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Item Climate Variability Adaptation Strategies used by Small-Scale Maize Farmers in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya(EANSO, 2023-08) Busolo, Temina Arivitsa; Koech, Michael K.; Wemali, EvelynThe agricultural industry is threatened by climate variability due to its overreliance on climatic conditions. Maize production faces similar threats due to its sensitivity to climate variations and changes in weather patterns, specifically rainfall and temperature. Increased temperatures, rainfall variability, and heightened frequency of climate extremes, such as long periods of drought, were found to have a significant impact on Kenya’s maize production. This study therefore sought to identify climate variability adaptation strategies used by small-scale maize farmers in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya, to curb the effects of climate variability on maize yield. The study adopted a descriptive survey design where questionnaires were administered to 394 household heads. The results show some farmers chose different adaptation strategies to lessen the impact of climate variability on maize yield, while others stuck to their original methods of farming. Changing crop varieties and changing planting dates were the highly opted-for adaptation strategies, while dry planting, irrigation farming, planting drought-tolerant crops and soil moisture conservation techniques were the least opted-for adaptation strategies. Socioeconomic factors such as land size, education level, age, gender and marital status had a strong influence on the choice of utilisation of various adaptation strategies. So as to curb the adverse outcomes of climate variability and empower small-scale maize farmers, the study recommended proper education on diverse adaptation methods, access to accurate climate data for proper adjustment to planting dates, sensitization on different crop varieties as well as access to financial resources to promote practices like irrigation farming.Item Plant Spatial Configurations and their Influences on Phenological Traits of Cereal and Legume Crops under Maize‐Based Intercropping Systems(Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and Environment published by Global Initiative of Sustainable Agriculture and Environment and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd., 2024-06) Kinyua, Michael W.; Mucheru‐Muna, Monicah W.; Bolo, Peter; Kihara, JobIntroduction: Intercropping systems have a great potential for crop diversification thus increasing smallholder systems' resilience to climate change while improving soil health. However, optimal benefits associated with intercropping systems are rarely realised because of the interspecific competition for growth resources among the intercropped species. Methodology: Six trials were established in the high and low rainfall agroecological zones of Babati district in Tanzania to assess how promising cropping systems with different plant spatial configurations would influence the phenological development of intercropped maize, bean and pigeonpea. Cropping systems under study included a sole maize system rotated with a pigeonpea‐bean intercrop dubbed Doubled‐up legume (DUL), maize‐pigeonpea system both with and without de‐topping, an innovation comprising double maize rows alternated with pigeonpea and beans (Mbili‐Mbili), maize‐ pigeonpea system with two maize seeds sown within a 50 cm intra‐row space, a vertical‐ architecture Meru H513‐pigeonpea system and a farmer practice. Results: Branch formation was significantly higher in DUL than in maize‐based systems (p ≤ 0.05). Seasonal weather had upto 30% influence on pigeonpea flowering, with DUL having highest (p ≤ 0.05) flower production. The rate of pigeonpea branch and flower production in Mbili‐Mbili was stable across seasons relative to other maize‐pigeonpea systems. Doubled‐up legume and farmer practice had pigeonpea litter yield of between 1 and 2 t ha−1 which was at least 0.5 t ha−1 higher than in maize‐based systems (p ≤ 0.05). During the period preceding early maize reproductive stages, Mbili‐Mbili increased light interception by 30% and 63% compared to maize‐based systems and DUL, respectively. Maize toppings had higher (94%) P content than stover biomass that remained until harvest. Conclusion: Overall, maize‐legume systems had higher intercropping efficacy than sole maize system, both in interception use efficiency, soil mulch cover, among other soil health benefits. Mbili‐Mbili and DUL also had increased phenological benefits on intercropped legumes however, the latter was prone to seasonal weather variability.Item Perception of Adaptation Strategies to Climate Variability in Machakos County, Kenya(AJGR, 2023-12) Henry, Joseph Ndolo; Koske, James B.The study was designed to assess climate variability trends on rainfall and temperature data between 1990 and 2020, analyse community perception to climate variability, evaluate adaptation strategies and their effectiveness and examined the challenges of adaptation to climate variability. Farmers were randomly selected and questionnaires administered, while focused group discussions were conducted to obtain farmer’s perceptions of climate variability. Rainfall and temperature data was statistically analysed using Mann Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator (p<0.05. The study found out there was a significant variation in the amount of annual rainfall received of (p< 0.004) (S= -53) which showed a decreasing trend, while temperature showed a warming trend of (p>0.099) (S=29). Also, farmers perceived that climate variability events were real with (71.1%) and (68.0%) noticing a change in rainfall and temperature respectively over the same period. The study established that community perceptions on rainfall and temperature trends agreed with meteorological data on observed climatic trends. Planting of drought resistant crops was most popular with (89.8%) (n=255) agreeing, while (79.2%) said it was the most effective strategy. The study found that although some farmers have adopted some adaptation strategies, they were constrained with (82.4%) agreeing that age was a great challenge to adaptation and had a moderate negative correlation with adaptation of (0.097) with labour and (25.5%) saying it was not a challenge. The study recommends farmers use the study findings on rainfall and temperature trends and data recordings on local agricultural performances to enhance their ability to adapt. To researchers and academic community the study recommends the intensification of research on ecosystem-based adaptation and the use of the results in mainstreaming policy making, planning and implementation of climate related decisions. The results reveal important knowledge that if effectively applied will inform the county government in climate management decisions and reduce farmer’s vulnerability.Item Scenarios for Adoption of Low-Carbon Household Cooking Fuels in Biomass-Dependent Informal Settlements of Urban Sub-Saharan Africa: A Critical Analysis of Kisumu City(EANSO, 2024-01) Okore, Luther; Koske, James; Letema, SammyThe use of unclean cooking fuels is widespread in urban informal settlements in Africa, while the adoption of clean fuels is largely done by stacking with traditional biomass fuels. Rapid urbanisation has aggravated the situation since it hampers effective planning for climate action and the provision of clean and affordable cooking fuels. It is, therefore, essential to deploy effective household carbon emissions (HCE) reduction strategies that are cognizant of the fuel use patterns and household dynamics of households in urban informal settlements. This study highlights the status of HCE in Kisumu City’s informal settlements and subsequently explores possible pathways for reducing emissions through the adoption of low-carbon cooking fuels. The paper features existing and plausible emissions scenarios in the informal settlements of Kisumu City. The study adopts a descriptive correlation research design targeting a sample 419 households drawn from seven informal settlements of Kisumu City. Binary logistic regression is used to establish the relationships that exist between household characteristics and the adoption of clean fuels. Multiple linear regression analysis reveals existing and probable emission pathways, informed by varying household characteristics and adjusting fuel-stacking scenarios. Household income has a positive correlation with adoption of clean fuel combinations (p<0.01), while household size does not have a significant relationship with adoption of clean fuels. The annual HCE attributable to cooking in Kisumu City’s informal settlements is 976 KgCO2. Fuel stacking nuances are vital considerations in choosing practical emission reduction pathways for these households. Emission reduction scenario that contemplates transitioning households that use charcoal in their fuel stacks to using LPG has the highest emission reduction potential of 72%. Although an emission scenario that includes LPG in the fuel mix of households that do not use it has an emission reduction potential of just 9%, it is the most realistic option since it accommodates the phenomenon of fuel stacking.Item More Trees and More Biomass Energy Options for Increased Energy Security within Households in Navakholo Sub-County, Kenya(EANSO, 2023-06) Waudo, Stacey; Koske, James; Waswa, FuchakaTo date, most rural households in Navakholo constituency rely on wood fuel for domestic energy requirements, especially cooking. The increasing population is putting a lot of pressure on tree cover, its role in climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation notwithstanding. Switching to energy alternatives within the biomass domain presents a policy option to increase access to household energy. This paper reports on the emerging trends in this regard. Spatial survey was used to track land use and tree cover changes from 1990-2022. A questionnaire survey was used to collect data from a sample size of 395 respondents selected through systematic random sampling. A majority (78.9%) of the respondents indicated having adequate (covering over 10% of the land) tree cover, with woodlots accounting for 39.8% and trees planted along fences at 37.3%. Nevertheless, 43.4% of the households indicated that the fuelwood supply was not able to meet household energy demand. Chi-square analysis indicated that there was a significant relationship between household biomass usage, tree density and adequacy of fuel wood in the area (p = .004 and p = .004), indicating that firewood remains the choice energy source despite the apparent diminishing tree cover. This paper calls for the need to increase tree cover and access to alternative biomass options.Item Sustainable Energy Investment and Environmental Development(IPRJB, 2023) Moussa, JamesPurpose: The aim of the study was to investigate sustainable energy investment and environmental development Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: The study's findings investigated the relationship between sustainable energy investment and environmental development across multiple countries. Using panel data analysis, they found a significant and positive correlation between sustainable energy investment and indicators of environmental development, including reduced carbon emissions and improved air quality. This suggests that directing resources toward sustainable energy projects can effectively contribute to better environmental outcomes. Policymakers are encouraged to prioritize and incentivize sustainable energy investment, as it can play a pivotal role in achieving environmental goals and fostering global sustainability. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) Theory and Ecological Modernization Theory may be used to anchor future studies on Sustainable Energy Investment and Environmental Development. Prioritize energy efficiency measures in industries, buildings, and transportation. Collaborate with other nations to share best practices, technologies, and policies for sustainable energy and environmental development.Item Climate Variability Adaptation Strategies used by Small-Scale Maize Farmers in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya(EANSO, 2023) Busolo, Temina Arivitsa; Koech, Michael K.; Wemali, EvelynThe agricultural industry is threatened by climate variability due to its overreliance on climatic conditions. Maize production faces similar threats due to its sensitivity to climate variations and changes in weather patterns, specifically rainfall and temperature. Increased temperatures, rainfall variability, and heightened frequency of climate extremes, such as long periods of drought, were found to have a significant impact on Kenya’s maize production. This study therefore sought to identify climate variability adaptation strategies used by small-scale maize farmers in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya, to curb the effects of climate variability on maize yield. The study adopted a descriptive survey design where questionnaires were administered to 394 household heads. The results show some farmers chose different adaptation strategies to lessen the impact of climate variability on maize yield, while others stuck to their original methods of farming. Changing crop varieties and changing planting dates were the highly opted-for adaptation strategies, while dry planting, irrigation farming, planting drought-tolerant crops and soil moisture conservation techniques were the least opted-for adaptation strategies. Socioeconomic factors such as land size, education level, age, gender and marital status had a strong influence on the choice of utilisation of various adaptation strategies. So as to curb the adverse outcomes of climate variability and empower small-scale maize farmers, the study recommended proper education on diverse adaptation methods, access to accurate climate data for proper adjustment to planting dates, sensitization on different crop varieties as well as access to financial resources to promote practices like irrigation farming.Item Small Scale Farmers’ Perception of Institutions and Information Channels on Climate Change and Adaptation, Embu County, Kenya(Academic Journals, 2021) Kangai, Ruth; Wemali, Evelyn Chitechi; Koske, James; Waswa, Boaz; Ngare, InnocentThis study assessed the small scale farmers’ perception of institutions and information channels on climate change and adaptation in Embu County, Kenya. A survey was conducted on 411 households and 25 key informants on their perception of institutions and information channels towards climate change and adaptation where stratified random and purposive sampling was done respectively. The data were subjected to descriptive statistics, chi-square, linear regression, and Likert scale analysis. The results showed that formal institutions are more likely to influence small scale farmers’ ability to perceive climate variability risks and opt for adaptation mechanisms. Out of twelve information channels identified by the farmers, only five are more likely to influence climate variability adaptation mechanisms. While life-experience was the only channel significant to perception on climate variability impacts on agriculture. On the access and utilization of climate-related information, small-scale farmers are in a position to implement although many barriers were cited. The results indicate the need for the farmers, agricultural, and climate-related institutions to work closely to enable co-learning to raise awareness and to help disseminate agricultural-related information.Item Distribution, Conservation Status and Effects of Threats on Relative Abundance of Warburgia Ugandensis Tree Species. A Case Study of Katimok Forest Reserve, Kenya(East African Nature and Science Organization, 2023) Dokata, Dub Isacko; Mburu, Benson Kamau; Macharia, Geoffrey Mugo; Choge, Simon Kosgey; Ojunga, Samson Okoth; Kaudo, Basil OkothForest ecosystems provide livelihood opportunities such as medicines, fuelwood, timber, cash income and a reliable supply of groundwater. However, encroachment of forests by human settlement adjacent to conservation areas is associated with overharvesting of forest resources and uncontrolled livestock grazing leading to the destruction and disappearance of useful plant species in forest ecosystems which can significantly affect both biodiversity integrity and ecological functioning. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the distribution, conservation status, and effects of threats on the relative abundance of Warburgia ugandensis in Katimok Forest Reserve, Baringo County in Kenya. Data collection was done using transect lines and quadrat methods. The data on the relative abundance of Warburgia ugandensis and indicators of threat were collected from quadrats and sub-quadrats located at 50 m, 350 m and 650 m from the forest edge. In addition, other measures of tree growth such as diameter at breast height (DBH) and heights of mature trees in the study blocks were made. One-way ANOVA was used to analyse the relative abundance of Warburgia ugandensis, indicators of threat and growth parameters. Pearson correlation results revealed a significant relationship between debarked and mature Warburgia ugandensis (r = 0.95; df=2, P=0.019), grazing intensities, and number of seedlings/saplings (r = 0.96; df=2, P=0.017) and other indicators of threats (stumps, defoliated leaves, broken twigs/branches) and the abundance of Warburgia ugandensis (r = 0.97; df=2, p=0.015). Therefore, there is an urgent need to map out the distribution of Warburgia ugandensis in the whole country to know where it is abundant in order to draw a national conservation and management plan for the tree speciesItem Integrating Environmental Concerns in Enterprises and Businesses for Sustainable Development(International Journal of Environmental Science http://www.iaras.org/iaras/journals/ijes, 2018) Ngare, Innocent; Wemali, Evelyn; Gichuki, CeciliaSmall and medium enterprises (SMEs) have become a major driver of economic growth and development in Kenya. Government agencies, development partners and non-governmental organizations have invested considerable resources and effort in promoting business innovations and enterprises. However, environmental concerns and even sustainability issues have in many instances taken a back stage. This paper seeks to highlight the drivers of SMEs, types of SMEs, their general environmental impacts and recommend some strategies and tools that can be used to ensure environmental integrity, human health and sustainability of benefits arising from SMEs. Review of documented evidence indicated that the major drivers of SMEs are economic recession resulting in job losses in large industrial and commercial companies, unfavourable climate which affects livelihoods and natural resources; and inflation and reduced incomes from employment and sale of agricultural products. As a result unemployed people even workers in formal employment engage in small business to improve their income. SMEs tend to have low capital outlay and lack adequate safeguards against environmental impacts and sustainability. There is also growing trend of applying new innovations and technology to venture into new enterprises. These enterprises are spread over a number of economic sectors, such as energy, agriculture, transport and communication, and financial services. Among these are Ecopreneurs, who have established individual businesses or social entrepreneurs who have established business have been driven by profit generation and environmental concerns. These include merchants of solar panels, builders of biogas units and waste recycling facilities to generate new marketable products or services. Integration of environmental concerns in business enterprises can be achieved through a number of strategies: creation of environmental awareness, planning for mitigation of anticipated adverse environmental impacts, adopting cradle t business design, the triple accounting and some eco-industrial park principles. The existing discrepancy between economic and environmental accounting can lead to wanton destruction of global commons, especially natural resources and systems that maintain and/or generate new resources. It is therefore prudent for all business enterprises irrespective of their size to integrate some aspects of environmental protection in their business plans.Item Agronomic and Financial Benefits of Phosphate Rock Use in Acidic Soils of Upper Eastern Kenya(SSRN, 2021-07) Ndeleko-Barasa, Emily Mwake; Mucheru-Muna, Monicah; Ngetich, Felix KipchirchirA major constraint to crop production in Sub-Saharan Africa is nutrient deficiency, especially phosphorus deficiency. Phosphorus plays a crucial role in photosynthesis but is usually deficient in acidic soils since it is converted to less available forms, affecting crop yields. There is a need to improve phosphorus availability to crops for maximum production. This study assessed the impact of phosphate rock fertilizer application on maize yields, soil chemical composition, and cost-effectiveness in Tharaka Nithi County, Upper Eastern Kenya. We set a field experiment in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) during long rains (SR2017) and Short rains (LR2018) seasons. The treatments were phosphate rock + manure, Tithonia diversifolia + phosphate rock, Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) + Triple Superphosphate (TSP), and a control. Soil samples were collected at a depth of 0-20 cm before and at the end of the experiment for pH, P-sorption, and other soil nutrients determinations. Other auxiliary data collected included labor and input costs besides output prices. The CAN+TSP treatment had significantly higher grain yields, while phosphate rock on its own had the second-lowest than the control treatment (p<0.05). We also observed a similar trend in the stover yields. Phosphate rock combined with either manure or Tithonia diversifolia led to a significant (p<0.05) increase in the phosphorous levels. Sole application of organics increased soil sodium and calcium while iron levels decreased. Other than the control, all treatments significantly lowered the p-sorption levels. However, CAN+TSP had the highest p-sorption while Tithonia diversifolia had the lowest. During the LR2018 season, a break-even point was arrived at with all the treatments, and the net benefit was significantly higher at P<0.05. Conclusively, the use of phosphate rock, either solely or in combination with organic elements, was found to improve yields, soil chemical composition, P-sorption, and very cost-effective.Item Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies to Drought and Erratic Rains as Key Extreme Events: Insights from Small Scale Farming Households in Mixed Crop Agro Ecosystems of Semi-Arid Eastern Kenya(academic journals, 2019-04-11) Mwenda, Pius; Kungu, James; Kiambi, D.K; Gevel, Jeske van deClimate variability and change are some of the most pressing environmental challenges in semi-arid Kenya and Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) and are associated with persistent droughts, dry spells and erratic rains. The present study aimed at determining exposure and adaptation mechanisms among selected small-scale farmers cultivating drought tolerant crops in Wote, Makueni County, Eastern Kenya in the period 2003 to 2013. The sampled 120 farmers cultivate sorghum, cow peas and pigeon peas, which are some of the dominant multipurpose crops. Data collection methods included the use of semi-structured questionnaires. Results indicated that household level vulnerability was caused by exposure to extreme events: Drought (100%) and erratic rains (59%). Key drought adaptation means were drought resistant crops, 65%; terracing, 28%; and crop diversification, 13%. A multiple regression model, R 2 =0.319, indicated that age, gender and land size influenced adaptation choices significantly <0.05=0.027, 0.043 and 0.011, respectively. The results reveal prevailing exposure to extreme events at household level and further existing influence of responses by household social characteristics. From the results, the study mainly recommends adoption of alternative income activities, including on farm value addition, coupling of indigenous and modern adaptation mechanisms and provision of comprehensive climate information services.Item Driver’s of Entrepreneurial Opportunities Exploitation by Tree Farmers in Kenya: The Case of Improved Eucalyptus Trees Growing in Lari District(Academic Research Journal, 2015) Kanyi, Benson N.; Kung’u, James B.; Ofafa, Gorretty A.; Ombui, Geofrey MonariThe introduction of improved Eucalyptus trees varieties to Kenya in 1997 from Mondi Forests in South Africa by Tree Biotechnology Project (TBP) has rekindled tree-planting culture. Millions of seedlings have been distributed across the country. By administering questionnaires to a sample of 385 tree farmers in Lari District of Kiambu County, the study sort to empirically test the critical factors influencing the planting of improved Eucalyptus trees. The study revealed 63.6% of the farmers indicated the improved eucalyptus tree enterprises had complied with quality highly while 66.2% of them indicate that the improved eucalyptus tree seedlings enterprises had complied fairly with environmental safety.Covariance Matrix shows that although theoretically the factor scores should be entirely uncorrelated, the covariance is not zero, which is a consequence of the scores being estimated rather than calculated exactly. Hence there were factors that had no influence on the farmers’ planting improved eucalyptus tree varieties in Lari District. The driver’s of opportunity exploitation from this research, included risk aversion, opportunity for product differentiation, degree of control over production processes, skills to make it work and availability of ready market. These drivers are critical in any entrepreneurial process and underscore the premises that the trees farmers in pursuing the opportunity of improved tree varieties they were entrepreneurial. Policy interventions that can enhance these driver’s would result in accelerated planting of more improved trees varieties.Item Influence of Farmer Groups’ Characteristics on Up Scaling Uptake of Soil Fertility Technologies in Eastern Kenya(International Journal Publishing House, 2019) F.W, Mwebia; J.N, Mugwe; Mucheru, Muna M.W; Mugendi, D.NIn the Sub-Saharan Africa, soil degradation has led to a decline in crop productivity and has been linked to hunger and poverty. Farmers’ groups approach is one of the methodologies used for dissemination of soil fertility enhancement technologies but understanding of how this approach influences uptake of the technologies is limited. This study assessed the influence of farmer groups’ characteristics on the technology application. The study was carried out in Mbeere South and Maara sub-counties in Kenya where interview schedules were administered to 60 farmer groups. Descriptive and inferential statistics were performed on the data collected using SPSS software. The results showed that several key variables influenced groups’ application of animal manure. These include; the number of females in the group (p=0.008), frequency for group meetings (p=0.050) and group size (p=0.019). Variables that influenced application of fertilizer include; Tropical livestock unit (p=0.045), group formation drivers (p=0.098), and group membership qualification (p=0.028). Variables that influenced application of a combination of manure combined with inorganic fertilizer included; number of females in the group (p=0.067), reason for applying the combination (p=0.003) and group gender (p=0.056). From the results, it is evident that any government agency, project or organization planning to upscale dissemination of soil fertility enhancement technologies needs to work with groups that are small in size, having more female members, meeting monthly and with members who have large herds/flocks of animals.Item Tourists’ Willingness to Pay For Upstream Restoration and Conservation Measures(Taylor and Francis, 2019-05) Pedrosoa, Rui; Kung’ub, James BiuReserve in Kenya in particular motivated this study. Degradation of ecosystem services in the Mara basin is a cause of increasing pressure on the wildlife of the reserve. Wildlife tourists in the downstream area of the basin are beneficiaries of ecosystem services, particularly stream flow and water quality, provided in the upstream water catchment. This study aimed to estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) of wildlife tourists to cofinance conservation and restoration measures in the upstream of the Mara River Basin. The contingent valuation method was used with a valuation scenario framed in a payment for ecosystem services (PES) scheme. The relationship between WTP and several socio-economic variables was captured by an ordered logistic regression model. The mean WTP was estimated at US$41.6 (KES ¼ 4314.8), with a potential annual revenue of over $US 3.5 million alone from tourists staying inside the reserve. This study contributes to clarifying the feasibility of a PES scheme in the Mara River Basin complementing former studies concerned with the willingness to accept conservation and restoration measures in the upstream of the basin. The study closes an important knowledge gap and paves the way for an institutional solution enabling PES implementation in the basin.Item Adaptation Mechanisms and Coping Strategies to the Effects of Climate Variability on Maize Yield with Focus on Matungulu West, Machakos County Kenya(Finlogy, 2017) Mabonga, E.S.; Manguriu, D.G.; Kerich, R.; Nakokonya, G.M.Climate variability is a phenomenal challenge to the citizens of the globe. It is noticeable from many documented studies that climate variability is taking place at an alarming rate. The globe has been experiencing an increase in temperature of approximately ≈ 0.20 C after every ten years for the last three decades. It is also established that rainfall increased significantly from 1900 to the 1950 then dropped from 1970 to present. The total sum of such extremes is a terribly affected livelihood in particular those living below the dollar. However, farmers in Matungulu West, in Machakos County Kenya have established their own measures and strategies to address the effects posed by climate variability. That informed the main objective of this study which was To determine adaptation measures and coping strategies being practiced by households in Matungulu West in Machakos County Kenya in addressing climate variability. A structured questionnaire which was developed and pre-tested was used to interview 380 randomly selected household heads to elicit information. Findings of the study indicate that most (52.2%) of the farmers have reduced or spread risks by replanting with early maturing maize, (26.4%) staggering planting dates, (2.9%) changing crops when replanting, (6.6%) grazing of failed parcels of land and (11.9%) carrying out varietal selection of stress resistant to suit the prevailing conditions. It was established further that (64.8%) of the respondents preferred early sowing as an adaptation option while (1.4%) indicated that they were practicing irrigation farming to combat climate variability. This study made a conclusion that there is a broad range of contrasting diversification strategies employed between different types of households headed by either females or males with the ownership or lack of ownership of cattle being a key factor that cuts across household types and which provided considerable additional flexibility.Item Understanding Kenya’s Multilateral Environmental Agreements, the Future of Environmental Governance(International Organization Of Scientific Research (IOSR), 2016) Ngare, Innocent; Karanja, Joseph; Koech, MichaelKenya like other global countries, is a signatory to international environmental agreements. The relevance and their significance dating of global agenda 21 at Rio. Today different protocols serve the Kenyan environmental conservation and management entities as a platform to conserve its environment. This paper is a review of key international environmental protocols and convention in Kenya. Four multilateral environmental agreements were reviewed. The Kyoto protocol, Montreal protocol, Biodiversity convention and UNFCCC. Their impact has been discussed within the Kenyan context and rationale and their significance with the Kenyan environmental management vision.Item The Trend of Climate Variability Effects on Dairy Farming in Masaba North, Nyamira County Kenya(IISTE, 2016) Ngare, Innocent; Koech, Michael; Manguriu, Daniel; Gichuki, Cecilia; Karanja, JosephThe dairy-climate change dilemma in Kenya cannot be mistaken. However, extensive research into dairy farming and an understanding of the dynamics of climate variability effects is greatly lacking.The study investigated the effects of climate variability on dairy cattle breeds in Masaba North, Kenya. The objective for the study were to determine the trend of climate variability and its effects on dairy farming. During the study two sampling techniques were used; purposive and systematic sampling that captured key informants and household information respectively with a targeted sample size of 100 respondents. Further, the findings obtained were analyzed through Statistical Package of Social Sciences and Excel. Data was presented in tables, graphs and pie charts. The findings showed that temperature had rose by 0.80 C in the past 30 years with anomalies of rainfall across the years indicating variability effect in the area. From the study, 89% of farmers respondent on effect of climate variability to dairy cattle. The integral recommendations were; improve dairy cattle performance through adoption of modern livestock techniques and harnessing immediate farmers’ education to mitigate climate variability effects.Item Perceived Climate Variability Effects on Socio- Economic Well-Being of Dairy Farmers, Case Study of Kisii Highlands in Kenya(IJIR, 2017) Ngare, Innocent; Karanja, Joseph; Mokaya, DennisThe dairy sector globally has been hit by climate variability impacts that affect animal performance. This affects the socioeconomic wellbeing of dairy farmers across the globe. This study was conducted at Kisii Highlands, a tropical region in the western part of Kenya. The objectives to the study were: to determine the socioeconomic impact of climate variability on dairy farming along the Kisii Highlands and to assess farmers’ perceptions on climate variability disease effect relation on dairy breeds in Kisii Highlands. The research took a survey approach to collect quantitative data. 100 respondents were interviewed during the study. Data was analyzed through Statistical Package of Social Sciences and Likert scale to monitor respondents’ perceptions. The findings show that, climate variability effect on management practices had highest Total Weight (T.W) of 433.5 among the statement responses. The year 1984 was the driest year with (σ2 = -35.4). From the climate variability effect disease relation, Pneumonia was the most predominant climate variability related disease in the area with 43 respondents.