PHD-Department of Sociology

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Implications of Social Support Exchanges on the Social Well-being of Older Persons in Kitui County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Mbuthia, Kezia Waruguru; Samuel M. Mwangi; George Evans Owino
Social well-being (SWB) is an important aspect of human functionality and is experienced within social relationships. Social support is received and provided in social relationships and has been found in the literature to produce mixed effects on SWB which suggest that a lot remains to be understood about that relationship. Therefore, this study seeks to provide more insight into the contradictory findings for a better understanding of the social phenomenon. This study therefore aimed at assessing the bi-directional implications of social support on the SWB of older persons in Kitui County, Kenya. Specifically, the study focused on the effects of closeness on satisfaction with provided and received social support; the effects of providing social support on SWB; the effects of receiving social support on SWB and suggestions for improving the SWB of older persons. The study was guided by the social exchange theory and rational choice theory which stresses how social relationships entail costs and rewards and that people seek to maximize rewards. The study adopted a convergent parallel mixed methods research design. Cluster and simple random sampling methods were used to sample 369 older persons aged 60 years and above proportionate to the population per sub-county. Secondary data was obtained from books and the internet while primary data was collected using an interview schedule, focus group discussions guide and a key-informant guide. Quantitative data was cleaned, coded and entered into SPSS software Version 21 and subjected to a Chi-square test (χ2). Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis and presented in form of narratives and verbatim reports. The results indicate that majority of the respondents were female (59.1%), aged between 60 and 69 (50.5%) and married (57.6%). The majority of the respondents were close (96.2%) to their CNMs, especially their spouse and children (82.3%) and closeness to CNMs had a significant association with satisfaction with provided (p=.006) and received social support (p=.000). There was a significant association between the three domains of provided and received social support (instrumental, emotional and informational) and social well-being (p< .05). In addition, older persons identified provision of basic needs; cash transfer (OPCT); caring for the very frail and dependent; co-existing well with CNMs and frequent communication and interaction as instrumental in improving their SWB. From these findings, the study recommends that the Ministry of Labour, Social Security and services and the National Gender and Equality Commission mandated to deal with issues of older persons, to streamline traditional conflict resolution mechanism as enshrined in the National policy of ageing, in its theme on older persons and law to address negative aspects of relationship quality that affects SWB. Address constraints to older persons roles as providers in the family, community and culture theme through intensive campaigns and sensitization. Sensitize communities and families on the need for closeness as a tool to encourage participation, rights and assistance to older persons and address areas of vulnerability identified by older persons as a policy issue. These recommendations will improve the social wellbeing of older persons in Kitui, Kenya.
Effects of Oil Extraction on the Livelihoods Vulnerability in Lokichar-Kochodin Basin, Turkana County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Cheptoo, Kirui Agnes; DICKSON OMBAKA; HENRY RONO
Discovery of oil in South Lokichar-Kochodin Basin (SLKB) in Turkana County, Kenya, in 2012, subsequent exploration and extraction, provided opportunity to assess the nature of vulnerability to displacement and impoverishment, particularly among the pastoral communitiies in arid and semi-arid regions. This study assessed the effects of the exploration and extraction of crude oil on displacement and the vulnerability of the livelihoods. Specific objectives of the study were to; examine the nature of the vulnerability of the livelihoods, assess the nature of oil-induced displacement, examine the effects of the oil dispcement on the vulnerability of the livelihood, assess the narure of recovery and to examine the nature of the compensation. Informed by the theory of vulnerability, impoverishment and displacement (VID), the study was basically a survey design. The location of the study was South Lochikar-Kochodin Basin (SLKB) in the Turkana County targeting 14,713 households. A sample size of 426 was determined using the Yamane (1967) formula. Individual households were drawn through systematic sampling with use of two registers (one from Lokichar location and one from Kochodin location). Data were collected through key informant interviews (KII), focus group discussions (FGD) and a survey questionnaire. Descriptive and Inferential analayis inform of regression was performed. As in most parts of Turkana County, SLKB was largely arid and semi-arid region where livelihoods were based largely on livestock production. Around 78% of the households lived within the margins of the chronic poverty (KES 117 per day or $ 1) and experienced varied forms of the vulnerability of livelihoods. The land tenure in SLKB and most parts of the Turkana County remained a community land; accessible to local members of the community and held in trust by the County Government. The study established that 53% of the households had lost some part of access to land because of exploration and extraction of oil, 42% had witnessed reduced livestock, and 38% had experienced extensive and severe reduction of access to water sources. Reports indicated that by 2018, a total of 700 square kilometers of community land had been curved out to support exploration of oil and gas, extraction, and related infrastructure. The study also established that 42% of increased severity of poverty was driven by oil related impoverishment and displacement and was significant at the probability of error less than 0.001. Out of the seven indicators of impoverishment and displacement, the key drivers were 1) excised/reduced land (Beta=0.482), 2) pasture (Beta=0.236) and 3) family support (Beta=0.174). The study established that 31% of the recovery (new settlement, access to new opportunities) were associated with the socioeconomic endowment (resilience) of the households; which was significant at the probability of error less than 0.001.The study established that there had been limited stakeholder engagement characterized by a number of critical challenges such as limited plan, limited information, limited education, inadequate compensation (even at the pilot stage), and multiplicity of stakeholders (i.e. national government, local government, council of elders and the households). The study recommended strengthening measures to accelerate human resource development and socio-economic capacity (resilience), to improve agro-pastoral production, to enforce registration of the community land based on the Land Registration Act (2012) and the Community Land Act (2016), 4) to re-start negotiation of the compensation and resettlemt directed to building the economic endowment (resilience) of the local (indigenous) population.
Psychosocial Economic Vulnerability of Family Caregivers of Persons Living With Sickle Cell Disease in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kwena, Foulata Tabitha; Mildred Lodiaga; Grace Okong’o; Joash R. Aluoch
Nearly 90% of the burden of the sickle cell disease (SCD) has been in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) and a greater proportion of the burden of the disease usually fall on the involuntary family caregivers. Some form of impairment and related caregiving vary in duration, intensity, dependency and impoverishment with the type of the chronic health condition. Persons Living with Sickle Cell Disease (PLWSCDs) have typically been accompanied by prolonged, intensive, dependency and impoverished caregivers. Accordingly, this study was intended to identify the psychosocial economic vulnerability of Involuntary Family Caregivers (IFCGs) of PLWSCDs in an urban center of LMIC, the effects on the psychosocial economic wellbeing and the necessary interventions. The objectives of the study were 1) to identify the nature of the SCD in the urban centers of the LMIC, 2) to assess the characteristics of the IFCGs 3) to assess related psychosocial economic vulnerability 4) to assess coping strategies and 5) to identify necessary intervention measures. The study was based on three key theories namely the psychosocial-economic vulnerability, the psychosocial-economic resilience and the gender empowerment to address the capacity of the IFCGs to build their psychosocial-economic resilience. The study was principally a survey with in-depth interviews. The target population was IFCGs living in Nairobi in 2016. From a population of 510, a sample of 226 IFCGs was determined through Yamane (1967). Data was collected through interview guides. Results indicated that average age of IFCGs was 43 years, 81% were married, 60% had secondary or higher education. and 56% were knowledgeable about SCD. In addition, 58% of IFCGs lived in informal settlements, 60% of IFCGs earned less than KES 35,520 ($320) which was the average income for urban low income households in Kenya per month. The IFCGs spent an average of KES 31,746 ($286) which was higher compared to the household average of KES 16,983 ($153). Overall, 60% of IFCGs had provided caregiving for a period of 6 to 20 years. The effects of the caregiving ranged from ill physical and mental health 26%, social deprivation and exclusion 24% and socio-economic deprivation 50%. The study recommends developing and implementing a SCD policy including the management of family caregivers, enhancing medical insurance policy for the PLWSCDs and incorporating family caregivers in social protection schemes in order to mitigate some of the psychosocial economic challenges.
Socio-Cultural and Economic Determinants of Accessing the Criminal Justice System by Victims of Spousal Abuse in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Ollando, Omondi Scholastica Awino; Daniel M. Muia; Wilson A. P. Otengah
Spousal abuse is acknowledged globally as a major social problem that affects the victim, perpetrator, their families and the community in general, irrespective of social, economic, religious or cultural background (Eriksson & Mazerolle, 2015; ICRW & UNFPA, 2009). Globally, there is a high attrition level where cases of spousal violence reported to the police drop out of the ‘justice chain’ (Eriksson & Mazerolle, 2015; UN Women, 2012). Limited studies in Kenya make it difficult to design an effective intervention strategy. The main objective of the study was to investigate the social, cultural and economic determinants in accessing justice from the Criminal Justice System (CJS) by Victims of Spousal Abuse (VSA) in Nairobi City County, Kenya. The specific objectives were to find out the CJS’s response to spousal abuse, to determine the social, cultural and economic barriers and facilitators to accessing justice by victims of spousal abuse, to identify the available alternative mechanisms of resolving spousal abuse and recommend measures towards enhancing access to the CJS by victims of spousal abuse in Kenya. The study applied four theories namely feminist, masculinities in crisis, the family conflict theory and the theory of justice. The research target population comprised of 681 married male and female VSA who had reported their cases to the police, FIDA and GVRC (Nairobi Women’s Hospital) in the last twelve months (2012-2013) before data collection. The study interviewed one hundred and thirty-four spousal-abuse victims (male and female) (20% of the target population according to Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999). Thirty-one key respondents were purposively sampled due to their roles in handling spousal abuse in the CJS. The study conducted three focused group discussions. The study applied interview guides and focused group discussion guides as the instruments to collect data. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS while qualitative data was analysed using inferences and verbatim citations of the voices of the Respondents. The study found that majority (89%) of spousal abuse victims are unable to access justice from the CJS due to its adversarial nature, formality of procedures, delays, legal expenses, inflexibility and corruption, leading to a ‘pyramidal progression’ of spousal abuse cases in the CJS, as the victims opt for Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms. The study concludes that spousal abuse is a major concern nationally that needs to be addressed urgently to protect the family from its impact and that the current CJS in Kenya is unsuitable for the resolution of spousal abuse cases. The study recommends that the President should declare spousal abuse as a national concern that threatens the family as the basic unit of society and direct the Cabinet Secretary in charge of the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection (in collaboration with Kenyatta University Sociology Department and other NGOs working in the area of Gender- Based Violence such as FIDA, GVRC, Maendeleo ya Wanaume) to develop a policy on family protection. In addition, the Cabinet Secretary in charge of the Ministry of the Labour and social protection should spear head a national debate on spousal abuse cascaded to the regional, county and household levels to re-socialize the society on relationships between spouses. The study further recommends that the Commission on Administrative Justice (CAJ) in collaboration with the Judicial Service Commission (JSC), the Kenya Law Reform Commission (KLRC) and Parliament should operationalize Article 159 of the Constitution and strengthen ADRMs by creating a quasi-judicial system such as a Family tribunal composed of experts from different disciplines to handle cases of spousal abuse. Only very serious and life threatening cases which cannot be resolved by the Tribunal should be prosecuted through the CJS. There is also need for further research to establish and address the causes and impact of spousal abuse.
Sexual Behaviours and their Determinants among Adolescents Living with Hiv And Aids in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Kinoti, Jesca K.; Parvin Moloo; Anne Kamau
Adolescents living with HIV and AIDS just like the rest of the adolescents in the general population experience and express their sexuality which is mediated within a socio-cultural context. HIV and AIDS has the potential to significantly modify adolescents’ sexual behaviours for various reasons. The association between HIV and AIDS with sexual intercourse which is the common mode of HIV transmission among adults population renders the adolescents living with HIV and AIDS to be subjected to the same sexuality constrains as adults in as much as they may not have contracted HIV through sexual intercourse. Thus, as the adolescents’ living with HIV and AIDS handles their sexual lives, they still have to worry about; one having to disclose their HIV status to a potential partner, infecting their partners/spouse or a child, and are faced with stigma that generally compound living with HIV and AIDS. This study sought to examine; the sexual behaviours among adolescents living with HIV and AIDS, how HIV status disclosure influence sexual behaviours, how felt stigma influence sexual behaviours, and the nature of communication between adolescents and persons significant to their lives on sexuality and HIV and AIDS. The sexual scripting theory and life course perspective were the key theoretical foundations that guided this study. A cross-sectional research design was employed in the study which involved both quantitative and qualitative research approaches in data collection and analysis. The adolescents living with HIV and AIDS were identified through a community outreach programme, Lea Toto which was purposively selected. Simple random sampling was applied in the selection of a sample of 262 adolescents of which 255 were interviewed through face-to-face interviews. Key informant interviews were conducted with programme staff while the focus group discussions were conducted with caregivers of the adolescents. Quantitative data were analysed by the use of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, 21) while qualitative data were analysed using descriptions along thematic areas. The study findings show that adolescents were engaged in both passive (being attracted to a boy/a girl, being seduced and petting privacy) and active types (being in a relationship, seducing someone, and being engaged in sexual intercourse) of sexual behaviours. HIV status disclosure and felt stigma which are some of the key determinants that relate to living with HIV and AIDS were found to have a close association with engagement in types of sexual behaviours among adolescents. Communication on sexuality and HIV and AIDS between adolescents and persons to their lives (family members, peers in school, teachers, doctors who visited the school, and religious leaders) were found out to be low (below 30%) except with parents (61.8%). The key challenges that were linked to low communication were, issues of trust, fears of one being discovered that adolescents were HIV positive as well as fear of being stigmatized. In conclusions, this study shows that transitioning of sexual lives of the adolescents is compounded with HIV and AIDS. Adolescents are faced issues of handling HIV status disclose to partners and the experience of felt stigma. The key recommendation generated from this study was the need to re-examine the existing HIV primary prevention interventions that inform behaviours change communication in HIV programming with a view to addressing sexuality issues of adolescents living with HIV and AIDS
Determinants of Diversification of Livelihoods in Slum Areas in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Masese, Stellah Mong’ina; Daniel M Muia; Dickson Ombaka
By 2030 it’s projected that the world population will be 8.6 billion. With these increase, one of the anticipated challenges will be ensuring sustainable livelihoods. Over time households are being subjected to livelihood vulnerability. The study sought to establish determinants that led to diversification of livelihood by households in Mukuru slums in Nairobi City County. Specifically the study find out; livelihoods strategies used in slums, coping mechanisms adopted by households and extent to which financial assets ,social capital and human assets influence diversification of livelihoods. Rational choice theory and social exchange theory were used to explain diversification. In which rational individuals are motivated by alternatives that support their wants or goals and that which has the greatest satisfaction. Similarly social exchange theory explained the different exchanges that individuals undergo as they try different choices. The study was carried out in Mukuru slums; with a population, of 44,427 households spread in twenty (20) villages. Descriptive cross sectional survey design was used to collect data. Unit of analysis for the study was the households. Multistage sampling was used where Mukuru slum was purposively sampled; villages were clustered into three according to their population. Two villages were selected from each cluster to have a sample of 397. Key informants and focus group discussion discussants were purposive sampled. The data was collected through interviews, focus group discussions and simple observation. Data was analyzed with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) V 22 both qualitative and quantitative data using logistical regression model and Chi-square analysis. Qualitative data from FGDs and key informants interviews was thematically analysed as per the objectives of the study. Ethical considerations were taken into account. It was found out that; firstly, on social demographics men were the majority in Mukuru, respondents between 18 and 28 years were the majority, with most of them being married and majority had secondary level education. Secondly, on livelihood strategies majority were self-employed. Thirdly, on vulnerabilities a majority experienced challenges when securing their basic needs due to threats and shocks such as sickness, loss of a source of income and crime. Fourthly, on financial capital households diversified due their basic needs that were required by their dependants. Fifthly, social capital groups were found to be a determinant for diversification of livelihoods due to their saving and borrowing activities. Sixthly, on human capital it was found a majority found it very hard to secure an employment opportunity, due to lack employment opportunities and required skills/education. Lastly on how to make livelihoods successful slum upgrading was advocated for by respondents. It was recommended that one, social groups need to be strengthened and their capacities. Two, development of adult functional literacy centres to help in skill development and training for Mukuru slum residents and three; financial literacy education should be enhanced. In terms of policy a review of slum upgrading programmes so as to include the new emerging issues.
Forms, Patterns and Predicators of Elder Abuse in Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2019-01) Muli, Ruth Mueni
The thesis addresses itself to an emerging issue, elderly abuse, that is prevalent yet it is hidden in most communities. It is an issue affecting the elderly population who are increasingly marginalized and ignored. Modernization and attendant urbanization has weakened the social bonds that held communities together, bonds that shielded the weak and especially the elderly from neglect or abuse. Elder abuse is an emerging social problem. As the Kenyan elderly population is rising, phenomenon of elder abuse and the underlying factors contributing to elder abuse need to be understood in their totality. The study explored the forms, patterns and patterns of elder abuse, the reasons for abuse and predicting factors of elder abuse in Machakos County, Kenya. The study used two theories, Social Exchange and Power Control Theory. Cross sectional research design was employed to study phenomena of elder abuse at a specific point in time. The study adopted a mixed methods approach. A purposive sampling of two sub-counties, Machakos Town and Mwala were selected. A sample size of 317 (142 male and 175 female) elderly persons aged 60 and above were interviewed on their socio demographic characteristics (gender, age, marital status, income, occupation, living arrangements, and health status) and their experience of elder abuse. Data yielded by the study were both quantitative and qualitative. Qualitative data was collected through face-to-face interviews as well as three Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant interviews. The data collection tools were semi-structured interview and focus group discussion and Key Informant guide. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, means, standard deviations and percentages) and inferential statistics (Chi square, Pearson’s product- moment correlation) at 0.05 % level of confidence. Results showed the elderly experienced physical, psychological, financial, sexual abuse and neglect. The results further indicated that there was no significant influence of gender, age, income, marital status and occupation on elder abuse. All categories of the elderly experienced elder abuse. Health and living arrangements had a significant influence on the experience of abuse. The key predicting factors for physical, psychological and financial abuse were found to be ownership of land and having not subdivided it as well as family strife. Sexual abuse happened because the elderly person was found living alone as well as violation of customs like in joking relationships. Neglect was found to be caused by the fact of children having moved to live elsewhere and leaving the elderly person on their own. The study findings highlighted the nature and extent that is not clearly understood of the issue of elder abuse and the urgency to inform on policy formulation focusing on the elderly abused. A curriculum on Social Gerontology should be developed to gain the knowledge about the elderly and consequently on elder abuse. The study augments the Social Pillar of Vision 2030 and the Kenya Constitution on Social Security and Social Justice.
Correlates of Victimization of Prisoners in Maximum Security Prisons within Nairobi County in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2019-03) Makokha, Chrisantus Makuba
Studies indicate that victimization is practiced in the free world and in Kenyan prisons. This vice in prisons is a human rights issue. It affects the security of a prison which may impact negatively on prisoners‟ rehabilitation. However, the studies undertaken do not focus on the forms, nature and factors that predispose prisoners to victimization in prisons in Nairobi County in Kenya which this study set out to establish. The study used survey research design and was conducted in Kamiti and Langata prisons in Nairobi County, Kenya. Simple random sampling was used to draw a sample size of 340 from prisoners for interviews. Purposive sampling was used to draw 16 respondents from among prisoners for Focus Group Discussions and 10 Key Informants from among officers. Data was collected using an interview schedule, Focus Group Discussions and Key Informants interview guides. The study was anchored on the general strain theory which says that an individual resorts to crime due to pressure by others to his or her legitimate means of achieving goals. It was also based on routine activities theory which states that in order for a crime to occur, there must be motivated offenders, suitable targets and absence of capable guardians of persons or property. Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) with which descriptive and inferential statistics were employed. Qualitative data was analyzed using themes and content analysis. The study findings indicate that victimization is rampant at 100% for male and 88% for female prisoners. Verbal abuse is the most common (79.4%) form of victimization. Majority of females (69.23%) and males (67.10%) were physically abused between noon and 6 pm. Age is a determining factor for sexual victimization as most (30.2%) sexually assaulted male prisoners were those aged 18- 25 years. Females aged 35 years and over were not sexually victimized. Physical victimization is as a result of deals among inmates going sour. Majority of male (72.7%) and female (65%) victims did not report cases because they felt no action would be taken. Most (60%) males were victimized in the first week of their admission in prison while 56% females were victimized in the first month. It is recommended that the prison administration separates newly admitted and young prisoners from hard core, older criminals. The prison administration should provide redress mechanisms for victims and also develop more programmes to keep inmates occupied during the day.
Household Participation, Labour and Networks in the Development of Fish Farming in Busia County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2019-06) Sitawa, Mugah Michae
Fish farming has and continues to play a vital role in improving nutrition and creating employment. The purpose of the study was to investigate the sociological aspects manifest in the households as well as the centre of focus in the study aimed at establishing the households and networks in the development of fish farming in Busia County. It sought to document the benefits of fish farming to the households, the adoption levels, to find out the importance of household support in fish farming, to investigate the contribution of consumption on the success of fish farming and to assess the importance of networking among farmers to the development of fish farming. The social network theory as propounded by Friedkin (1993) and the rational choice theory as propounded by George Homans, (1961) and Friedma n and Hetcher, (1990 1990) as well as the human capital theory as propounded by Gary Becker (1964) were used to explain the sociological relevance of the study. The target population was the farmers who were registered under the Economic Stimulus Pack (ESP) and were actively involved in fish farming as well as a number whom through their own initiative, ventured into the enterprise. The target population was that of farmers who were registered and were actively involved (800) in fish farming as well as a number whom through their own initiative, ventured into the enterprise. This study used a mixed-methods research approach. The survey research design that was cross-sectional in nature was used. The sample size calculated was 267. The study was able to get 298 respondents. An additional 8 key informants were also selected via purposive sampling. The data was presented in percentages in descriptive form. The Chi-Square test was also used to test the hypotheses. The findings of the study revealed that a majority of the farmers realized a development on their fish farms. On the same note, it was observed that the farmers realized certain benefits from the practice of fish farming. The study findings revealed that there wa s a lack of relationship between the benefits of fish farming and the growth of fish farming in the secto r. It was also es tablished that there was a relationship between the importance of household support and the development of fish farming in Busia County. With regard to fish consumption and the development of fish farming, the study findings showed that the consumption was not significant to the development of fish farming in Busia County. Lastly, the findings also revealed that networking was a significant component in the development of fish farming in Busia County. The study recommended that p policies should to be put in place to promote the training offered to fish farmers and as well should be inclusive of another one or two of their household members. Equally, key components on conflict resolution and functionality should be included in the training, to be applied both at network and household level. This would enhance the synergy and efficient functioning of the farmers’ networks and households as sociological units in the optimal development of the sector. As for areas of further research, it was proposed that a study be done on the demographic variables influencing the development of fish farming in Busia County. Also, the factors explaining the variation in the significance of networks among various age-groups in the development of fish farming.
Correlates of Criminal Recidivism in Maximum Prison Facilities in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2017-06) Anyango, Grace J.
Recidivism, the tendency to relapse into crime by offenders upon release from prison, seems to be getting out of hand as inmates keep committing crime after going through prison rehabilitation programming. The public in turn pays heavily due to increased victimization arising from repeat offending not mentioning the negative impact on the already overcrowded correctional facilities in Kenya. It brings into question the efficacy of correctional programmes and/or reintegration of offenders into community on discharge.By interrogating correctional, individual and community correlates of criminal relapse, this study fills a knowledge gap by investigating multiple predictors of recidivism. It also provides insight into the behaviour of offenders who are at a relatively developed stage of their criminal career. To investigate the correlates of criminal recidivism in maximum prison facilities in Kenya, the following null hypotheses were tested; there is no significant relationship between Correctional Programming and offender‘s risk factors. There is no significant relationship between Correctional programming and offenders criminogenic factors and there exist no relationship between offender‘s individual factors and criminal relapse. The study was guided by control, labeling, social learning, routine activity and bronfenbrenner‘s ecological theories. It adopted a cross- sectional survey design, which employed both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis approaches. The main respondents consisted of female and male recidivists at Kamiti and Langata maximum prisons. A total of 262 recidivists were sampled. Key informants were drawn from agencies, communities, administrators, offender‘s relatives and crime victims. The information was obtained using questionnaires and FGDs. Informed consent of respondents was sought. Data was analyzed through frequencies, percentages, cross- tabulations and construction of pathways. Utilizing SAS in testing of hypotheses the following tests were carried out: (ANOVA), t-test, logit model and chi-square. Data was then interpreted and presented in descriptive and diagrammatic forms. Transition programming was found to be the most statistically significant predictor of criminal relapse. The study also established that correctional programming was not effective in addressing criminogenic needs of offenders, inmates not classified and lack of sufficient incentives that reward program participation and work programmes. Underfunding also compromised service delivery. Impulsive behaviour also influenced the respondent‘s criminal behaviour and higher number of alcohol abusers had higher risk of re offending. Low job prospects for ex-offenders were impediments to safe reintegration with employers highly averse in hiring them. The study concludes that criminal recidivism is multi-faceted and a product of many factors emanating from the handling of offender within the criminal justice chain, criminogenic needs of individual offenders and array of community factors. The study recommends that policies be developed to address transition and prison programming gaps, labor integration of ex-offenders, sentencing framework review and construction of environments that support inmates on release should equally be considered.
Patterns of Women's Property Ownership and Inheritance Rights in Kisii County, Kenya.
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Mogute, Mary Moraa; Maina, Lucy W.; Kimani, Elishiba; Muia, Daniel
Women's rights have been the global agenda for the last few decades. Despite this, women are still disadvantaged. This study endevoured to investigate the patterns of women's property rights among the Kisii people of Nyanza region, Kenya. The objectives of this study were to identify the various types of property, establish who had rights to access, control and inherit property, investigate the determinants of women's property ownership and inheritance rights and generate suitable strategies that. could be adopted to enhance women's property rights. This study was informed by the conflict and the social role theory. The research design adopted for this study was descriptive survey which triangulated quantitative and qualitative techniques. Interviews schedules were utilized to obtain primary data from 408 household heads, in-depth interview guides were used to collect data from thirty key informants while focus group discussion guides were utilized in facilitating collection of qualitative data from groups. Four focus group discussions were conducted in the two sampled divisions. Obtained data was processed and analyzed with the help of statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The finding of the study revealed that land, houses and livestock were common properties owned and men were found to dominate ownership of these properties. While land was majorly inherited as reported by 94.6% of the respondents, livestock was purchased and houses build. Male and female genders accessed family land and houses as demonstrated by chi-square outputs of2.75 and a p-value of 0.25 and10.55 and a p-value of 0.007 respectively. However, access to cattle was influenced by gender as demonstrated by a chi-square of 10.55 and p-value of 0.005. The study revealed a relationship between control of land (chi-square 17.59 and a p-value of 0.001), livestock (a chi-square of 12.83 and a p-value of 0.002) and houses (a chi-square of 19.36 and a p-value of 0.001) with gender. There was a relationship between property ownership and gender as shown by a chi-square output of 90.909 and a p-value of 0.001, 81.124 and a p-value of 0.001 and 81.227 and p-value of 0.002 for residential houses, agricultural land and cattle respectively. Inheritance of land was also found to have a relationship with gender as depicted by a chi-square of 12.402 and a p-value of 0.002.Factor analysis generated ten items and only four items with eigenvalues of 2:.1.0and factor loadings of 2:.4 were acceptable while the other six were discarded because theywere insignificant in influencing women's property ownership and inheritance rights. These factors were; cultural beliefs and practices with a variance of 14.593%, socio-economic factors with a variance of 13.398%, patriarchy with a variance of 11.865% and legal awareness and land scarcity with a variance of 10.502%. These factors explained a total variance of 50.358%. Implying they were significant in influencing women's property ownership and inheritance. Analyzed data also revealed that there was need to enhance women's rights to property as reported by 76.1% of the respondents. Policy recommendations were: to sensitize and empower the community on statutory and legal provisions related to women's property rights, to appropriately implement existing laws that promote women's rights to property, to use of gender sensitive school curriculum to help change the orientation of people on gender equality, government to establish programs to empower women economically, socially and politically. Research recommendations were; to conduct research with a wider scope beyond Kisii County and assess the impact of constitutional provisions in promoting women's property rights among the Kisii people.
Assessment of the effects of khat consumption on the wellbeing of families in Meru County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2016-08) Mugambi, Ruth Kagwiria
This study assessed the effects of Khat consumption on the wellbeing of families in Meru County. Wellbeing is a condition of holistic health in all its dimensions, namely; physical, social, and psychological. Accordingly, this study endeavoured to establish the prevalence of Khat consumption in Meru County; to find out the socio-economic drivers of Khat consumption; to determine the effects of Khat consumption on the physical health of consumers’ families; to establish the influence of Khat consumption on the social health and psychological aspects of Khat consumers’ families. The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional research design. Meru County was purposively selected for this study because it is predominantly a Khat growing and consuming county. Additionally, Khat plays a major role in social occasions such as marriage negotiation process to date. Three sub-counties were purposively selected for this study due to limited financial resources. A multi-stage sampling technique involving purposive, simple random and systematic methods were used to select the county, three sub-counties, six wards and 583 respondents. Pilot study was carried out to establish content validity and reliability. Reliability was established using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and the Likert scales used had a reliability of above 0.7. In line with ethical considerations, respondents comprised of adult family heads (male or female) of age eighteen (18) and above only. The study used primary data gathering instruments, namely, interview guides and observation checklists. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16, 2007) was used in data management and analysis. In the analysis, descriptive statistics used included percentages and frequency distribution tables. These descriptive statistics were used to summarise variables into thematic areas and to convey the characteristics of key variables. Inferential statistics used included Pearson’s Chi-square and Simple Linear Regression analysis. Inferential statistics were also used to establish relationships, provide predictions and in drawing conclusions. Focus Group Discussions were carried out, summarized, categorized and emerging themes used in the discussion to augment quantitative information. Research findings revealed that Khat availability was the main driver for its consumption. The respondents consumed Khat in groups mostly with their friends, family members and business associates. The mean age of the Khat consumers was 43. Low levels of education were reported with only 16.1% having attained college/University education. Pearson’s Chi-Square (χ2) test indicated that, there was a significant relationship between hours spent chewing Khat and the wellbeing of families. Linear regression analysis indicated that, there is no relationship between Khat consumption and lack of sleep as well as consumers’ happiness. Linear regression analysis indicated that, there is a positive relationship between Khat consumption and consumers’ education status, marital instability, poor family relationships, addiction and low investment with p-values of 0.000, 0.000, 0.003, 0.003, and 0.000 respectively. It was concluded that availability of Khat and peer pressure encouraged Khat consumption, thus influencing the physical, social and psychological wellbeing of families. The study recommended that NACADA should create awareness in Khat chewing communities on the negative effects of Khat consumption. The study also recommended that, the Ministry of Agriculture through the field extension officers should engage with the Khat farmers to find alternative economic livelihoods to cut the supply chain and hence reduce Khat availability to the consumers.
The effectiveness of olgulului predator consolation scheme in addressing humanpredator conflict in Amboseli National Park, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2016-05) Pantoren, Elizabeth Pius
The study provides in-depth understanding of human-predator conflict which involves livestock killing by wild animals (lions, leopard, hyena, cheetah and leopards) and the livestock farmer’s kill wild predators to secure their livelihoods. Globally and locally, human-predator conflict efforts to minimize conflicts included compensation for livestock losses, human death / injury and support to social development programs. Whilst acknowledging efforts made to address the human-predator conflicts, the problem remains unresolved over the years. Olgulului Predator Consolation Scheme was established in Olgulului group ranch in Amboseli ecosystem to compensate farmers for predated livestock; minimize rampant killing of wild predators; involve all stakeholders in enhancing proper livestock husbandry to reduce humanpredator conflict. While the scheme objectives were sound, its effectiveness has not been systematically evaluated. The evaluation study’s overall goal was to assess the effectiveness of the Olgulului predator consolation scheme in minimizing livestock-predator conflict in the study area, with specific objectives to; (a) Identify types and causes of human-predator conflict; (b) explore the positive and negative outcomes of the scheme; (d) establish challenges facing the scheme; (e) identify lessons learnt and best practices for enhancing the scheme effectiveness. The study employed qualitative methods of data collection and evaluation research design. The Secondary data was collected by desk reviews, journals, newspapers, reports and websites, while the primary data was collected through semi structured and Group Discussions interview schedules with open ended questions. Additionally, Multi stage sampling method was used to select 125 household heads {respondents} and was limited to persons aged 18 years and above. Informed consent was obtained from the respondents (participants) after explanation and clarification of the study objectives. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze descriptive qualitative data and presented in graphs, charts and tables. Conflict and social exchange theories guided the study. The research findings revealed that the Olgulului predator consolation scheme had an effect on minimization of human-predator conflict in the study area because livestock owners were compensated and predator killing had reduced. The respondents however, expressed concerns on some challenges facing the scheme such as delayed compensation, inadequate compensation fee and unreliable funding sources. In conclusion, predator consolation scheme has proven effective in minimizing human-predator conflicts in the study area. The study recommended for reinstatement of government compensation for property and human deaths to enhance its financial sustainability.
Socio-cultural and economic determinants of boda boda motorcycle transport safety in Kisumu County, Kenya
(2015) Nyachieo, Gladys Moraa Marie
Road safety remains one of the main societal concerns despite extensive research and interventions. It is a serious challenge in Kenya and the world over. The emergence of boda boda motorcycles as a means of transport in the village paths, the highways and city streets has brought a new dimension to road safety in Kenya. Motorcycle transport, though the most dangerous mode of transport, is still preferred by many because of its availability and flexibility. Although motorcycle safety has been a concern; only a few sociological studies have been conducted in Kenya to address the challenge. Motorcycle accidents pose a threat to the structure and functioning of the society. The study was conducted in Kisumu East sub-county in Kisumu county and sought to examine the socio-cultural and economic determinants of motorcycle transport safety. Specifically, the study sought to gather information on the demographic characteristics of riders in Kisumu East sub-county; to establish the levels of formal rider training among boda boda riders; to determine the levels of safety knowledge among boda boda riders; to determine boda boda motorcycle accidents rates in Kisumu East sub-county, to evaluate the attitudes and behaviour of boda boda motorcycle riders in Kisumu East sub-county; to establish whether pillion sitting style on boda boda influenced motorcycle safety and to establish whether there was a relationship between motorcycle ownership and boda boda safety. The study adopted descriptive and cross-sectional survey designs with a two-stage cluster sampling technique with PPS (Probability Proportional to Size) involving simple and systematic random sampling methods to select 370 respondents. The main data collection tool for the study was an interview schedule. Interview guide was also used to gather qualitative data from Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and key informants. Qualitative data was summarized in categories and themes using content analysis and NVIVO 10. SAS 9.3 was used to manage and analyze quantitative data. Inferential statistics such as Chi-square and Binary Logistic Regression were used to test relationships. The study utilized Structural Functionalism and Marxist theory of Social Structures as explanatory frameworks. Research findings obtained revealed that, majority of the riders were young with secondary education. However, majority (62.2%) were not formally trained to ride. Majority of riders (66.5%) had low levels of motorcycle knowledge. The study also found that Boda boda speeds were not regulated. In addition, about 65% of riders had one helmet and rider helmet use was low (34%). The study further established that about half of the riders (56.2%) did not own the boda bodas they operated. Moreover, the rate of accident involvement was high at 40.3% and riders engaged in bad riding behaviour most of the time. It also emerged that passenger sitting style on boda boda was a gendered cultural issue. The chi-square test found that formal rider training had no statistical significant relationship with accident involvement. Furthermore, binary logistic regression showed that, motorcycle xxi ownership lowered the odds of being involved in accidents by 57%. Based on the study findings, the study concluded that; although individual riders caused accidents, their decisions and behaviour were influenced by other societal factors. Therefore some socio-cultural and economic factors determined boda boda motorcycle safety. They included; formal training, motorcycle safety knowledge, rider behaviour, pillion sitting style on boda boda and boda boda ownership. On the basis of the findings, the study recommended the following; the government through NTSA to come up with rider specific schools that are subsidized to make it affordable for the riders or the government can subsidized some existing driving schools to train raiders. This will improve rider safety knowledge and skills hence reduce motorcycle related accidents. In addition, there is need to implement traffic rules and policies that improve road safety. This will ensure that testing and licensing are done accordingly. The study also recommended that BAC law be amended to reduce the officially acceptable blood alcohol content from the current 0.08 g/dl to 0.05 g/dl or less for boda boda riders. Since motorcycle ownership was found to influence accident involvement, the study proposes that the government through the Department of Youth Development and Youth Fund together with the private sector come up with credit facilities (with very low interest rates) that can enable the young people to own motorcycles. This may help in reducing motorcycle related accidents
A Theory of Scientific Terminology
(Kenyatta University, 1998) Kibuuka, Balubuuliza Kiingi,
The central aim of the study is twofold. First, a well-grounded .theory of scientific terminology is to be formulated and argued for. Secondly, the theory is to be applied to the problem of terminological elaboration of a Bantu language Luganda, whereby conceptual formalisation is the main point of departure. The study is conducted in four stages. First, a periodic system of conceptual elements is originated taking a general conceptual structure of formal and natural science into account. A conceptual calculus is developed on the periodic system. The calculus and criteria for scientific terminology are fused into a theory of scientific terminology. Secondly, the scope and nature of conceptual and expressional sharing which is necessary for the terminological elaboration of Luganda are explored with a view of setting the stage for the extrapolation of Luganda expression formation processes. Thirdly, terminological systems in physics, chemistry, biology, geology and medicine are articulated in Luganda. English and German materials in these fields together with logic and mathematics are translated into Luganda.:-;1 Finally, a group of Primary and Secondary school teachers of science and mathematics, and a group of Luganda-speaking linguists. are confronted with and exposed to the terminological systems articulated in Luganda together with techniques of coining Luganda expressions. Since the systems and techniques constitute an apparent chasm separating present-day Luganda and full-fledged scientific Luganda, it would be methodologically disputable to test for their acceptability per se. Logically speaking, successful learning of a problem solving system is not necessarily tantamount to acceptance of its principles. Nevertheless, the teachers and linguists critically receive the systems and techniques to such an extent that they eventually collaborate with the researcher on a compilation of a school dictionary of science and mathematics.
Relationship between retirement preparation in the psychosocial, financial and health domains and the quality of life of retirees in Nyeri County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Thuku, Pauline Wanjiru
Like many countries around the world, Kenya has an ageing population. As the government works towards improving the Quality of life (QoL) of all people, enhancing that of retirees requires special attention. Research has established a significant positive relationship between retirement preparation and QoL. Hence, to promote QoL in retirement, the government of Kenya has put in place the relevant policies and institutional frameworks. Furthermore, the Retirement Benefits Authority (RBA) has intensified its efforts to increase awareness on retirement preparation and increase retirement planning coverage. Yet, studies consistently report that retirees in Kenya continue to experience many challenges. This study was therefore conducted to assess the factors in retirement preparation that significantly influenced QoL of retirees in Nyeri County, Kenya. Unlike many studies, a multi-dimensional approach was utilized to assess retirement preparation in the psychosocial, financial and health domains and its influence on the overall QoL of retirees. Continuity theory and the life course perspective guided the study. Ten percent of the target population was sampled for the study. Purposive, cluster, simple random and stratified random sampling methods were used to select 447 respondents. Quantitative data was collected using interview schedules and analyzed using SPSS (Version 16)., Four FGDs were conducted to provide qualitative data. FGD guides were used to collect data from participants and the thematic approach utilized in the analysis. The study found that most respondents were inadequately prepared for retirement in the psychosocial, financial and health domains. Consequently, less than half experienced a high QoL in retirement. QoL was found to be positively related to retirement preparation in the psychosocial, financial and health domains. In addition, age, gender, marital status and income significantly influenced QoL where older, married, female respondents with higher incomes had the highest chances of a quality retirement. The retirement preparation indicators that predicted a high QoL included spending free time on family activities, adequate time with friends, diversifying income generating activities and seeking health-promoting information. In this regard, pre-retirement activities and social relationships that continued in retirement positively contributed to QoL. The study recommends a multi-faceted retirement preparation framework for all employees. Special focus should be on the unmarried male prospective retirees with low income since they have higher chances of experiencing allower quality of life in retirement than other categories of retiree
Economics education in Kenya: a study of the teaching of economics at secondary school level
(2012-06-15) Kerich, Wilson Kiplangat
This study is a survey research that inquires into the methods and resources that are used in teaching economics in Kenya at secondary school level. It examines the existing curriculum and also seeks to identify some of the significant problems that impinge on the teaching of the subject. The study is presented in six chapters. Chapter One deals with the statement and definition of the research problem. Chapter Two presents the summary of literature reviewed which include literature from books, official documents and research reports. Chapter Three describes the research methodology used in the study and Chapter Four deals with the presentation and analysis of data. Chapter Five discusses the research findings while the last chapter presents a summary of findings, recommendations and suggestions for further research work. The subjects of the study comprised 628 economics students selected from amongst Forms 3and 4, 5 and 6 students and 36 economics teachers drawn from a sample of secondary schools which offer economics as an independent academic discipline. In order to obtain a sample of respondents that is representative of the population, purposive random sampling method was employed whereby certain fundamental criteria were taken into account before arriving at the decision on which schools to include in the study. Care was taken to include both private and public schools, rural and urban schools, mixed and single sex schools. Once the schools were determined, the selection of students to participate in the study was done through random sampling method. In most cases, each school had one economics teacher hence deciding on which teacher to participate in the study presented no problem. In each school, one economics teacher was used in the study and where there were more than one teacher the head of the department was used. Their respective head teachers were also used in this study. The data from the study were generated through the use of four-research instruments -a students questionnaire, a teachers questionnaire, an interview schedule and observation-cum-survey schedule. The raw data from the field were organized, analyzed and presented using descriptive statistics such as tables of frequencies, percentages and averages. The study came up with several findings which could be summarized as follows:- 1. The current secondary school economics curriculum is not suited to the age level of the students it is intended for. 2. Economics teachers employ a small range of instructional methods and activities in teaching and they tend to over-rely on traditional teacher-centred methods. 3. The range of instructional materials used by economics teachers is also small and the majority of teachers tend to rely heavily on such conventional resources as the chalkboard, charts and diagrams and such print media as textbooks, magazines, newspapers and journals. It was found that the use of electronic media in the teaching of economics is minimal. 4. There is marked diversity in terms of resources between schools; especially between rural and urban schools and also between public and private schools. 5. It was also found that teachers' training and experience had significant influence on their use of a variety of methods and resources. 6. Most teachers tend to rely on essay-type questions both for continuous assessment and for examinations. 7. The economics teachers face a multitude of problems in their day to day teaching of the subject. Some of these problems are professional while others are administrative. The careful interpretation of the findings of the study with the aid of relevant literature related to the study resulted in recommendations and conclusions which, if adopted, may lead to improvement in the teaching/learning of the subject. The conclusions and recommendations may be of help in developing a more appropriate curriculum, and also in the identification, by economics teachers, of more appropriate methods and resources for teaching the subject.
An analysis of the pattern of road traffic accidents in relation to selected socio-economic dynamics and intervention measures in Kenya
(2012-04-03) Khayesi, Meleckidzedeck
The basic qeustion that forms the core of the research problem for this study is: 'Why does the risk of road traffic accidetns appear to be increasing in kenya when road safety measures exist? This question is addressed by examining three main aspects of road traffic accidents in Kenya. Spatio temporal patterns, selected underlying socio economic dynamics and effectiveness of intervention measures. Two complementary approaches have been used to collect qualitative assessment. The main findings of the study are summarised as follows; Time series analysis has revealed that, except for road traffic accidents per 1,000 vehicles, road traffic accident fatalities per 1,000 vehicles, severity index and non survival index, there is a general upward trend in both the absolute and relative road traffic accident indices. Results of Student's t-test indicate that the differences observed in the trends are statiscally significant. Simple regression models have shown that change in time explains in differnt proportions the temporal variation in road traffic accident indices. In cases such as the number of road traffic accidents and casualties, change in time has explained over 90 percent of their temporal variation. In a few cases such as accidents and fatalities per 1,000 inhabitants, change in time has explained only a small proportion (less than 5 percent) of their variation. When ranked on absolute and relative indices of road traffic accidents. Nairobi, Central, Rift Valley, Coast and Eastern Provinces network are mainly found in Central, Rift Valley, Western and Nyanza Provinces. These locations are concentrated on the heavily trafficked roads such as Nairobi-Kisumu, Nairobi-Nyeri, Mombasa-Nairobi and Kisumu-Kakamega. The dangerous locations are found mainly at urbanisation explains 62.9 percent of the spatial variation in the distribution of the severity index and 77.1percent of the variation in fatality index. Urbanisation and population together explain together explain 92.4 percent of the variation in casualty index. Majority of respondents in a road user survey have rated road traffic accidents as a very serious problem. Using factro analsis, 39 variables or circumstances perceived as leading to road traffic accidents have been reduced to three significant factors. The first significant factor is the Road User Behaviour and Maintenance of Road Safety Standards that has accounted for 81.9 percent of the variance in variables and circumstances perceived as leading to road traffic addicents in Kenya. The third factor is Rare Events in the Physical Environment that h as accounted for 2.7 percent of the variance in variables or circumstances leading to road traffic accidents in kenya. This study has discussed major deficiencies in the road user system, reflected in the violation of traffic rules and basic principloes of good conduct on the road. Though the basic policy guidelines, institutional framework and measures to tackle road traffic accidents in Kenya exist, they are faced with a major problem of lack of commitment by key stakeholders. Other problems include financial constraints, poor coordination, ineffective enforcement and limited community involvement and limited community involvement. The overall recomendation emanating from the analysis in this study is that there is need for a sustaninable road safety strategy in Kenya that should go beyond the existing state of procrastination and symbolic actions. The most important elements in such a strategy should comprise of: High political concern and priority to effect theneeded changes in road safety measures, including provision of funds; an integrated approach at two levels; integration within the road safety system, and integration of road safety system and other systems; and an overall change in transport policy and practice in teh whole country that gives due and balaced consideration to tehneeds of all road users, especially the safety and mobility needs of pedestrians and cyclists.
Dynamics of environmental perceptions: implications on the Mijikenda muslims in Coast province, Kenya
(2012-03-14) Nyaga, Stephen Njoka
The study sought to examine dynamics of environmental perce tions and its implications on the Mijikenda Muslims in Coast Province. It shows that change in people's environmental perception influences the way they carry out their socio-economic activities and respond to ideals of sustainable development. The study is guided by Islamic paradigm of al-tanmiyah almustadamah, which underlines appropriate response of Muslims to indigenous environmental norms and contem porary environmental policies. The main aims of the study were to analyze indigenous Mijikenda environmental norms and basic ideals of sustainable development in Islamic environmental principles and environmental policies in Kenya. It further aimed at examining the phenomena of concurrence and conflicts of indigenous Mijikenda environmental norms with Islamic environmental principles and environmental policies in Kenya; and assess impediments to sustainable socio-economic development particularly those related to change in environmental perceptions, and ultimately recommend viable interventions from Islamic perspective. This study is based on qualitative data from primary and secondary sources. Primary data was collected through individual interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and personal observations while secondary data was obtained through library research. Qualitative methods of data analysis and presentation were used. This entailed transcription of the oral information recorded in cassette tapes, classifying and summarizing field notes and responses in the questionnaires. Concrete responses in the questionnaires were subjected to descriptive statistics making it possible to have illustrative tables, charts, graphs and diagrams to depict some trends of the findings. This was done to enhance qualitative analysis and presentation. Primary and secondary data were then synthesized and thematized according to the objectives and chapters of this work. The thesis has six chapters. Chapter One is a general introduction. It underlines the maim issues being investigated, the conceptual framework and research methods as noted above. The chapter also shows research premises, rationale of the study and literature reviewed in relation to this study. The results and discussion of major findings begins with examination of indigenous Mijikenda environmental norms, Islamic environmental principles and environmental policies in Kenya in Chapter Two. Analysis of indigenous Mijikenda environmental norms exemplifies restrictions of utilization of resources like water, flora, fauna, marine life and soils. These are founded on belief in mystical powers, magic, curses and taboos, which shaped people's environmental perspectives. Chapter two also highlights Islamic environmental principles on sustainable utilization of resources like water, flora, fauna, marine life, minerals and soils. These principles underline obligations of all Muslims as Allah's khalifah (stewards of environment) and are disseminated in religious institutions like mosques, madrassah and other socio-religious organizations. It further explores environmental policies in National Environmental Management Co-ordination Act (NEMCA). NEMCA provides all citizens with locus standi to prosecute anybody who contravenes environmental statutes on sustainable development. Chapter Three elucidates phenomena of concurrence and conflicts among indigenous environmental norms, Islamic principles and contemporary economic and environmental policies. Dimensions of concurrence provide the basis of harmonization of the three perspectives among the Mijikenda Muslims. Dimensions of conflicts pose impediments to sustainable socio-economic development and environmental conservation. In this regard, most conflicts are founded on differences in foundations of environmental regulations/ principles. They include Islamic abomination of indigenous religious beliefs, norms and environmental concepts. Ironically, NEMCA upholds propagation of such beliefs and concepts but does not recognize Islamic environmental principles and the role of Muslim institutions in disseminating environmental education. The findings show that conflicts in the three perspectives inhibit sustainable development among Mijikenda Muslims. Regarding the impact of change in environmental perceptions discussed in Chapter Four, the study shows that the Mijikenda have experienced different political, economic and socioreligious changes. These have corporately re-orientated or changed their environmental perceptions. The aspects contributing to some changes include exposure to commercial activities of trade in different agricultural, flora and fauna products during the Portuguese and Oman Arab regimes in Coastal towns spanning the 16th to 18th centuries; colonial and postcolonial capitalistic economic and environmental legislation in the 19th and 20'b centuries. The findings also show that Islam has greatly influenced the Mijikenda through its socio-religious and economic principles. The study exemplifies that Mijikenda Muslims are reluctant to fully adopt contemporary economic and environmental policies unrelated to their socio-religious principles. Subsequently, change in environmental perceptions is occasioned by numerous economic and environmental challenges. Hence, the need to search for multidimensional strategies of mobilizing Mijikenda Muslims to adopt sustainable environmental interventions from an Islamic perspective. Chapter Five examines some strategies to harmonise environmental intervention programmes for sustainable development and conservation of environment. These interventions are based on indigenous, Islamic and contemporary concepts of sustainable development. The chapter illustrates feasible strategies of integrating contemporary environmental education into formal and non-formal education programmes offered in Muslim institutions, community based organisations and non governmental organisations. It further underlines the need for integrated conservation programmes, guided by some dimensions of conformity in NEMCA, Islamic principles and indigenous norms. The present study concludes that it is necessary to integrate different environmental intervention programmes guided by ideals of al-tanmiyah al-mustadamah. It calls for multistakeholders systems of planning and implementation of development and environmental programmes. Accordingly, it proposes an all-inclusive involvement of local religious leaders, co-ordinators of CBOs as well as relevant government departments and NGOs for sustainable socio-economic development programmes. It further recommends greater commitment of local socio-religious and education organisations in integrating formal environmental programmes (education and policies) into madrassah and informal education offered in existing CBOs and NGOs amongst the Mijikenda Muslims
The effects of different intervention approaches on the performance and growth of small and micro -enterprises in selected areas of Kenya
(2011-12-05) Maina, Lucy Wangui
The role of the Small and Micro-enterprise sector (SMEs) in alleviating poverty and boosting economic growth cannot be overemphasized. The importance of interventions in enhancing these SMEs' roles is thus well acclaimed. However, existing literature has not adequately captured the specific impacts of different forms of interventions on specific categories of SMEs. This study thus focused on the interventional impact of three identified approaches namely, minimalist, institutional and integrated on specific SMEs while making comparisons by gender, locality and sub-sector. It examined the degree to which interventions within SME's were effective while making clear analysis of the factors that impede or enhance positive interventional impact within different contexts. This study was specifically guided by the following objectives: to identify the available services and intervention programmes for the SME sector in Kenya; to evaluate approaches used in providing various forms of assistance to the SMEs by agencies; to underscore the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches in the way they impacted on SMEs; to identify the role of gender, locality and type of enterprise in determining growth of enterprises under assistance and to suggest ways and means of improving impact of assistance to the SME sector. The four hypotheses proposed and tested in the study were mainly to underscore the role of various interventional approaches on the growth of assisted SMEs categorised by sub-sector, gender and location. Growth of enterprises was conceptualised in terms of profits, increase in employment and business assets and specific business management applications. In the study, the systems theory was adopted as a suitable guide for the study because it helps to describe enterprises as entities that utilize both external and internal services or inputs to enhance their functions and maximize output. External inputs may be in the form of capital, skills and other expertise which interact with the entrepreneur and enterprise characteristics in a given manner to bring about the expected outputs that have a bearing on poverty alleviation and growth. The study mainly utilized the survey method with some elements of quasiexperimentation. Quantitative as well as qualitative data was sourced. Three organizations supporting the SME sector were singled out for study. A sample of 476 entrepreneurs supported by these three organizations was selected using a combination of quota, systematic and random sampling procedures. Out of this number, 472 entrepreneurs were interviewed on the state of their enterprises, the financial characteristics of the same and the various forms of assistance they had each received. Other instruments used in the study included focus group discussions with entrepreneurs, observation schedules and case studies. Questionnaires were also administered to programme officers and field agents in order to generate supplementary data. The data was first analysed by way of descriptive techniques such as frequencies, percentages and cross tabulations. Testing of hypotheses was carried out using parametric tests such as Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-test procedure. Further, multiple regression procedure was applied to determine the predictive ability of a combination of intervention variables on enterprise growth indicators. In the quantitative data. analysis and presentation, the SPSS programme was utilized. Qualitative data. mainly from focus group discussion were analysed by classifying them into thematic codes and establishing emerging categories and their relationships. The data was then interpreted and presented in descriptive, graphic and diagrammatic forms. From the study, it emerged that profits made in SMEs vary by the intervention model applied, by sub-sector and by area of business operation. It is also evident that credit intervention improves business profits marginally and only if such loans are invested in the business venture. Furthermore, financial intervention channelled through groups and associations has a more visible impact on profits. It is also evident that profits within the trade sub-sector are better determined by intervention as opposed to the other sub-sectors. In addition, though no valid gender differences occurred with respect to amounts of profits made, there emerged gender differences in how credit affected businesses profits with a relatively higher impact being registered in female owned enterprises. Lastly, urban enterprises also did register a slightly higher impact of credit invested in business on profits made and so did some business zones mainly under the institutional approach. With regard to effect of intervention on number of workers, the study noted that some modest increase in workers occurred only in the minimalist and the integrated approaches but not in the institutional programme. Credit affected increase in workers more within the service sub-sectors than in other sectors. Though the trade sub-sector rated high in other indicators of growth such as profits and asset value, it also rated very low in terms of increase in workers. This may be a pointer to the fact that the sector does not require high numbers of workers and that most trade firms are sufficiently operated solely by owners. Gender comparisons reflect no differences in the number of workers employed. Also, no differences were noted between urban and rural areas in terms of increase in workers. In the specific localities of enterprises, substantial influence of credit invested on increase in workers increase was especially noted in Thika, Kamukunji, Buruburu and Machakos(a). Increment in business asset value was determined partially by amounts invested after intervention in all the three approaches employed. This effect was substantially higher in the institutional form of assistance than in either integrated or minimalist models. It was also established in sector-wise analysis that service had the highest increase in assets followed by trade and manufacturing in that order. In addition, there was a higher increase of assets after credit in male owned enterprises. In the urban category, asset increment was higher than in the rural-urban areas after credit intervention. In the analysis by business areas, Meru region registered the highest impact made by credit on asset increment followed by Kawangware, Thika and Buruburu. Asset increase was also closely related to business profitability, which means that as SMEs increase their business assets, they also tended to do better. Asset expansion was not accompanied by improved management practices as would have been expected. Further, from the study, the expectation that trained entrepreneurs would adopt particular management practices was realized but these management skills did not relate to the other key growth indicators such as business profit and increase in business assets. It was also noted that adoption of management skills after intervention was slightly greater in urban areas as opposed to rural- urban environments and also greater in specific business zone areas such as Machakos(b), Meru and Buruburu. The study concludes that the great diversity of SMEs affects the impact of intervention in various ways. The study reveals that business growth potential varies with sub-sector and that intervention affects different sectors differently. The study thus recommends the need for assisting organizations to focus their assistance appropriately and propitiously taking note of the different sub-sector requirements and location dynamics, which especially determine how assistance is utilized and how it impacts on an enterprise. Further, it is recommended that agencies offering micro-enterprise assistance should be less rigid, more ready to tackle peculiar problems and more willing to diversify their assistance. Lastly, the study proposes a need to further investigate in detail the dynamics of joining and exiting assistance programmes, the role of entrepreneur networks within the realm of intervention and how loan pipelining affects the general economic status of SME owners.

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