RP-Department of Environmental Health

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Association between attitude and menstrual hygiene management practices among adolescent girls with disabilities in selected schools in Wajir County, Kenya
(International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, 2024-09) Jama, Abdiwahit A.; Mutisya, Redempta K.; Njuguna, Christine W.; Matoke, Vincent O.; Okenyoru, Douglas S.
Background: Menstruation is the recurrent peeling of the uterine lining that occurs monthly on girls and women of the reproductive age. Many adolescent girls in African countries have poor knowledge regarding menstruation and this is even worse among menstruating girls with disabilities who are faced with a greater challenge as they require private and specific sanitation facilities. The study focused on establishing the association between attitude and menstrual hygiene management practices among adolescent girls with disabilities in selected schools in Wajir County. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional design was adopted. Census method was used to select respondents where 101 were interviewed. Pretested questionnaires were used to collect data. All necessary research approvals from relevant institutions were obtained as well as consent and assent sought from respondents and guardians where applicable. Data was managed using SPSS version 22.0 software. Results: Most 88.1% of the respondents did not practice menstrual hygiene management. Further results revealed that 98.9% of those who had negative attitude had not practiced menstrual hygiene management. There was a significant statistical association between nature of attitude and practice of MHM (χ2=11.009, p*=0.029). Conclusions: About 9 out of 10 adolescents with disabilities in Wajir County did not practice menstrual hygiene management. The nature of attitude towards menstrual hygiene management was significantly associated with practice. The study recommended provision of free sanitary pads by relevant stakeholders to all girls who are living with disabilities and provision of enough washrooms to address privacy issues
Individual Risk Factors for Exposure to Pesticide among Small Scale Coffee Farm Workers in Kirinyaga County, Kenya
(2024-01) Mutegi, Winjoy Kageni,; Nyamari, Jackim M.; Gitonga, Eliphas
According to the population census of 2019, about 70% of the Kenyan population is rural. Most of whom depend heavily on rainfed agriculture under unstable climate conditions. This is also the case in Kirinyaga County where majority of the coffee farmers are small scale farmers who rely on the crop for income generation activities that require the use of pesticides to increase yields. The overdependence on pesticides has resulted in overuse and exposures of pesticides and uninformed mixing of pesticides in an effort to manage the low labor costs and meeting output needs and requirements at end of the harvest which has resulted consequently in poor health of farm workers. The main objective of this study was to establish the incidence of occupational acute pesticide toxicities among small scale coffee farm workers in Kirinyaga, determine the levels of perception and behavior of smallscale farmers regarding occupational usage of pesticide and determine the factors associated with occupational acute pesticide toxicities in relation to small scale coffee farm workers. The study utilized a descriptive cross-sectional study design. The study sampled a population of 399 respondents who were randomly selected in the five wards in Kirinyaga central sub county namely Mutira North and South, Kanye-ine, Kirinyaga central and Inoi wards. An electronic based semi-structured questionnaire using KOBO Toolkit, observational checklists and plates were used in data collection. Data analysis was done using the statistical package for social sciences SPSS version 25.0. The relationship between independent and dependent variables was determined using chi-squared tests. Significant risk factors were analyzed using logistic regression and expressed as odds ratios. The study established that the incidence risk for acute pesticide poisoning symptoms was 52.3% with the most common symptoms being headaches (95.7%), diarrhea (98.8%), skin rashes (88%), staggering (81.9%) and dizziness (81.9%). The perception levels that were found significant in line with acute pesticide poisoning were those of effect to human health (p=0.031) and environment (p=0.027). Additionally, perceived failure to use safety equipment increased potential for Acute pesticide Poisoning(p=0.041)(OR= 2.199) .statistically significant individual risk factors identified were worker characteristics of drinking alcohol( OR= 0.033)and eating during pesticide application (OR= 0.537); socio-demographic characteristics of gender(OR=0.035), level of education (OR=0.024) and employment status(OR= 0.011); the safety practices of wearing PPEs(OR= 1.305), taking a systemic shower (OR= 0.537). A farm worker who washed hands was 2.042 times less likely to exhibit symptoms of APP. Hospital staff reported they had no means in terms of equipment and technical expertise to identify pesticide poisoning symptoms. Nevertheless, cases of Acute Pesticide Poisoning were hardly reported at health facilities among farmers because of the common nature of symptoms with other common illnesses. This study concluded that there is a high incidence risk among small-scale farmers for occupational APP. The varying individual risk factors and perceptions are indicative of the need for a multi- disciplined approach to training to help minimize adverse effects associated with pesticide exposure and to encourage approaches already in use that can minimize the harmful effects of pesticide use in coffee production.
Post Covid-19 Situational Analysis of Water Sanitation and Hygiene in Public Primary Schools in Kiambu County, Kenya
(International Academic Journal of Health, Medicine and Nursing (IAJHMN), 2025-06) Wanjiku, Stanley Njau; Akunga, Daniel; Kingori, Isabella
Increased enrolment of children in public schools since the inception of free primary education in Kenya has been attributed to the progressive pressure on the existing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities in schools. The main objective of this study was to assess the status of WASH services in Kikuyu sub-county primary schools post Coronavirus Disease (COVID19) outbreak. The study applied a crosssectional study design to collect data for both qualitative and quantitative analysis. The target respondents were students in grades 5 through 8 and the head teachers. At the same time, the key informants were the environment teachers and the subcounty director of education. The study involved all thirty- two (32) public primary schools in Kikuyu Sub-County where 393 respondents were selected through a multistage stratified sampling technique involving both boys and girls from different schools in the sub-county and simple random sampling in the selection of the respondents per grade. A structured questionnaire, a Key Informants Interview guide, and a structured observation checklist were used in data collection. This study found that that Kikuyu Water Company served the largest population of schools, 64.5 percent as the main source of water for schools in Kikuyu sub-county. However, some schools (48.4 percent) relied on shallow wells and a few (9.7 percent) were connected to the community water project/schemes. Water storage capacity in a majority of schools (56.3 percent) ranged between 30,000 and 60,000 litres, while 34.4 percent had less than 30,000 litres water storage and only 9.4 percent of the schools had a capacity of more than 60,000 litres. It was established that most of the schools, 77.4 percent used treated drinking water while the rest, 23.6 percent did not. This study established that since the onset of COVID-19, a majority of schools developed and improved a significant number of WASH facilities in their respective schools. However, when this study was undertaken, a majority of schools (25, 78 percent) were still rated as having limited water supply service. Availability of sanitation facilities had moderately improved since 53 percent of the schools were rated as having limited sanitation services. This calls for strategic resource mobilization to equip schools with more WASH facilities to reach WHO and MoE standards to support primary education. Future researchers should explore further to identify the suitable funding models for WASH services development in schools and the best practices in the operation and maintenance of WASH facilities in public primary schools
Accessibility factors associated with adherence to healthy timing and spacing of pregnancy among women of reproductive age in Kilifi County, Kenya
(International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, 2024-09) Supaki, Esther K.; Owaka, Isaac O.; Mutisya, Redempta K.; Okari, Geoffrey M.; Matok, Vincent O.
Background:Globally, about 25% of births occur with shorter intervals annually with over 12 million underage pregnancies mostly from Sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya records about 20% teenage pregnancies while Kilifi County reported 28.9%. In Kilifi County, 19.6% of births do not adhere to the 24-month birth-interval. The study focused on establishing accessibility factors associated with adherence to healthy timing and spacing of pregnancy (HTSP) among reproductive age women in Kilifi County, Kenya. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional design was adopted with a sample of 293 respondents. All required approvals and consent were obtained. Quantitative data was collected using questionnaires. Descriptive data was analyzed using SPSS version 22.0 and inferential statistics computed through Chi-square tests. Results: About 60.1% respondents adhered to heathy timing and spacing of pregnancy, 69.4% teenage pregnancies occurred and 67.1% of women adhered to the 24-month inter-birth interval. Availability of family planning (FP) services (p=0.008), experience with providers (p=0.005), cost of accessing FP (p=0.001) and source of information (p=0.002) were associated with HTSP. Conclusions: About 4 out of 10 women of reproductive age in Kilifi County do not adhere to the recommended HTSP. Accessibility factors such as cost and availability of family planning services, source of information and experience with healthcare providers significantly influenced adherence to HTSP. The Ministry of Health and relevant stakeholders should scale up awareness activities, provide mobile clinics and concentrate on regular continuous medical education among healthcare providers to enhance their role in provision of reproductive health services.
Determinants of Unmet Family Planning Needs among Women of Reproductive Age between 15 and 49 Years in Siaya County, Kenya
(Pan African Medical Journal, 2025-07) Ameso, Ruth Anyango; Gitonga, Eliphas; Owaka, Isaac Ogweno
Introduction: unmet need for family planning is still a major public health issue, impacting maternal and child health outcomes. In Kenya, 14% of women desire to avoid or delay a pregnancy but are not using contraceptives. Unmet need differs across counties, with Siaya having a high unmet need at 21% despite the target to eliminate unmet need for family planning. This study sought to establish determinants of unmet family planning needs among women of reproductive age (WRA) between 15 and 49 years in Siaya County, Kenya. Specifically, the study sought to address three specific objectives: to determine the level of unmet needs among WRA, socio-demographic characteristics of WRA, assess the level of knowledge on family planning and to determine attitudes towards family planning among WRA. Methods: the study presents findings from the baseline phase of a larger quasi-experimental study design. It utilized a mixed research design. The study adopted the World Health Organization's 30 by 30 2-stage cluster sampling method. The FANTA sample size formula was applied to arrive at 724 respondents. A total of 728 women of reproductive age participated in the study. The study included sexually active WRA, married women, or women in a companion. The study targeted over 67,023 women already in such unions and sexually active, which served as the sampling frame for the study. The current study, being a baseline study, results after the health education intervention will be presented in another study. Results were presented in tables and figures. Ethical guidelines and procedures upheld during the study included informed consent, voluntary participation of participants, confidentiality, data security measures, assent for the minors, and usage of research licenses and approval from the ethics from the school. Data analysis was done using IBM SPSS version 28.0. The statistical analysis was undertaken in two steps: bivariate analysis and multivariate analysis. Results: a total of 728 women of reproductive age participated in the study. The majority (45.2%) of the women were aged 25 to 34 years. Results showed that most (64.0%) of the women demonstrated a high level of knowledge, scoring 80% or above. However, only 2.7% had a low level of knowledge, with aggregate scores below 50%. The majority (75.5%) of the women had a positive attitude, with 24.5% having a negative attitude. The prevalence of unmet need was 52.7%. The proportion of unmet need was significantly more (COR = 1.61; 95%CI = 1.19 - 2.19; p = 0.002) among women with a low or moderate level of knowledge on family planning compared to those women with a high level of knowledge. Women aged 15 to 24 years were 3.43 times more likely to have unmet need for family planning compared to those aged 35 to 49 years (COR = 3.43; 95%CI = 2.23 - 5.26; compared to those women with a positive attitude. Conclusion: the study concludes that social-demographic factors such as education, age, or economic activity significantly influenced the unmet needs for family planning. Knowledge significantly influenced the unmet needs for family planning, where WRA with lesser knowledge were more likely to experience unmet needs. Lastly, Attitudes such as perceived harm of using contraceptives and stigmatization from their use significantly increased the odds of unmet family planning needs.
Workplace Environmental Conditions and Reported Health Outcomes among Workers in Cold Rooms at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport - Kenya
(IJRAS, 2025-03) Bett, Cornelius K.; Kingori, Isabella; Nyambura, Anthony W.
Abstract: Continuous exposure to extreme temperature variations at workplaces is an occupational hazard. A cold workplace is attributed to an ambient temperature of between -10 to 15°C. The primary objective of the study was to explore temperature variations and the associated health outcomes of workers in cold rooms at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. The research was conducted at JKIA in Embakasi, Nairobi County, and included 10 companies with refrigerated cold rooms. A cross-sectional analytical study design was used to collect primary data through structured questionnaires and observation checklists. Stratified random sampling technique was used and a sample size of 293 staff members was taken to represent the study population. Chi-square tests and logistic regression analysis were then employed to identify relationships between two variables. The findings revealed a significant association between workplace environmental conditions (fluctuating air temperatures) and reported health outcomes among workers (p=0.01). Workers exposed to these conditions were 2.469 times more likely to experience health issues compared to those who were not exposed (AOR = 2.469, 95% CI=1.25-7.33. Prolonged exposure also correlates with higher sickness rates (p=0.001). To address these issues, organizations should install nonmetallic deflectors on air conditioners to minimize direct cold air exposure and educate workers about temperature-related health risks.
Safety and Health Risk Management in Selected Kenya Tea Development Agency Factories in Bomet County, Kenya
(AJRID, 2024) Kipkoech, Bett Hillary; Wanjohi, Anthony; Makau, Isaac
Factory workers are faced with myriad of occupational safety and health risks as they carry on their day to day duties in their workstations. These safety and health risks are as a result of exposure to occupational hazards such as noise, organic dust, non-safeguarded or poorly safeguarded machines, poor ergonomics, poor floor conditions and falls, hot surfaces, among others. The objective of this research was to establish the safety and health risk management in Kenya Tea Development Agency Factories in Bomet County. The study used cross sectional analytical research design that allowed data collection at one point in time and involved photography, interviews, observation and measurements (air quality and noise) for data collection. The independent variables were classified under individual and system characteristics. Individual characteristics were the demographic variables while system characteristics were the hardware that make up a tea factory. The intervening variables were the system that make up safety and health management system and administration in the factory. The study was undertaken in Bomet County which has eight KTDA tea processing factories. The target population was employees in Tea Factories managed by KTDA. The study population was 1019 workers in tea factories in Bomet County with a sample size of 317 employees. Simple random sampling gave every worker a chance to be included in the study. The Yamane (1968) sample size determination formula was used in the study since the target population was less than 10,000 people. Authorization was obtained from Kenyatta University Graduate School and ethical clearance sought from Kenyatta University Ethical Review Committee while the research license was obtained from NACOSTI. Access to the KTDA Factories was granted by management through the managing director at the head office. Informed consent was sought from workers before participating in the study. Focus Group Discussion guide, interviewer administered questionnaires, noise meter and particulate counter was used for data collection. Data was summarized using descriptive statistics such as mean, frequencies and percentages. The inferential statistics; chi square and binary logistic regression model was used to test association between variables. Qualitative data was grouped according to emerging themes. Data was presented using charts and tables. The prevalence of occupational hazards in tea factories was 41.3%. The study statistically established that machinery without safeguards was the most prevalent occupational hazard at 40.5%. In the sampled factories and specific sections, Kapkoros Tea Factory and Withering sections recorded higher mean equivalent noise levels (91.4 dBA and 97.3dBA) above exposure limits (90.0dBA) stipulated under The Factories and Other Places of Work (Noise Prevention and Control) Rules, 2005 while both PM2.5 and PM10 levels in sampled factories were below OEL and generally high at the sorting section (0.34mg/m3 and 1.035 mg/m3) but within the exposure limits specified under The Factories and Other Places of Work (Hazardous Substances) Rules, 2007. The study established that provision of PPEs, workplace occupational audits, risks assessments, occupational trainings and occupational examination of workers were the mitigation strategies employed by the factories in safety and health risks management. Level of education (p=0.0001) and work experience (p=0.0001) were statistically significant socio-demographic characteristics and predicted safety and health risks management. The study recommends the employer to institute tests on the efficiency and adequacy of all safety risk mitigation strategies. The study findings can be used for policy formulation and institutionalize changes when managing OSH risks in Kenyan tea industry.
Effect of Post-Discharge Postnatal Educational Intervention on Maternal Self-Efficacy among Low-Income Primiparas Living in Informal Settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya
(IJCMPH, 2024-03) Kamau, Immaculate Wambui; Keraka, Margaret Nyanchoka; Gitonga, Eliphas
Background: Maternal knowledge and maternal self-efficacy (MSE) are crucial for the adoption of health-promoting evidence-based postnatal practices. Short hospital stay after normal deliveries curtails delivery of pre-discharge postnatal education thus inadequate knowledge and poor MSE. This is accentuated among low-income primiparas thus a need for post-discharge follow-up. Aim was to determine the effect of self-efficacy theory-based post-discharge postnatal education on low-income primiparas’ MSE. Methods: A Quasi-experimental study on low-income primiparas residing in selected slums in Nairobi, Kenya. The control and experimental sites had 118 primiparas each conveniently recruited on early discharge after normal delivery from health facilities serving the slums. An interviewer-administered entry questionnaire was applied to collect facility and demographic data. The intervention group received post-discharge PNE intervention and routine PNC while the control group received routine PNC only. Perceived maternal parental self-efficacy scale was used to measure MSE at 6 weeks. Focus group discussions were conducted for qualitative data. IBM SPSS was used to analyze data. Independent sample t-tests and multiple linear regression were derived. Results: There was a significant (t=12.322, p=0.000) difference in MSE between experimental and control groups. The intervention was a significant predictor of MSE (β=0.59, p=0.00). Respondents appreciated the multi-pronged learning methods, especially the community health volunteers. COVID-19 pandemic challenges such as loss of livelihood and disruption of social connectedness were highlighted. Conclusions: Self-efficacy theory-based follow-up PNE intervention improves MSE among low-income primiparas thus a valuable complement to routine care.
Mercury Levels in Groundwater near Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mines in Migori County, Kenya
(EANSO, 2023-10) Omondi, George Zachary Ochieng; Nyamari, Jackim; Mugo, Judy
In Migori County, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is an economic activity that uses mercury during the amalgamation process to obtain gold. The waste generated in the form of soil tailings and pan-pond water contains mercury and is located close to community boreholes. The proximity may predispose groundwater to mercury contamination. Boreholes are one of the main water sources in Migori County. Ingestion is one of the ways mercury can get into the human body. This study was conducted to establish mercury concentration in groundwater from boreholes, soil tailings and pan-pond water located near five mine sites in Migori County during dry and wet seasons in comparison with drinking water standards required by KEBS and NEMA effluents discharge standards. The five mines were: - Masara, Osiri Matanda, Macalder, Kitere and Kehancha. The study used a cross-sectional-analytical study design and focused on boreholes found within a distance of 6 km from each of the five mines. Fifteen boreholes were proportionately sampled to obtain groundwater samples. 20 pan-pond water and soil tailing samples were collected in both dry and wet seasons as per the respective sampling protocols applied. Inductively Coupled Plasma –Mass Spectroscopy (7900 ICP-MS) was used to measure mercury levels. A paired t-test was used to compare the means of the levels of mercury in groundwater obtained within the two seasons. The study established that during the dry season, all of the boreholes had groundwater mercury levels higher than the recommended limit by KEBS of 0.001 mg/L. There was a decrease in the levels of mercury in groundwater as distances from the mine increased. However, during the wet season, all of the boreholes had mercury levels below the limit of detection. The study established a significant difference in the levels of mercury in groundwater between wet and dry seasons at a 95% confidence level. Mercury levels in soil tailings and pan-pond water were above the NEMA effluents discharge standards of 0.05 mg/kg and 0.05 mg/L, respectively, in the dry season. During the wet season, all pan-pond water achieved the recommended mercury level of NEMA effluent discharge limits, while the soil tailings had mercury levels above the recommended limit. This study recommends that there is a need to implement mine waste remediation. Communities near the mines continuously conduct groundwater heavy metal analysis during the dry season to protect their health.
Occupational Safety Culture in Devki Steel Mills Limited in Athi River, Machakos County, Kenya
(oalib, 2023) Amol, Daniel Aluora; Wanjohi, Anthony; Bichanga, Robert
Workers in Devki are exposed to several occupational hazards resulting in an average of three workers going on sick leave monthly. The management sought to reduce these incidences using a leading indicator through Safety Culture. Determining the safety culture was the main study objective. Independent variables were artefacts, espoused values and basic assumptions. The study made use of an analytical cross sectional design. The study population was 800 permanent employees from which a sample of 260 respondents was selected through the stratified sampling technique. The study used an interviewer administered questionnaire and observation checklist to collect primary data. The data was analysed with aid of the SPSS software. Results were interpreted using a safety culture assessment tool provided by Worksafe. The tool categorised a score that lies between 0% and 49% as Poor , 50% and 74% as Average and above 75% as Good. Artefacts scored 76%. The aspired values scored 42.9% and Basic Assumptions scored 39.3%. Management commitment to safety had the highest correlation to safety culture at 51.2%. The study concluded that: 1) The artefacts were installed for regulatory compliance; 2) A lot of the stated values were not practiced; 3) Workers’ attitude towards safety was improving but a lot more should be done in the areas of resource allocation to safety programs. From the first three objectives, the Worksafe NSW Tool ranked the organisation as having an Average safety culture with a mean score of 52.7%; 4) From Pearson’s correlation, the most important attribute in building a good safety culture was Management commitment and injury management was the least important. The study recommends that: 1) The organisation incorporates use of care based artefacts; 2) Workers opinions on safety matters are sought, 3) The company should provide safety training; 4) The management should proactively promote safety.
Perceptions of caregivers on immunization in Ntungamo district, Uganda
(Medip Academy., 2021) Topher, Byamukama; Keraka, Margaret M.; Gitonga, Eliphas
Background: Immunization is one of the most cost-effective public health interventions to reduce child mortality and morbidity associated with infectious diseases. The objective of this study was to determine the perceptions of caregivers on immunization in Ntungamo district. Methods: Quasi-experimental study was used with health centres assigned to intervention and control groups. Purposive sampling was used to select the two counties where the study was done. Proportional sampling was done to get study samples from each health facility, while systematic sampling was done to get study participants. A total of 787 children from twelve health facilities provided the study sample. A post intervention evaluation was conducted to determine the effect of these interventions. Association of variables was tested using Mann Whitney U-test and Chi-square. Results: On benefits, most caregivers in the intervention group (85.3%) and in the control group (54.3%) regarded immunization as very highly and moderately beneficial to their children respectively. On risks, most caregivers in the intervention group (85.5%) and control group (43.1%) regarded the risk factor associated with immunization as very low and moderate respectively. From hypothesis testing, there was a significant difference on the perceived benefits and risks of immunization between the intervention and control group. Conclusions: Most caregivers in the intervention and control group regarded immunization as very highly beneficial and moderately to their children respectively. Most of the caregivers in the intervention and control group regarded the risk factor associated with immunization as very low and moderate respectively.
Factors Associated with Health Seeking Behaviour for Reproductive Tract Infections among Young Street Females in Eldoret, Kenya
(Kabarak Journal of Research & Innovation, 2021) Chepchirchir, V MARITIM; WANYORO, Anthony; NYAMARI, Jackim; MAINGI, John; ABALLA, Lillian; KIMANI, Eunice
Reproductive tract infections (RTIs), among young women is a public health concern, especially in developing countries like Kenya. When a reproductive tract infection occurs, urgent treatment should be done to avoid short- and long-term consequences. However, few studies have evaluated factors associated with RTIs and healthcare seeking behaviors especially, among young street women in low and middle-income countries. This study aimed at determining the factors associated with healthcare seeking behavior for RTI infections among young street females in Eldoret town in Kenya. Descriptive cross-sectional study design was used. The study participants were young street females aged between 10-24 years. The independent variables were age, education, occupation, marital status, and healthcare associated factors such as distance to the facility, and health care perspectives on reproductive health were assessed. Informed consent was obtained from participants while assent was obtained from guardians for minors and persons in charge of street families. A total of 77 young street females were enrolled. Those aged ≤15 years were 10 (13%) while those aged ≥ 20 years were 48 (62.3%). The study established that participants aged between 16 to 19 years were less likely to report having had an RTI compared to those aged between 20 to 24 years (95% CI; 0.216 (0.070-0.671), p=0.006). Majority had heard of RTI (62, 80.5%). Out of the fifty respondents (65%) who reported having ever experienced RTI in their lifetime, 36 (72%) sought treatment for the illness with 46 respondents (94%) seeking treatment after two days post-onset of symptoms. Additionally, the main first points of seeking treatment were pharmacies (21, 43%) and health facilities (25, 51%). The study findings show there’s a high burden of RTIs among young street females in Eldoret.
Diarrhea Risk Factors Associated with Water, Sanitation and Hygiene among the Under Five in Kasarani, Nairobi County
(science publishing group, 2019) Kimani, Humphrey Mbuti; Akunga, Daniel Nyagetiria; Anyango, Stephen Obiero; Ndwiga, Taratisio
Provision of quality water continues to be a challenge in the developing Counties particularly in the informal settlements and Kenya is not an exception. This study assessed diarrhea disease attributable to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) among the under five in Kasarani, Nairobi County. The main objective of this study was to establish the association between diarrhea among the under five and Water, Sanitation and hygiene. To achieve this goal Kasarani was categorized into four study environs namely low density high income, Medium density middle income, high density low income and informal settlement low income. Structured questionnaire and hygiene checklist were used as data collection instruments. Association and significant differences between variables were determined using inferential statistics and Chi-square tests. To compare quantitative variables (ANOVA) test was preferred. This study determined that water consumed in Kasarani was a risk for childhood diarrhea (p=0.019). Tap water showed a significantly higher contamination 13.7% than household water container 7.2% for T. Coli Bacteria. The amount of water a household consumed per day was an important risk factor for childhood diarrhea (P=0.001). Overall, Age of a child (P=0.046), water treatment method (P=0.002), method of storage of solid waste P<0.001, quantity and frequencies of water supply (P<0.001) were also found to be the most important risk factors for childhood diarrhea. The study concluded that there was a relationship between childhood diarrhea and water, sanitation and hygiene in Kasarani. The study recommended that Nairobi water and Sewerage Company institute programs that will facilitate adequate and wholesome water supply to HDLI and ISLI residential environs respectively.
Demographic Study of Ionizing Radiation Exposure of Quarry Workers in Some Selected Quarries in Nyamira County, Kenya
(Environmental Health Insights, 2020) Makori, Kerubo Ruth; Warutere, Peterson Njogu; Nyamari, Jackim; Arika, Wycliffe
Cumulative effects of exposure to ionizing radiation results in oxidative-induced damage and genetic mutations that are prerequisites for many pathologies including cancer. An understanding of term “ionizing radiation,” its injurious effects and mitigation measures is therefore, imperative. The present study aimed at investigating the awareness of the term “ionizing radiation,” its injurious effects and preventive measures among quarry workers within Nyamira County, Kenya. An analytical cross-sectional study design was adopted and data collected through administration of questionnaires. The results revealed that majority of the sampled quarry workers indicated inadequacy in understanding the term “ionizing radiation,” its injurious effects and preventive measures against ionizing radiation exposures. However, it was noted that level of education and working experience of quarry workers positively correlated with the understanding of the term “ionizing radiation,” injurious effects and intervention approaches against ionizing radiation exposures irrespective of gender and age. Therefore, there is need for stakeholders to build capacity on ionizing radiation, its effects, and preventive measures against exposures to ionizing radiation among the quarry workers and the general public.
The Quality of Kiserian Slaughterhouses’ Effluent and Its Implication on Kiserian Dam Water in Kajiado County, Kenya
(IPRJB, 2023-05-25) Ngare, Leah Wangui; Kitur, Esther L.
Purpose: Wastewater from abattoirs, municipal, agricultural and industrial effluents is a major source of environmental pollution as they consume large amounts of fresh water for meat processing and hygienic purposes. The main objective of the study was to assess the quality of the effluent from Keekonyokie and Kiserian slaughterhouses and its effect on the quality of water in Kiserian dam. Methodology: The parameters measured were pH, total suspended solids, total nitrogen, total phosphorous, dissolved oxygen and fecal coliforms (E. coli). Samples were collected from 4 sampling sites three times a week for three months. SPSS (ANOVA) for their significant differences. Onesample t-test used to compare the parameter means with NEMA 2006 standards. Pearson Correlation used for correlation among the parameters. Findings: The mean fecal coliforms 2215.206 mg/l, Phosphorous 47.379 mg/l, Nitrates 36.71 mg/l, TSS 387.57 mg/l which were above the standards of NEMA 2006 of nil, 2, 2 and 30 mg/l respectively while DO was 8.58 mg/l and pH 6.86-7.0 both of which were below the NEMA 2006 standards of 30 mg/l and 6.5- 8.5. The results of all parameters were significantly different among the sites (p=0.00). There was significant difference between the parameters and the NEMA 2006. ANOVA results on parameters showed the all coliforms increased with increase in rainfall with the highest levels in September with a mean 18662.7 mg/l and in July with the lowest of 12962.5 mg/l. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study can be used by slaughterhouses developers and management on slaughterhouse wastewater treatment. To be used by slaughterhouses licensing authorities on SWW requirements before licensing. To be used by Public Health Department for disease surveillances and Water Regulatory Management Authority on domestic water treatment.
Determination of Knowledge Based on Aflatoxin Poisoning among Broiler Farmers in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Microbiology Research Journal International, 2023) Chepkosgei, Ruth; Njogu, Warutere Peterson; Nguhiu, Purity; Ojola, Patroba; Kirinyet, Joel; Koskei, Peter
Background: There is a scarcity of information concerning knowledge of aflatoxin contamination of feeds among farmers even in aflatoxin-prone regions in Kenya. Thus, knowledge of aflatoxins in feeds among poultry farmers is of paramount importance in designing plans to minimize risks of aflatoxin exposure. Therefore, this study sought to assess the Determinants of Knowledge on Aflatoxin Among Broiler farmers in Nairobi City County, Kenya. Methodology: The study utilized an analytical cross-sectional study design. A total of 240 farmers were sampled from a population of 600 farmers within Nairobi City County. A structured questionnaire was administered to farmers within Nairobi City County. SPSS version 26 was used to analyze the data descriptively. Results were presented in tables and figures. Ethical approval was sought from relevant authorities and parties before the commencement of the study. Results: Results from the study show that the majority of the farmers (58.2%) had knowledge of aflatoxin. There was a significant association (p<0.05) between the socio-demographic characteristics of farmers and knowledge of aflatoxin. Conclusion: The study concludes that the farmers had adequate knowledge of aflatoxin occurrence in feeds and methods to reduce the contamination. There is a need for continuous sensitization of farmers on aflatoxin, particularly on feed management practices by the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Health Division of Public Health in Kenya
Aflatoxin Bioaccumulation in Broiler Chicken Meat and Organs from Selected Farms in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(International Organization Of Scientific Research (IOSR), 2023) Chepkosgei, Kirinyet Ruth; Njogu, Warutere Peterson; Nguhiu, Purity; Ojola, Patroba; Kirinyet, Joel; Koskei, Peter; Ndiritu, Alex Karuiru
Background: Food safety is a worldwide concern not only to policymakers but also to the general population. Food is regarded as safe when there is assurance that no damage will accrue from its consumption. Aflatoxins pose a major risk to the health of both humans and animals. Studies on residue levels in broiler chicken are limited in Kenya hence grounded on this knowledge, this study sought to determine aflatoxin residue levels in broiler meat and organs in Nairobi City County. Materials and Methods: The study employed a longitudinal study design for a period of six weeks. A total of 42 broilers were sampled. Samples were analyzed using the LC-MS/MS technique. Data was analyzed using STATA version 12. Tukey Kramer post hoc test was used for comparison of means and statistical significance was determined at 5%. Ethical approval was sought from relevant authorities before commencement of the study and consent was sought from the participants before taking part in the study. Results: Results from the study show that there was a significant association (p<0.05) in AFB1 and Total Aflatoxin levels in the gizzard, liver and muscle per week. AFB1 levels in the gizzard were below the WHO/FAO limit of 5 ppb however they were above the EU limit of 2ppb in week 5 and 6. In the liver AFB1 levels were above the EU limit in week 4, 5 and 6 and above the WHO/FAO limit in week 6.In the muscle AFB1 levels were all below the WHO/FAO and EU limit. Total Aflatoxin levels in the liver were above the EU limit in week 4, 5 and 6 and above the WHO/FAO limit in week 6. In the muscle Total Aflatoxin levels were all below the WHO/FAO and EU limit. Conclusion:The results of the study suggest that there were appreciable levels of aflatoxin in the liver and gizzard hence there is need for continuous surveillance and monitoring of aflatoxin levels in feed by regulatory bodies, county and national government to prevent carry over in meat.
Carry Over Effect of Aflatoxin from Broiler Feed to Broiler Meat and Organs in Chicken raised in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(IOSR, 2023) Chepkosgei, Kirinyet Ruth; Njogu, Warutere Peterson; Purity, Nguhiu
Background: Aflatoxin is a threat and a food safety concern particularly in developing countries due to the climatic conditions that favor the growth of the aflatoxin fungi. Consequently, this is a major risk to feed ingredients used in the manufacture of animal feed and subsequently a great risk to human consumers due to the detrimental effects of these toxins. Since there are no documented studies on carry over effect of aflatoxin in broilers in Kenya, a study to establish the carry over effect of aflatoxin in broiler chicken was carried out in Nairobi City County. Materials and Methods: The study employed a longitudinal study design where by broiler chicken were followed for a period of six weeks. The broilers were sampled from six farms in six sub counties within Nairobi City County hence, a total of 42 birds were sampled.The samples obtained were meat (muscle, liver and gizzard), feed and water and were analyzed using the LC-MS/MS technique to determine the Aflatoxin levels.The carry over effect in this study was determined statistically. STATA version 12 was used to analyze the data. Tukey Kramer post hoc test was used for comparison of means and statistical significance was determined at 5%. Results:There was a statistical significant difference (p<0.05) in the carry over ratio of aflatoxin per week. The highest carry over ratio of >10% was observed in the liver, followed by the gizzard and the least was in the muscle.The highest transfer ratio was observed in week 5 and 6 in the liver and in week 6 in the muscle. The carry over ratio in the muscle was below 1%. Conclusion:The study concludes that it is less safe to consume the liver and gizzard as the transfer is high however it is safer to consume the muscle as the transfer is low. There is need to constantly monitor aflatoxin levels in feed and feed ingredients hence prevent carry over into animal tissues consequently reducing risk to humans.
Social Demographic Factors Associated with Adherence to Treatment among Urban and Rural Tuberculosis Patients in Kenya
(ijmshr, 2020) Mbuti, Humphrey; Mwaniki, Elizabeth; Warutere, Peter; Oguya, Francis; Midigo, Ronnie
Tuberculosis is a Global Public Health concern with serious Economic and Social Burden to the Patient and the Household. Because of the long duration of Standard Treatment there is a Risk of Treatment Default by Patients. The Objective of the Study was to determine the Social Demographic Factors Associated with Adherence to Treatment among the Urban and Rural Tuberculosis Patients in Kenya. The Cross Sectional Study Design was adopted. The Study applied the Multi-Stage Sampling Technique. Random Sampling Method was used to select the TB Clinics that Participated in the Study. Simple Random Sampling according to Probability Proportionate to TB Patient’s Population was preferred to select the Study Participants. Chi-Square Test determined Association between the various Social Demographic factors and the Adherence to treatment while ANOVA Test demonstrated the overall Association of Social Demographic factors and Adherence to TB Treatment. Statistical Significance was evaluated at p<0.05. Descriptive Statistics summarized and described the data. The Study established that Demographic Factors were Associated with adherence to TB treatment. Specifically, Gender, Level of Education, Place of Residence were found to be Significant (P<0.05). Age, Marital Status, Primary Occupation and Household Head were not Significantly Associated with adherence to TB treatment (p>0.05). These Findings will persuade the TB Management Policy towards developing Intervention Programs directed at the Social-Demographic Characteristics of the TB patient for improved Treatment Outcomes.
Risk Factors Associated with Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Rosterman, Kakamega, Kenya
(Scientific & Academic Publishing, 2020) Makokha, Winnie Rabera; Nyamari, Jackim Matara; Makau, Isaac K.
Occupational injuries, though preventable, have been described as a major public health problem. In artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), little is known about the risk factors to injuries. In 2018, we examined injuries and the potential risk factors among ASGM workers in Rosterman, Kakamega County, Kenya. A descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted and three hundred and thirteen (313) ASGM workers were interviewed regarding their occupational injuries experiences over the preceding 1 year. Data was collected using structured interviewer administered questionnaires with the aid of open data kit (ODK) platform. Injury rates were estimated at 44.7 injuries per 100 person years. The most affected body parts were hands, upper and lower limbs at 62.14%, 30% respectively. The risk factors associated with injuries included; having an alternative source of income (p=0.027), an individual personal safety culture (p=0.021) and use of hammer or mallet as tools (p=0.022). In conclusion, injuries are prevalent among ASGM workers with several body parts being affected, the upper limbs being the most commonly affected. The study also demonstrated that there are various risk factors associated with injuries in ASGM. In view of those findings, the study recommends that injury prevention should be made a priority in ASGM intervention programs in order to reduce the burden of occupational injuries and also sensitize the workers on the risk factors they are exposed to.

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