MST-Plant and Microbial Sciences
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Item Ecological Impacts and Utilization of Urtica Dioica L. In Nyeri County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-05) Wairimu, Joseph KamichaABSTRACT Though the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.) is categorized globally as an invasive species, the plant is a source of vital nutrients and an ingredient in many local medicine practices. However, there is inadequate information on the edaphic factors enhancing the invasiveness of U. dioica, the subsequent impact on local flora diversity, and upcoming value-addition opportunities. Hence, this study sought to determine the invasive effects of U. dioica on herbaceous plants density and diversity. Then analyze the relationship between U. dioica density with soil mineral contents and investigate the market presence of raw and value-added products. Lastly, this study intended to document local knowledge of U. dioica in Nyeri County, Kieni Sub County areas namely; Endarasha, Charity, and Watuka. Sites with high colonization of U. dioica were purposively identified. Based on land use types, Stratified random sampling method was used to place five transects each measuring one hundred metres long. Ten quadrats each measuring one square metre in roadside, riverbank, pastureland, residential, and cropland areas were used for data collection. Fifteen soil cores were taken from each land use type and mixed to form soil samples for each land use type in Endarasha, Charity, and Watuka. Questionnaires were administered to 196 respondents from the study area. Results from Pearson correlation analysis between the density of U. dioica and other herbaceous species indicated that there was a strong negative correlation between the density of U. dioica and other herbaceous species diversity (r=-0.8). One-way ANOVA showed significant statistical differences in the concentration of nitrogen (F=4.8495, df=4, 14, p < 0.05) and phosphorous (F=4.3589, df=4, 14, p < 0.05) among different land types confirming their different impacts on U. dioica density. The study also established that locally, U. dioica is used in the food, medicine, and veterinary sector. Such consumption could indicate the economic potential of the plant species in the local cottage industries to support the government's manufacturing agenda. This study recommends increasing public awareness of the benefits of U. dioica to boost its consumption hence reducing its invasiveness.Item Salinity And Sodicity Induced Responses on Germination, Growth and Phenolic Compounds Accumulation in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp)(Kenyatta University, 2023-07) Mutuku, Titus; Adelaide Mutune; Edward George MamatiAbstractItem Impact of Salinity on Growth, Physiological Traits and Yield of Butternut Squash (Cucurbita Moschata L. Mellonia) Varieties in Mwea, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023) Njoroge, Mary Nyambura; Moses P.Hungu Gathaara; Raphael K. WanjoguKenya occupies approximately 60 million ha out of which 80% is cloaked by the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) which is susceptible to salinity as dryness aggravates salinity. Growth of non-staple food has been adopted by farmers in these areas with butternut squash being one of them. It is cultivated widely as it requires less rainfall and little labor yet it has a high nutritional value and a ready market contributing to the incomes of small holder farmers. Little research on butternut squash has been carried out despite its economic potential and information on growth, physiological response and yield of butternut squash varieties to salinity is scarce. This study was aimed at evaluating salinity effects on growth, selected physiological traits and yield of Waltham and Jupiter F1 hybrid butternut varieties. Waltham and Jupiter F1 hybrid were subjected to Sodium Chloride treatments of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 mM. A randomized complete block design was used with 3 replicates. Thirty plots each measuring 4.5 m long and 1.2 m wide were established. A net plot measuring 1.5 m long and 0.4 m wide, made of 4 plants was established in each plot from which data were collected. The data that was recorded include: germination percentage, number of leaves and leaf area, the height of plant at seedling stage and length at mature stages (vegetative stage and after harvesting), plant girth, transpiration rate, photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll concentration, fruit number per plant, fruits weight, shoots and roots fresh and dry weight. The data collected were subjected to ANOVA using SAS computer software. LSD was used to separate the means at 5 percent level (p<0.05). Salinity reduced significantly (p<0.05) the growth parameters, selected physiological traits and yield. The highest decrease was noted at 100 mM. Adverse effects of salt was low on Jupiter due to its high performance and yield hence it is more tolerant to salinity stress compared to Waltham. Jupiter may be recommended for saline affected areas. Further studies could also be done on Jupiter through future breeding programs as a source of salt tolerant genes.Item Assessment of Germination Potential and Population Status of Melia Volkensii Gürke in Kitui County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022) Njehu, Jane Mukami; Emily Wabuyele; Adelaide MutuneMelia volkensii Gürke is a native tree species that grows in the arid and semi-arid areas of East Africa. There has been overutilization of this tree which may lead to risk of rapid decrease in its community and genetic diversity. Additionally, planning and implementing planting programmes and conservation plans of M. volkensii have been hindered by insufficient knowledge on its seed storage behavior. This study sought to develop optimal protocols for seed germination and assess population status of Melia volkensii to enhance conservation and supply chain management in Kitui County. Melia volkensii fruits were collected from Tiva Forest and the germination experiment was carried out in KEFRI Kitui within nursery conditions. Seed germination experiments were arranged in a completely randomized design with three factors – extraction state, storage container and storage temperature. For extraction, seeds were divided into two lots – extracted seeds and unextracted seed (nut). Two types of storage containers were used namely sealed and unsealed. The storage temperatures were room temperature (30oC) and cold storage (-20oC). Germination tests were done before storage, and later after 2, 4 and 6 months in storage from each of the storage conditions. A hundred seeds and nuts each were sown for each experimental unit. The rate of seedling sprouting was recorded for a duration of 10 days as a percentage of seeds sown. Variation in germination percentages “was tested using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95 % confidence interval and means separated using fisher’s protected least significant difference” in R and SAS statistical software. The highest percentage (89 %) was scored in nuts kept in unsealed containers at 30oC at 6 months and the lowest (14 %) in seeds stored in similar conditions for 2 months.The differences were significant. These results indicate that the germination rates of M. volkensii seeds increased with increase in period of storage. Additionally, plant population was determined in situ across seven transect lines measuring 1050 meters in length. Sampling was carried out in five plots measuring 50 x 50 m established at intervals of 200 meters. Transect 1 and 7 were laid in farmland while the transects between these two were laid in bushland. All tree species represented in each plot were counted. “Height and diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured for all M. volkensii trees within the plots. Melia volkensii seedlings and coppices were counted in 5 x 5 m nested plots within the larger plots. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95 % confidence interval was used to test for variance in parameters measured and means separated using Tukey’s HSD. There were significant differences in height and DBH” means of M. volkensii among transects. Transect 2 had the lowest mean height and DBH while the tallest trees were in transects 1, 3, 4, and 6. Transect 1 had highest mean DBH. Means of seedlings were not significantly different among transects. Coppicing was significantly highest in transects 1 and 4. Moreover, relative abundance, species richness and diversity of plant species observed were analyzed “using Simpson’s index of biodiversity and Shannon-Wiener species diversity index. Melia volkensii was the most frequently occurring species with 12.2% (n=67) followed by Acacia tortilis10.0 % (n=55). Calotropis strophela, Commiphora capensis, Maerua crassifolia were the least represented relative abundance of 0.18 %. Values of indices used varied among transects and did not follow the location of transect implying that diversity was not determined by land disturbance. In conclusion, nuts stored unsealed at room temperature have the highest longevity. Based on diversity and relative abundance of M. volkensii and associated tree species in the study area, tree exploitation in Kasaala Location does not cause depletion of M. volkensii.Item Mechanical, Diffusion and Degradation Behaviour oF Sausage Fruit Tree Fiber (Kigelia Africana) Reinforced Polypropylene Composites(Kenyatta University, 2022) Mueni, Nzioka Beatrice; Abdallah .S. MerengaPolypropylene is a thermoplastic polymer used in cement mortars, concrete, packaging plastics, and in re-usable containers. It is made from monomer propylene. It is economical and has a good resistance to fatigue in comparison to other polymers. Polypropylene is however non-biodegradable and liable to chain degradation especially in external applications evidenced by cracks and crazing. Previously use of U-V absorbing additives to curb external exposure degradation was increasing on cost and also unfavorable to the environment. The only solution to this is blending polypropylene with natural fiber (cellulose) to modify its structure. PP/Starch blends have poor rigidity, very low thermal stability and high diffusivity. Cellulose is rigid, has high diffusivity and thermal stability hence suitable in reinforcement of polypropylene. Research work is still going on how to improve the mechanical properties and lowering the density of the composites, as well as have biodegradable high performance engineering materials at low cost. This research investigated the mechanical properties, creep, thermal degradation, diffusion and biodegradation measurements of sausage fruit tree fiber reinforced polypropylene composites. Injection molded samples were used, where the fiber was first grinded in to fine powder. Dynamic mechanical analysis was carried out using torsion pendulum at temperature range 300 C to 100ºC. Creep measurements were performed at 30, 40, 50 and 600C .The time for deformation and recovery of sample was 12 minutes. Diffusion measurements were done at room temperature and mass difference monitored after 7, 30,60, and 90 days. Thermal degradation was done within temperature range 25 to 5500C at a heating rate 5 oC/min. Biodegrability was monitored by burying the samples 20 cm under soil. Mass difference monitored after 7, 30,60 ,and 90 days. Cellulose addition in small amounts increased the storage modulus (stiffness) and loss modulus of the polypropylene. Models of analysis for creep data were Burger model and Weibull model. Increase in cellulose loading decreased resistance to creep hence increased deformation. Water intake increased with cellulose loading. Fickian diffusion behavior was noted and diffusion coefficients increased from approximately 1.481×10-12 cm2/s to 1.646×10-10 cm2/s with cellulose loading. Thermal stability of the blends increased with cellulose loading (activation energy increased from approximately 69.22 to approximately 210.01kJ/mol). Biodegradability improved. Lifespan decreased from approximately 199 years for pure polypropylene to approximately 15 years for 20% fiber loading. When polypropylene is reinforced with cellulose the structural rigidity is improved, thermal stability, hydrophilicity and biodegradation increases. Use of SFTF particles in polypropylene matrix should be adopted since these PP blends are promising non-environmental pollutants.Item Assessment of Satisfaction with Postnatal Care Services Among Women Who Delivered In Embu Hospital, Embu County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2021) Wachira, Joyce W.; Harun Kimani; George OtienoSatisfaction among patients has progressively been acknowledged as a salient outcome within the delivery system of health care and there are numerous studies being done among developing countries. Majority of the women report low satisfaction with the postnatal care services compared to the other maternity care phases. The World Health Organization advocates that the women‟s satisfaction should be surveyed as a tool geared towards improvement of effectiveness and quality of maternal health care. The purpose of the study was assessment of satisfaction with the postnatal services offered in Embu Hospital among women who delivered in this facility. This study was directed by the following specific objectives; determining women‟s satisfaction with postnatal care services, determining influence of socio-demographic factors on women‟s satisfaction with postnatal care, establishing health system factors influencing satisfaction of postnatal women and establishing the influence of perceived quality of care on women‟s satisfaction. Research design used was descriptive cross-sectional. The population studied were postnatal women 15-49 years who had delivered in Embu hospital. The study applied systematic random sampling method and the sample size was 225 respondents. A structured client exit questionnaire, interviews with key informants and focused group discussion guide were used to collect data. Pretesting was done in Chuka hospital to ensure validity of the instruments. Reliability of research tools was decided through test-retest strategy. Authority to conduct this research was obtained from the Kenyatta University Ethical Review Committee and approval acquired from the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation. The study generated both quantitative and qualitative data. The statistical package for social scientists (SPSS version 20) was used for data coding and entry and analysis through descriptive and inferential statistics. Percentages, frequencies and cross tabulations were adopted to present data. The study outcomes uncovered that most women 54.6% were satisfied with postnatal care services provided with only 45.4% being dissatisfied. Findings from this study also showed that socio-demographic factors like age (P=0.759), marital status (P=0.667), education level (P=0.717), occupation (P=0.194) and monthly income (P=0.385) did not have a significant relationship with women‟s satisfaction with postnatal care. The study noted that the health system factor that influenced postnatal women‟s satisfaction was comfort and care (P= 0.008). Pertaining influence of perceived quality on satisfaction, it was noted that women from the FGD‟s associated quality with tangibles like clean hospital environment, availability of resources and staff. Majority of the key informants ranked the quality of postnatal services as good. The study concluded that some women 45.4% were still dissatisfied with the postnatal care services provided in this facility. The study recommends that the county government in liaison with the hospital administration should have frequent patient satisfaction surveys which can help to provide feedback to customers hence improving the satisfaction of the clients. Recruitment and employment of more qualified staff by the county government to enhance the quality of postnatal care provided.Item Assesment of Carbon Sequestration and Biomass Accumulation of Managed and Natural Mangrove Plantations of Mida Creek, Kilifi County Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2021) Omollo, Kevin, Ogolla; Najma Dharani; Benards OkeyoMangrove forests play a significant role along the coastal environment throughout the tropical coast. They provide ecosystem services that are able to sustain both flora and faunal organisms found in such ecosystems. They are stores of large quantities of carbon in their biomass hence referred to as carbon sinks. This carbon can be emitted into the atmosphere when mangrove forests are degraded through unsustainable utilization. With accurate quantification of carbon stocks in these forests, it will be easy to define their potential role in global climate regulation through their carbon sequestration ability. Since the sequestration potential of the replanted managed mangrove species of Mida Creek is unknown, this indicates an information gap which calls for bridging to help develop a baseline inventory data for effective forest conservation and management. The main objective of this study is to quantify the amount of carbon sequestered by the managed mangrove forest of the Mida Creek, Kenya. Three sites were selected for this study; 15 year-old Kibusa Plantation, 20 year-old Green Island Plantation, and a Natural Stand. Fifty Plots in the plantations and sixty plots in the natural stand of (10 x10) m2 were selected in each study site. Three carbon pools were investigated; aboveground carbon, belowground carbon, and soil organic carbon. Biomass for carbon determination in Kibusa and Natural Stands was estimated using a general allometric equation. Aboveground carbon was determined by measuring the diameter at breast height using a DBH meter. Belowground biomass and soil organic carbon was determined through root coring method using a soil corer at different depth profiles. Mean total carbon stocks in Kibusa and Green Island Plantations was 424.52±11.68 Mg C/ha and 958.57±50.01 Mg C/ha while the natural stand contained significantly higher total Carbon stocks of 2159.77±31.09Mg C/ha. There was no significant difference in the amount of soil organic carbon among the three different sites (F0.05(1)2,15=0.35, p>0.05). This study indicates that reforestation enhances structural development of replanted mangroves and that replanted mangroves are significant carbon stores. Rhizophora mucronata species was found to be the most abundant species compared to all the other species in all the three study sites, with an Importance Value Index of 117.1. In addition, Ammonium, Phosphates and Nitrates from the soil were also determined. Ammonium was the most abundant nutrient in all the three study sites. High Ammonium concentration in the mangrove sediment led to high amount of carbon sequestered in the root biomass. Therefore high ammonium concentration in the soil leads to increase in amount of carbon sequestered in the root biomass. From these results, we can deduce that awareness should be raised among the community members on the need for conservation and reforestation that will increase the amount of carbon sequestered since more mangroves increase the amount of carbon (IV) oxide capture. This will help in mitigating the issue of global warming at local levels.Item Effects of Conservation Tillage on Soil Moisture, Chemical Properties, Maize and Bean Physiological Parameters and Yields in Embu County Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2021) Kyalo, Munyao Joseph; Moses Hungu Gathaara; Alfred N. MicheniProduction of Zea mays L. and Phaseolus vulgaris L. has been lagging at 1.8 and 0.5 t/ha respectively. Yield potentials are 6.0 and 2.5 t/ha for maize and bean respectively. This is attributed to frequent dry spells and low soil fertility. Sustainable agricultural approaches such as conservation tillage (CT) have been embraced by farmers and have contributed to improvement in chemical and physical properties of soil and crop yields. However, the physiological basis of the observed yield increase due to CT practices has not yet been reported hence the study. Objectives of the study were: to assess CT practices effects on soil moisture, soil chemical properties, maize and bean physiological parameters and yields. The study was carried out in two seasons at the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization farm in Embu County. Experimental design was a split-plot arranged in a randomized complete block design with nine treatments replicated three times. Conservation tillage practices comprised Zero tillage (ZT) and Furrows/ridges (F/R) evaluated against conventional tillage (CVT). The test crops were maize and beans grown as intercrops or monocrops. Key data sets were: soil moisture, soil chemical properties, maize and bean physiological parameters and yields. Soil moisture was measured in each plot twice per month by the use of a PR2 moisture probe. Laboratory analysis of soil samples for organic carbon followed the Walkley and Black method, whilst Nitrogen analysis followed the Kjeldahl method. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze all data sets with the Statistical Analysis System computer software (SAS). Treatment means differences were compared using Fisher’s least significant difference test. The CT (ZT and F/R) practices led to increase in soil moisture content, soil organic carbon, and soil nitrogen and soil pH that was significant (p ≤ 0.05). Significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher nodules, chlorophyll concentration, sugars and starch were obtained for the beans under CT plots compared to those under CVT. The beans grown under F/R plots had grain yields of 1.3 t/ha in SR 2015 and 1.4 t/ha in LR 2016 in comparison to those grown under CVT plots which had grain yields of 1.2 t/ha in SR 2015 and 1.3 t/ha in LR 2016. Maize under CT plots had significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher leaf area index, chlorophyll concentration, sugars and starch compared to those grown under CVT plots. Maize grain yield under ZT plots was 1.8 t/ha in SR 2015 and 2.2 t/ha in LR 2016 and that under F/R plots was 1.7 t/ha in SR 2015 and 2.1 t/ha in LR 2016 Maize grain yield under CVT plots was 1.8 t/ha in SR 2015 and 2.3 t/ha in LR 2016. It can be concluded that CT is a suitable technique for conserving soil water for plant use, improving soil health and crop physiological parameters hence the increased crop productivity. This study recommends the adoption of CT practices to enhance production of crops and ensure security of food for the studied area and other regions with comparable agro ecological conditions.Item Economic and Ecological Valuation of Mangrove Forest at Mida Creek in Kilifi County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2021) Olima, Cecilia Oyuga; Paul Muoria; Margaret Awuor OwuorMangroves are considered a highly productive blue forest providing services that are important to the community both locally and globally. Increasing human population and demand for natural resources is threatening the existence of these forests. The concept of ecosystem services and its valuation helps in educating and informing people of the benefits and cost of their decisions. There is need to provide a simplified approach to identify, assess and quantify ecosystem services. This study assessed the value of harvested goods and coastal protection services provided by mangroves of Mida Creek in the current and plausible future scenarios. The study adopted the methods described in the Toolkit for Ecosystem Services Site-based Assessment (TESSA). Data was collected using primary techniques (focus group discussions, key informant interviews, spatial methods, household interviews and field measurements), and secondary data (data on wind speed and coastal protection values). Descriptive statistics was used to summarize quantitative data. The coastal protection value of mangroves was extrapolated from secondary data. This study estimated the annual current value of harvested goods in Mida Creek to US$ 11.3 million (US$ 6,869.5ha- yr.-). The value was expected to increase to US$14.2 million in the conservation scenario but reduce to US$ 10.9 million in the business-as-usual scenario. The study also established that a wider mangrove bandwidth offers better protection against coastal hazards as opposed to a narrow bandwidth. The value of coastal protection in the current scenario was estimated to be US$ 5.1 Million per year. It is likely to increase to US$ 5.7 Million per year in the conservation scenario and was estimated to reduce to approximately US$ 5.0 million in the business as usual scenario. From, these results, raising awareness among stakeholders on the importance of sustainable use of the natural resources as demonstrated by the value of ecosystems services that would be lost or gained if the mangrove of the Mida Creek is altered is necessary. These findings also add to growing literature on ecosystem services valuation and the need to use site specific non modelling tools like TESSA.Item Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Cultivated Dioscorea l. (Dioscoreaceae) from Selected Counties in Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2021) Atieno, Valentine; Grace Gatheri; Joseph W. KamauYam (Dioscorea species) is one of the underutilized and neglected tuber crops in the country. Earlier studies indicated the need for further research to establish the phylogeny of Kenyan yams through molecular methods. This study aimed to characterise Dioscorea spp. using morphological and molecular methods. Twenty-four specimens from five growing areas; Meru, Embu, Taita-Taveta, Busia and Bungoma counties were collected directly from farmer’s fields. Herbarium voucher specimens were collected and deposited at the Kenyatta University Herbarium. Morphological data were recorded in the field using characters stated in the IPGRI’s descriptor of Yams. The collected Dioscorea spp. specimens were identified into; D. minutiflora Engl., D. alata L., D. bulbifera L. and D. cayenensis Lam by twining direction, flesh colour, tuber shape, presence and absence of wings, presence and absence of spines and flowering or non-flowering. Spine density was significant in characterising D. minutiflora Engl. which had spines on the stem bases. D. alata L. was distinguished based on its four-angled stem and petioles that were all purplish-green with a purple base, elongate tuber shape and white tuber flesh colour. Dioscorea cayenensis Lam. was distinguished based on its yellow tuber flesh colour and cylindrical tuber shape. All the other species twined to the right in an anticlockwise direction except D. bulbifera L. which twined to the left in a clockwise direction and produced aerial tubers that were irregular in shape. Based on cluster analysis, all 24 specimens were grouped into three clusters. Cluster 1 had D. minutiflora Engl. Cluster 2 contained three sub-cluster groups of D. alata L., D. bulbifera L. and D. cayenensis Lam. Cluster 3 grouped a few D. minutiflora Engl. Principal Component Analysis showed the correlation between the different morphological characters, and most of the correlation was between PC-1 and PC-2. The distribution of species based on PC-1 and PC-2 showed the distantly related species in each quarter; D. alata L. (1st quarter), D. bulbifera L. (2nd quarter), D. cayenensis Lam. (3rd quarter) and D. minutiflora Engl. (4th quarter). Seventeen leaf specimens were selected for DNA extraction and observation made using rbcL marker. The genotypes were grouped to two main clusters. Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. and D. burkilliana J. Miege clustered together as one genetic group. However not all D. minutiflora Engl. species were in one specific cluster hence showing that there may be variation within the species. Dioscorea alata L. and D. bulbifera were seen to be potentially related. Generally, the rbcL marker demonstrated the phylogeny of Kenyan Dioscorea spp. Comparison of morphological and molecular data analysis gave similar results. The phylogenetic relationships of Kenyan Dioscorea spp. was established and morphological and molecular characterisation was efficient in establishing species relatedness among Dioscorea spp. Further study can be done with an emphasis on the use of more than one molecular marker.Item Prevalence of Campylobacter Jejuni and Other Bacterial Pathogens in Selected Foods and Drinks Served in Fast Food Kiosks in Ngara and Burma Markets in Nairobi(Kenyatta University, 2016) Odhiambo, Winnie AwuorEnteric pathogens such as Salmonella, Shigella, E.coli, Vibrio and Campylobacter are easily transmitted when contaminated food is consumed, ending up in outbreaks. Campylobacter is one of the most important pathogens as it can cause infections which may lead to health complications that could be fatal. Limited data exist on Campylobacter infections from fast food kiosks in Kenya. This study was aimed at determining the risk factors of campylobacteriosis, microbial load in water, milk and cooked chicken, survival rates and identify other pathogens in the food and water served at commercial catering points in Nairobi's Ngara and Burma markets. A questionnaire was administered to food vendors to obtain information on the risk factors associated with Campylobacteriosis. A total of 135 samples; chicken (45), water (45) and milk (45) were sampled and their microbial load determined by colony count. Campylobacter isolation was done using charcoal cefoperazone desoxycholate agar and confirmed by biochemical tests, while other enteric were isolated through standard bacterial culture and isolation techniques. Survivalrates of these isolates in varied temperatures were evaluated. Age, education level, occupation, undercooking of chicken, site of processing chicken, source of milk, storage of milk, source of water and method of treating drinking water were found to influence transmission of Campylobacter, while hand washing and serving of food by chicken processors were not found to influence the transmission of Campylobacter. The microbial load in chicken was 111.738 x 10 4 CFU/ml and 67.893 x 104 CFU/ml in Burma and Ngara markets respectively, while in milk, it was 115.673 xlO 4 CFU/ml and 160.354 xlO 4 CFU/ml in Burma and Ngara market respectively. Microbial load in water was determined by the most probable number technique, the load was 3.083331100 ml and 3.54167/1 00 ml in Burma and Ngara market respectively. There was no significant difference in the Microbial load across the samples; milk (p<0.0396), chicken (p<0.0053) and water (p<0.3805) in both Ngara and Burma markets. Temperatures below the optimum growth temperature for C. jejuni (42°C) generally seemed to have inhibitory effect on the population of the organism. Survival of Campylobacter was poor in water and chicken at room temperature (25°C) while in chicken and milk stored at 4°C, Campylobacter had higher survival rates. Chicken in Burma market, 6 (13.3%) had the highest prevalence of the pathogens; Salmonella, Shighella and Vibrio isolates were detected with E coli as the most prevalent npathogen. This research has shown that the food eaten in most urban centres of Ngara and Burma market pose high risk to infection hence warranting consistent surveillance. Proper storage of food and drinks after they have been thoroughly boiled is recommended.Item Human Use of Forest Trees and its Impact on Tree Diversity and Abundance in Chemususu Forest, Baringo County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2020) Kipkoech, Morogo HoseaTrees provide both direct and indirect benefits to humans, who depend on them for their livelihoods. Forest ecosystems are vulnerable to over-utilization and exploitation due to the sensitivity of its complex and highly diverse ecosystem. The aim of the study was to determine the human impact on tree species diversity, abundance, plant population structure and uses of forest trees by local communities adjacent to Chemususu forest Reserve in Koibatek Sub-County, Baringo County. Questionnaires and interview schedules were used to collect data on uses of trees; the target group were households within 3km stretch from the forest edge. The data on trees species, diversity, abundance and plant population structure was collected by systematic sampling using six parallel belt transects each starting from the forest edge. Sampling was conducted in quadrats of 20m x 20m (for trees) located along the transects at 500m intervals. In each of the quadrats, all the trees species were identified, counted and diameter at breast height (DBH), measured at 1.36m outside the bark to the nearest cm. Indicators of human disturbance were assessed to determine the extent of human impact. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was the main tool for quantitative data analysis from both questionnaires and interview schedules. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test whether the mean number of cut stems and debarked trees varied with distance from forest edge. ANOVA was also used to test for variation in the mean diversity indices, tree species abundance and DBH with distance from forest edge. In both cases, tukey test was used to separate the means. Shannon-Wiener Diversity index (Magurran, 1988) was computed. Pearson’s correlation was carried out to determine the relationship between abundance of cut stems and debarked trees with distance from human settlement in each study plot and to investigate the relationship between mean species abundance, diversity, and DBH with distance from human settlement. Majority of the local residents had stayed in the region for more than 15 years and perceive the forest as important for various uses, 98.4% for spiritual and cultural purposes, timber (97.52%), tourism and recreation (96.3%) and hunting (97.1%).Three trees species, Olea europaea, Dombeya torrida and Olea capensis were used for firewood as well as charcoal and formed a large proportion of used trees. Trees used for timber Juniperus procera, Podocarpus falcatus and the exotic cupressus lusitanica had been heavily extracted. There was no significant relationship between the number of charcoal kilns and distance from the forest edge (r = - 0.849; P=0.069). This also applied to the number of plots with evidence of pit sawings with distance from the forest edge (r = 0.555; P =0.333) but the number of plots with split stems decreased significantly with distance from the forest edge (r = -0.892; P = 0.043).There was no significant variation in the mean number of cut stems and mean number of debarked trees with distance from human settlement (F(4, 25) =0.082; P= 0.546) and (F (4, 25) =1.795; P=0.162), respectively. Tree diversity did not vary with distance from human settlement (F (4, 25) = 1.67; P=0.189).There was a significant difference in the mean number of trees in different DBH classes (F (4, 25) = 5.181; P =0.002). The number of trees on the lower DBH classes was more than those on the higher classes at various distance intervals, but this difference was not statistically significant. The study showed that the community role in forest degradation was significant and they highly depended on it for their livelihood. Thus, it was important to understand the relationship between the community and the forest. Alternative sources of trees used for timber and charcoal should be encouraged to reduce pressure on forest trees.Item Spatial Distribution of Opuntia Stricta (Haworth) in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2020-10) Titus, Elizabeth K.Kenya has experienced biological invasions some of which are considered to have significant consequences on the socio-economic status of affected communities. At the ecosystem level, they change community structure and composition. Available data on invasive species in the East African region shows that 34 different species of invasive plants have invaded Kenya. Notable examples of invasive species include Opuntia stricta (Haw) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). This research was aimed at assessing the impact of the invasive O. stricta on other plant species and wildlife in the Tsavo East National Park, Kenya (TENP). The study area was divided into twelve transects which was 2km long and ten quadrats each 5m by 5m established systematically along each transect. Data on Opuntia stricta coverage, woody plants, dung of elephant to denote their presence and soil samples was collected in each quadrat. ANOVA was conducted on Opuntia stricta coverage and confirmed that its distribution differed significantly per the sampled transects. Correlation between Opuntia stricta and soil chemical composition, elephant distribution and presence of woody plants was carried out. Among the soil chemical composition investigated, phosphates negatively correlated with O. stricta cover at a significance level of p=0.002 for α =5%. Sodium amount and O. stricta cover were found to have a positive correlation at a significance level of P=0.039 for α= 5%. A positive correlation between the presence of elephants and O. stricta percentage cover was significant with r=0.37 and P=0.000 at α=5%. O. stricta cover and woody plant species had an insignificant positive correlation with P =0.177 at 5%. Findings of this study are crucial in any strategies adopted to guide in the control of rapid spread of O. stricta in Tsavo East National Park and other similar ecosystems.Item Management of Crown Gall Disease in Selected Rosa Hybrida Farms in Kenya Using Artemisia Annua Leaves and Zingiber Officinale Rhizome Extracts(Kenyatta University, 2020-11) Njagi, Alfred Kariukiose flower is the world’s most traded cut-flower with 74% of it coming from Kenya. Kenya has potential for higher rose production if challenges of pests and diseases are dealt with. Pests like spidermites, false codling moth, caterpillars, aphids, thrips, nematodes and diseases such as crown gall, downy mildew, powdery mildew and botrytis highly compromise production. Crown gall disease, caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the most problematic disease of roses in Kenya and causes a production loss of up to 60% depending on age and variety. This study evaluated the prevalence of crown gall disease and management of the disease using Zingiber officinale rhizome and Artemisia annua leaves extracts, in an effort to replace conventional chemicals due to their environmental and economic cost. Survey of selected flower farms in Kenyan showed a crown gall prevalence ranging from 0.1% to 65%. Zingiber officinale and Artemisia annua phytochemical screening indicated presence of terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, glycosides, phenols and tannins. Agrobacterium tumefaciens colonies used in testing antibacterial effect of the extracts were isolated from crushed crown galls and purified through their growth in Congo red YEMA medium and yeast peptone glucose agar. The colonies were authenticated biochemically by Gram staining, motility test, citrate utilization, catalase production, urease production and ketolactose test. Antibacterial effect of the extracts were determined by measuring the diameter of the inhibitory zone around the filter discs soaked in extracts on Agrobacterium tumefaciens inoculated media. Micro-dilution technique on microtiter plate was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations of the plant extracts used in soaking the filter discs. Artemisia annua, Zingiber officinale, mixture of Zingiber officinale and Artemisia annua had Minimum inhibitory concentration of 125mg/ml, 62.5mg/ml and 31.25mg/ml respectively. The recommended rate (6.25 ml/l) of copper hydroxide was used. Copper hydroxide and Artemisia annua had antibacterial inhibitory zone of 12.8mm. This zone was significantly different from that of Zingiber officinale and mixture of Zingiber officinale and Artemisia annua which was 10.6 and 10.2 mm respectively (P ≤0.05). The research therefore revealed that Artemisia annua and copper hydroxide inhibited bacterial growth better than Zingiber officinale and mixture of Zingiber officinale and Artemisia annua. Results of treatments done on inoculated rose plants in the greenhouse in terms number of plants with galls, gall weight and stem length showed similar tread to in vitro bacterial growth inhibition. The ultimate stem length of Artemisia annua and copper hydroxide treatment were 69.4cm and 65.8cm respectively. These lengths were better and significantly different from that of Zingiber officinale and mixture of Artemisia annua and Zingiber officinale which were 48.8cm and 54.4cm respectively (P ≤0.05). From the results of this research, Artemisia annua and Zingiber officinale extracts are promising biocontrols for crown gall in roses. Farmers are recommended to continue with integrated crown gall control methods and pursue plant extracts as an alternative. The performance of Artemisia annua extracts compared well with that of conventional copper hydroxide and is therefore the better option.Item Abundance and Conservation Status of Prunus Africana in Western Mau Forest, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2020-03) Chebet, GladysPrunus africana (Hook. f) Kalkman, 1965 (formerly Pygeum africanum Hook.f) is a geographically widespread tree restricted to highland forest of main land Africa and outlying islands. The species is commercially important for its bark, which is used in the treatment of prostate gland disorders. It also produces high quality timber used locally for building poles and furniture as well as fuel wood. The high demand for the bark has led to notable destruction of the species in natural forests, leading to concerns on the long term sustainability of harvesting and the conservation of the species. Despite the fact that Mau forest is a protected area, the region experiences illegal exploitation with P. africana being one of the main targets. The tree is of great demand for its strong timber and highly medicinal bark making its population to be under threat. As a result P. africana is listed as vulnerable species under Appendix II of CITES. In this study, information on P. africana was obtained mainly from literature survey while population data was obtained by sampling methods. The study was conducted in Western Mau forest (longitude E35027.05’ to E35039.42’ and latitude 0010’46’’S to 0017’42’’S) which is found in the South Rift region, Kericho county. Transects were laid across four blocks in Western Mau forest and diameter at breast height (dbh) and height of mature trees measured. The level and causes of disturbances were collected using questionaires and through observation and recorded for each of the plots. Saplings were counted and recorded in subplots and seedlings counted in micro plots. Densities of seedlings, saplings and mature P. africana trees were examined across the Western blocks of Mau forest. A socio-economic survey was further conducted to determine community perceptions on the status of the tree under study. The data generated were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Data on height and dbh were summarized as mean ± SE and variations tested using one way ANOVA. Socio-economic data were mainly analyzed in form of proportions and variations between sites tested using chi-square statisctics.Data was presented in histograms, tables and graphs. Inferential statistics revealed significant variation in the density of saplings (p<0.05). Majority of the mature trees were of height between 20m and 40m though this height varied significantly between the blocks. As concerns dbh, most of the trees ranged between 40cm and 50cm with a signigficant variation between the blocks. The seedling numbers exceeded saplings and trees, suggesting potential for regeneration and population increase even though the population is not increasing. Observations showed that human activities, herbivory and diseases pose serious threats to P. africana tree. The local community was of the opinion that the main anthropogenic activities affecting the tree are unsustainable de-barking, logging, and animal grazing. It was recommended that awareness creation be organized regularly for all stakeholders on sustainable de-barking and logging be greatly regulated to save this tree of great value to mankind. The local community and more so those who rely on the tree for herbal medicine should be encouraged to grow the tree in their homestead gardens to reduce the pressure on wild trees thereby enhancing its conservation.Item Post-Harvest Fungi of Stored Common Bean Cultivars in Menoua Division, West Region, Cameroon(Kenyatta University, 2020-11) Teh, Exodus AkwaIn Cameroon, common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is amongst the legumes which are greatly consumed. Farmers in Cameroon especially the Menoua Division grow different common bean cultivars which after harvest, are stored to be used as food over the storage period or for sale. Storage of agricultural products become prone to fungal infection over time. Studies on the microbiology of stored common bean has identified fungi as a major contaminant. However it is possible that the incidence and severity of fungal infection vary with different common bean cultivars over the storage period. This research aimed at assessing the population of fungi on common bean cultivars both at harvest and storage grown in the Menoua Division of Cameroon and also to characterize the fungal species obtained from these cultivars. Six different common bean cultivars both at harvest and storage were evaluated for fungal contaminants using PDA media. Initial characterization of fungal isolate was done morphologically. A One-way ANOVA was performed on the fungal population on the different common bean cultivars to determine whether their mean values were significantly different (P ≤0.05). Results showed that a total of 31 fungal colonies resulted from the plated common bean cultivars at harvest, while 80 fungal colonies were obtained from the stored cultivars. Analysis of variance showed no significant difference (P ˃ 0.05) between the populations of common bean cultivars containing fungi at harvest. The population of fungi on stored cultivars differed significantly from each other (p ≤ 0.05). Highest fungal levels was observed on stored common bean cultivars. Four storage fungi genera were isolated from the different plated bean cultivars. Three could be identified as the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium due to their morphological and microscopic characteristics. The fourth couldn’t be identified and was named Morphospecie or ‘Mycelia sterilia’. There was also a significant difference (P ˂ 0.0001) between the mean population of each of the fungal type isolated from the stored bean cultivars. Molecular analysis detected by the sequencing of their ITS region confirmed the presence of different fungal species. The Morphospecie was identified as Xylaria hypoxylon a member of the Ascomycetes. Other species identified included; Fusarium oxysporium, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium aethiopicum. Phylogenetic analysis and multiple sequence alignment using mutalin revealed the relationship among the species. The species of fungi recovered from the stored cultivars signified poor preservation methods carried out after harvest. From the study it was established that Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium aethiopicum, Fusarium oxysporium and Xylaria hypoxylon were responsible for the spoilage of the common bean grains in store. There also exist differences among common bean cultivars in susceptibility to damage by fungi under storage environment by farmers in this region. The most susceptible common bean cultivar to fungal infection was the large seeded bean cultivar and the least were pinto bean, navy bean and Pea bean cultivar. It is therefore recommended that Pinto, Navy and Pea bean cultivar should be used for long term storage while the Large seeded, Black and kidney bean be used for short term storage duration by farmers.Item Screening of Supa Aromatic Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) F2 Population for Blast (Magnaporthe Oryzae) Resistance at Irri-Esa Burundi(Kenyatta University, 2019-05) Kanyange, LydiaBlast disease (Pyricularia oryzae or Magnaporte oryzae) is a disease of the economic importance in rice, causing up to 100% yield loss. The aroma trait of rice grain encoded by the badh2 gene significantly increases its market value. Unfortunately, the aromatic IR97012-27-3-1-1-B (Supa234) line developed at IRRI is susceptible to Pyricularia grisea pathotypes. Improvement of IR97012-27-3-1-1-B (Supa234) rice has been carried out through introgression of R genes (Pi9 and Pita) at IRRI-ESA, Burundi. However, studies confirming if the genes have been introgressed into the Supa234 F2 generation have not been carried out. Therefore, this study aims to; determine blast disease severity of the segregating (F2 rice plants) population at vegetative and reproductive stages, to assess the introgression of Pita and Pi9 genes for blast resistance and to assess the presence of badh2 gene for aroma in F2 plants. Blast resistance of F2 IR97012-27-3-1-1-B plants was evaluated in IRRI-ESA breeding HUB from August 2017 to April 2018. One hundred and thirty-five plants selected from the F2 plants grown in trays were inoculated in vitro with two blast isolates (POBDI A11-01 and POBDI A11-02) on detached leaves. Disease severity was determined by analyzing the transformed scores of symptoms recorded on the inoculated leaflets. The DNA was extracted and genotyped from leaves of 103 selected rice plants which had grown to maturity. The genotyping was carried out using KASP genotyping method targeting Pita, Pi9 genes for blast resistance and badh2 gene for aromatic fragrance. Variations of disease severity mean score among the rice plants were analyzed using Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). There was a significant difference (p < 0.001) in infection scores between the rice genotypes and disease severity scores between Pyricularia oryzae Burundi A11-001 (POBDI A11-001) and Pyricularia oryzae Burundi A11-002 (POBDI A11-002) isolates. There were 31.85% resistant plants at vegetative stage while at reproductive stage, 15.56% of the plants were high resistant and 46.67% of the plants were resistant. The plants with high resistant (HR) type of infection response had the mean of transformed scores ranging from 0 to 0.075 while plants with resistant (R) type of infection had mean of transformed scores varying from 0.151 to 0.367. Disease severity decreased from vegetative stage to reproductive stage. At vegetative stage, 25.63% of the screened plants were moderately susceptible while at reproductive stage 2.22% were moderately susceptible. The genotyping results show that 38 F2 plants had Pita gene represented on both alleles, 31 F2 plants with Pita gene on one allele and only one plant (3B1) was found with Pi9 gene on one allele. The badh2 gene for aroma was detected in 27 F2 plants on both alleles and in 57 F2 plants on one allele. There were thirteen plants which had both Pita gene and badh2 gene for aroma and only one plant (3B1) had a combination of three genes (Pita, Pi9 and badh2). By comparing phenotypical and molecular results, 7 resistant plants (2H2, 2H4, 1G2, 1C12, 1E13, 1B12 and 1C5) with Pita and badh2 genes were found and only one resistant plant (3B1) had a combination of three genes Pi9, Pita and badh2 which is recommended to be bulked and evaluated for grain quality (Supa type) for the development of Supa aromatic variety resistant to blast disease. The resistant Supa aromatic variety will be used to enhance rice quality in Eastern and Southern Africa.Item Distribution of Parthenium Hysterophorus L. and its Impacts on Biodiversity and Agricultural Productivity in Nyando Sub County, Kisumu County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2019-05) Auma, Murono DorcaParthenium hysterophorus L. has been considered to be one of the worst invasive weed in Asia, Africa and Australia. The weed threatens natural and agro ecosystems in over 30 countries worldwide. In Kenya, the weed was first reported in the early 1970s in coffee plantations in Kiambu County and has since spread to more areas in and around Nairobi, central, western and eastern Kenya. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the extent of invasion and impact of P. hysterophorus on plant species diversity and agricultural productivity in Nyando Sub County of Kisumu County. Distribution was determined as presence of the weed in the sampled areas. Geographical co-ordinates were recorded using a hand held geographical positioning system (GPS) receiver. Fifteen transects were established randomly and vegetation surveys conducted. Soil samples were collected for the seed bank study. A total of 210 respondents were interviewed using semi structured, open ended questionnaires to assess the impact of P. hysterophorus invasion on agricultural production. GPS data on presence of P. hysterophorus was loaded into ArcGPS 9.1 software to develop point distribution map. One-way ANOVA was used to assess difference in mean density of P. hysterophorus and to test difference in size of the seeds among various land use types (p ≤ 0.05). Effect of P. hysterophorus density on species diversity, richness and density of other herbaceous plant species was evaluated by correlation analysis. Data from perception survey was summarized using descriptive statistics. Parthenium hysterophorus was found to be widely distributed. There was a negative correlation between the density of the weed and species diversity (r = -0.075, p = 0.029) and richness (r = -0.924, p = 0.001). This indicated that where P. hysterophorus density was high, species diversity, and richness was low. There was a significant difference in the abundance of seeds in soils from various land use types (F = 3.88, p = 0.017). Most respondents reported a negative effect of P. hysterophorus on livestock and crop production. This study recommends the need for increased awareness of P. hysterophorus, its impacts and possible solutions among the local people, researchers and extension workers. Appropriate control measures should be applied urgently.Item He Efficacy of Selected Plant Extracts Against Aspergillus Flavus and Sitophilus Zeamais On Post-Harvest Management of Maize(Kenyatta University, 2017-10)Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most important cereal crop in Kenya with 90% of the total population relying on it as the main staple food. Post-harvest losses in maize is caused by insect pests such Sitophilus zeamais and Fungi such Aspergillus and Fusarium among others. Post harvest losses by insect pests can sometimes be up to 90 percent. Synthetic chemicals are used to manage weevil infestation and control mould development in maize. However, chemical residues have been detected on the stored maize prior to consumption. Additionally, continuous uses of synthetic chemicals have led to development of pathogen/pest resistance reducing their effectiveness. This study therefore sought to evaluate a possible use of Ocimum kilimandscharicum essential oil to manage both Aspergillus flavus and Sitophilus zeamais. The study also determined the effect of pretreating baglets with aqueous extracts of A. indica and W. ugandensis to enhance efficacy of O. kilimandscharicum oil. Aspergillus flavus was isolated from maize samples using direct plating method, identified and pathogenicity tests done. Laboratory experiments were carried out to establish antimicrobial and insecticidal property of O. kilimandscharicum oil. Additionally on farm experiments were carried out to establish the oil’s effectiveness and longevity. Maize grains were treated with O. kilimandscharicum oil in the first experiment and in the second treated maize grains were put in miniature synthetic bags treated with aqueous extracts of A. indica and W. ugandensis and stored in a granary for six months. Ocimum kimandscharicum oil inhibited growth of A. flavus on petri dishes with concentration level above 100μl/ml of the essential oil having total inhibition. The size of zone of inhibition using disc diffusion method was significantly largest at 400μl/ml concentration level and lowest at 50μl/ml concentration level. However, the inhibition zones were significantly (p<0.0001) higher than in the control treatment. On-farm experiment revealed that O. kilimandscharicum oil doses were effective against S. zeamais as compared with untreated maize grains. However, 10 ml per 1kg of maize grains was the best dosage. Weight loss in maize grains was proportional to the number of holed grains. Replenishment of the oil after the third month (at 6 ml, 8 ml and 10 ml) reduced significantly (p<0.0001) the number of holed grains as well as weight loss. Pretreatment of baglets containing maize grains with aqueous extracts of A. indica and W. ugandensis significantly improved protection of maize grains treated with O. kilimandscharicum oil. From the results of this study it can be concluded that plant extracts can offer a possible substitute to synthetic chemicals in post harvest management of A. flavus and S. zeamais in stored maize. Use of essential oil of O. kilimandscharicum for post-harvest protection of maize grains against S. zeamais is therefore recommended.Item Effects of Bischofia Javanica (Bishopwood) on Stand Structure and Species Diversity in Natural and Planted Vegetation Types in Kakamega Forest, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2018-09) Kituyi, Brimas WaswaRecent studies have indicated that Bischofia javanica Blume (Euphorbiaceae), a tree species that was introduced in Kakamega forest as a restoration species in the early 1960s, is gradually recruiting and dominating its secondary and plantation forest stands. It is not clear whether this is a transitional succession process or a permanent takeover of the forest. The species has been reported to be invasive in other parts of the world such as Bonin forest and Oceanic Islands in West Pacific where it has been found replacing native species. In Kakamega forest, invasion by B. javanica could lead to significant adverse impacts on its ecological and socio-economic functions. This study sought to determine the distribution, dominance and relative abundance of B. javanica in selected vegetation types of Kakamega Forest. The study also aimedatdeterminingthe recruitment pattern of the species in the vegetation types and how this may have affected species composition and stand structure. The study was carried out in nine vegetationtypes, namely: old-growth secondary forest, middle-aged secondary forest, young secondary forest and mixed indigenous,Maesopsis, Cupressus,Pinusand Bischofiaplantation forests, and thedisturbed primary forest. It employed a nested experimental design; the nine vegetationtypes, which served as treatments of the study, were nested as sub-blocks in Yala, Isecheno and Kibiri forest blocks. Assessment was carried in 30m by 20m sample plots using stratified systematic sampling. Each sub-block had eight sample plots within a forest block making a total number of sample plots to be 216 (3 blocks x 9 vegetation types x 8 sample plots).The plots were located at equidistant points along the transect line laid in the middle of each vegetation type. Data from each plot were collected on tree species types with their local and botanical names and Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) which was measured in cm at 1.3m high.All the data were entered in Microsoft excel and analysed using Analysis of variance (ANOVA) in GENSTAT 18thedition software. Ryan-Einnot-Gabriel-Welsch Multiple Range Test (REGWQ) was used to separate the means between vegetation types. The results indicated thatB. javanicawas the only non-exotic tree species among several native species that recruited in all the vegetation types that were sampled except disturbed primary forest. It was the most abundant tree species, dominating the seedling, sapling and tree densities of plantations and natural forests. In addition, recruitment of the species in the respective vegetation types was found to reduce species diversity of the forest while the species evenness tended to increase. An effective way to manage this invasive tree species is to remove its seedlings and saplings through uprooting and also utilize the mature stems since its wood can provide industrial softwood, pulp and paper. Findings of this study will inform policy makers and resource managers to monitor the range of this tree species.