropolitan land zone use policies that are in place. This study may be useful to metropolitan land planners, developers and government.Item Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover Change Dynamics and Drivers in Mbagathi River Catchment in Kajiado County, Kenya(Scientific Research Publishing, 2024-02) Munyoki, Faith; Makokha, Mary; Obiero, KennedyLand use and land cover change through human modifications has brought great changes at global, regional and local levels part of which poses a threat to human and environmental systems. Monitoring of these changes is necessary to ensure the sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems such as the Mbagathi River catchment. The study sought to determine the land use and land cover changes and drivers in the Mbagathi River catchment for the period 1990-2020. This was achieved by the classification of multitemporal Landsat imageries of 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020 using the Google Earth Engine web platform. The study established four main land use/cover classes including forest, grassland, urban and bare ground. The results of the classification and analysis process established that forest cover reduced from 32% to 14%, grassland reduced from 53% to 30%, bare ground increased from 10% to 38% and urban land cover increased from 4% to 17%. This revealed that urban and bare ground land covers increased at the expense of forest and grassland covers. Multitemporal and spatial assessment of settlement observed that more settlements emerged around the key urban centres namely Kiserian, Ongata Rongai, Ngong, Mlolongo and Tuala. Further analysis within a 3 Km radius of the towns revealed that urban area increased by 11% and 19% for Tuala and Kiserian respectively while in Ongata Rongai and Ngong, the urban area increased by 20% and 23% respectivelyItem Assessing the Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Change on Discharge Using SWAT Model in River Ruiru Watershed, Kiambu County, Kenya(IJRIAS, 2019) Waithaka, Ann; Murimi, Shadrack; Obiero, KennedyWatersheds and water resources are highly vulnerable to land use/land cover changes (LULCC) as they directly influence hydrological characteristics in terms of water quantity. This study aimed at assessing the effects of land use/land cover changes (LULCC) on Surface runoff contribution to discharge (SURQ), lateral flow contribution to discharge (LATQ) and groundwater contribution to discharge (GWQ) of River Ruiru watershed, Kiambu County. The study integrated the use of remote sensing, GIS and hydrological modeling to collect and analyze data. Results of the study indicate that built-up areas, annual crops (mixed farming) and perennial crops (Tea and coffee farming) increased by 1.83%, 15.05% and 10.90% from 1984 to 2017 while grassland, shrubland and forestland decreased by 6.21%, 11.92% and 10.06%. SWAT model results indicate that land use/land cover changes that have occurred in River Ruiru watershed between 1984 and 2017 have had effects on Surface runoff (SURQ), lateral flow (LATQ) and groundwater contribution to discharge (GWQ) which have increased from 30.25 mm/yr, 8.48mm/yr and 9.95mm/yr to 181.25mm/yr, 11.44mm/yr and 10.66mm/yr respectively. The results from this study will help in understanding the effects of LULCC on the quantity of discharge which is one component of the knowledge base required in applying the principles of integrated water resources management (IWRM) thus providing critical input to the decision making on water resources management and planningItem Spatiotemporal Relationship between Variability in Selected Climate Parameters and Malaria Transmission Trends in Different Altitudes of Lower Lake Victoria Basin(IJNRD, 2024-01) Olela, Samwel Odhiambo; Makokha, George L.; Obiero, KennedyPurpose: Consequences of Global Climate Variability and Change are among the biggest environmental threats and challenges the world is facing. Malaria burden is greatest in developing countries of the tropics especially Africa south of the Sahara. In Kenya, it is blamed on high rainfall, temperature and relative humidity. This study investigated spatiotemporal relationship between variability in selected climate parameters and malaria transmission in different altitudes of lower Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya. Methodology: The study used secondary data archived at sampled meteorological stations and health facilities. Flooded sampling of malaria morbidity cases from health facilities within selected sub - counties in three sampled counties was obtained from Kenya Health Information System (KHIS) for ten years (2011 - 2020). Meteorological data was obtained for twenty years (2001 - 2020) except for Kisumu Relative Humidity which was only available for 12 years (2009 - 2020). Pearson’s moment correlation coefficient and regression were used to establish the strength of the relationship between malaria transmission, climate elements and altitude. Findings: Given temperature ranging between 22.520C – 23.770C, RH of 58.77% - 67.74% and a mean annual rainfall of 1844.57, the study area was found to be well within climatic threshold for endemic malaria transmission. When correlated and regressed, none of the climate parameters revealed significant relationship with malaria transmission except monthly temperature and monthly malaria transmission in Migori County. Transmission significantly decreased with increase in altitude. All climate variables were eliminated leaving only altitude as the significant spatial determinant of malaria transmission. Climate therefore remained an insignificant spatiotemporal determinant of variability in malaria transmission in the study area. Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practices: Spatiotemporal Variability of Malaria transmission was significantly defined by altitude and proximity to the lake. This made the study zone LLVB, Kenya into three based on altitude and malaria transmission rates as follows: 1001m to 1200m – high transmission zones; 1201 to 1400 - medium transmission zones; 1401 to 1600 – low transmission zones. Meteorologists and the Medics should combine efforts to put remedial measures in place depending on altitude and time of the year. There is need to find out why some parts should experience upsurge while others like Migori County are experiencing reduction. These recommendations were necessary in the LLVB, Kenya for the realization of Kenya’s vision 2030.