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Item Adaptive Capacity of Pastoralists to Climate Variability in Ngaremara, Isiolo County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2022) Nkonge, Lisper Gakii; Felix Ming’ate; Joseph KuraukaPastoralism is practiced for subsistence, commercial and cultural purposes. It’s a sustainable way of utilizing ASALs and contributes to 4% of Kenya’s GDP. Climate variability, population explosion, and poverty have lowered the adaptive capacity to climate variability of Ngaremara pastoralists in Isiolo County. Therefore, this study was carried out to examine the adaptive capacity of pastoralists to climate variability in Ngaremara, Isiolo county. The study’s main objective was to evaluate the ability to adapt socially, physically, and economically to climate variability among the Ngaremara pastoralists in Isiolo County. The specific objectives were establishing the existing indigenous adaptive strategies, presenting the climatic trends for the past ten years in Isiolo County, to establish climate variations occurring over shorter timeframes as opposed to climate change that persists for more than decades, and determining adaptive capacity's internal and external hindrances. The study also aimed to deduce the strategies that enhance the willingness of the Ngaremara pastoralists to adapt to new climate variability adaptive strategies. The study used a cross-sectional research design. Systematic, simple, and purposive sampling methods were used to sample the population. Direct observation method, household interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions were used to collect primary and secondary data using interview schedule and questionnaires. Qualitative data from household interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions were analyzed according to the study’s objectives and collected using the KMacho App. The KMacho APP was used because it allows researchers to collect geographical location-specific information to monitor incidences, integrates data in the cloud database, and saves on time and cost. Quantitative data collected from household interviews and secondary sources were collected using the KMacho App and analyzed further using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SPSS v.22 and Microsoft Excel. Data was imported from KMacho App and automatically grouped into titles, labels, and names using SPSS summarized into categories and tabulated to calculate the frequency of specific themes. Data presentation is in the form of tables, figures, and graphs. The expected output was that low socioeconomic development among Ngaremara pastoralists in Isiolo County increased vulnerability to climate variability. The study proves that there is reduced adaptive capacity and their traditional methods to cope with climate variability are futile. Their living standards are deficient because their livelihood sources solely rely on pastoralism, which has been affected by climate variability. Moreover, fluctuating rainfall of between 250mm and 400mm and an annual average temperature of 290C have exposed pastoralists to drought, floods, famine, and pastoral conflicts. Still, they are willing to adopt new coping strategies for climate variability. The impact of the study will enable informed decision-making by external agencies such as policy makers, NGOs, Isiolo County Government, and the community to improve the adaptive capacity to climate variability by developing coping strategies, creating information avenues such as Early Warning Signs, and enhance development by introducing various projects to diversify livelihoods. Future research should look into dimensions of food insecurity in Ngaremara and the effects of climate variability on human health.Item Adoption and use of self-sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags in Kibera slums, Nairobi County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2015-10) Nderitu, Faith WanjikuThe problem of how to dispose human waste has remained a global challenge in a world that is increasingly bound by constraints of resources population growth, rapid urbanization and corresponding levels of poverty and disease, the pressure for appropriate and sustainable solutions is mounting. Despite continued efforts to promote sanitation, a significant number of the world‟s population is still without basic sanitation. Kibera slums suffer from lack of improved sanitation facilities, including toilet, showers and sewage disposal. With few toilets and pit latrines, this has resulted in growth of “flying toilets” due to inaccessibility of toilet facilities during late hours owing to lack of even distribution and lack of convenience unresolved to insecurity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the adoption and use of self- sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags in Kibera slums, Nairobi County. Specific objectives focused on: community perception on adoption; level of awareness of the use and socio-economic and environment impact of adopting single use self-sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags. The findings may provide information to national policy makers, civil society and research organization in making informed decisions on relevant interventions on sanitation to communities living in informal settlements. The study adopted a descriptive research design using survey criteria. The study focused on the descriptions, which had a capacity to gather more information. The study was carried out in Kibera Slums, Nairobi County in two villages Silanga and Laini Saba. The study employed a number of sampling techniques including simple random and purposive sampling targeting key informants. The target population comprised 7363 and 8182 community residents‟ in both Silanga and Laini Saba respectively. Determination of the sample size was done using Fischer et al., (1998) formula. A sample of 376 was considered appropriate for the study as supported by Cresswell (2005). Data was collected by use of questionnaires, observation list and focus group discussions. The data collected in this study was entered, edited and analyzed by use of descriptive statistics. The study found that people are not entirely comfortable being seen handling the bags. Educating the community, advertising the toilet bags more aggressively, door to door campaigns among other strategies can help inform more people and encourage others to begin using the bags. The study revealed that users had to contend with poor hygiene, insecurity especially at night for women and girls, overcrowding in public toilets, inaccessibility of toilets, the high cost of using toilets and difficulty disposing human waste. The study concluded that toilet bags indeed have a positive socioeconomic and environmental impact on the community; evidenced by new sustainable ways to handle waste. The study identified gaps in community level of awareness of the use of single use self-sanitizing biodegradable toilet bags. The study recommended the Peepoo management in partnership with the government and other NGOs to enhance continuous community hygiene education awareness programs along with physical access to water supply and sanitation to positively influence change in hygiene behaviour and decrease the prevalence of risks associated with poor hygiene conditions. The study recommended an investigation on gender and sanitation programs in order to evaluate integrating gender into community sanitation programs and the perception challenges.Item Adoption of biogas technology as an alternative energy source in Gakawa Location, Nyeri County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2018-02) Ikonya, Samuel Ndung’uABSTRACT This study aimed at evaluating the factors influencing the adoption of biogas as an alternative energy source in Gakawa location, Nyeri County. The study delved into the socio cultural factors which influence the adoption potential of biogas technology; the attitude towards adoption of biogas technology among the small scale farmers and the role of formal and informal institutions in the use of biogas as an alternative energy source. Using multi stage sampling a sample of 351 households was sampled to capture the experiences of biogas adopters and other potential adopters. Primary data was collected through a questionnaire consisting of both open ended and close ended questions. Secondary data was accessed from key informants such as agricultural extension officers, heads of local cooperative dairy society, and Non-Government Organization coordinators, involved in the energyenvironment landscape. Data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences and results presented in frequency tables. The study reveals that the household characteristics contributed to the attitude towards adoption. The result showed that, Biogas Technology adoption was significantly affected by the age, gender and educational level of the farmer (R2 = 0.045, 0.077 and 0.094 respectively), P < 0.05. The study revealed that 66.7 % of the respondents have poor understanding of biogas technology. The results indicated the ineffectiveness of community development officers (46.2 %), and extension officers’ failure to spend time with the farmers (48.4 %), as the main reasons that hinder adoption. The study thus revealed great gaps in the extension services envisaged to provide the requisite information r=.0.228, P=0.0001. The study recommends a participatory approach with all stakeholders towards improving rural incomes and access to affordable credit facilities. The study recommends the revitalization of the extension services in the concerned department and the strengthening of community resource groups that sensitize the local community to engage in other livelihood strategies that do not destroy the environment. This is with the aim of making adoption of biogas as an alternative energy source.Item Adoption of Sustainable Bamboo Farming to Mitigate the Effects of Soil Degradation and to Improve Livelihood in Kinale, Kiambu County, Kenya(kenyatta university, 2023) Maina, Joy Wamahiga; Samuel O. Ochola; Joyce MwanikiBamboo is a perennial flowering plant with a distinctive life cycle: many bamboo species remain in the vegetative phase for decades, followed by mass synchronous flowering and subsequent death. Bamboos are grasses (Poaceae) that are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions with the potential to increase forests cover owing to their morphological fast growth. This study aimed at i.) identifying the level of use in sustainable bamboo farming curbing effects of soil degradation, ii.) evaluating the level of community awareness on bamboo farming and its environmental benefits, and iii.) assessing the importance of Bamboo as non-wood plant to sustain and improve community livelihoods. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 192 respondents within Kinale region, Kiambu County during a survey to gather information on bamboo farming and its impacts in curbing soil degradation. The data was analyzed on IBM® Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), Version 21. Results showed that 56.2% of the respondents in Kinale region Kiambu County were involved in bamboo farming whereby the odds were about twice (1.821, 95% CI, Lower limit =1.11; Upper limit=2.997) as great as the odds of their counterparts. Among respondents involved in bamboo farming, the highest variance of 35.8%, 29.4% and 21.33% were from respondents that considered bamboo as a sustainable alternative to trees, aware of deforestation and degradation and bamboo farming for income generation, respectively. A respondent considering bamboo as a suitable alternative to trees was twice more likely to be involved in bamboo farming [Exp (B)= 1.963, 95% CI: 0.179, 7.307; p=0.032] whereas that who considered bamboo for income generation, was thrice [Exp (B)= 3.058, 95% CI: 0.433, 2.005; p=0.025]. Bamboo farming awareness was through Agricultural Extension Officers, Community Based Organizations and Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) as reported by 46.9%, 40.1% and 13%, respectively. Majority of 83.4% practice bamboo farming for monetary benefits compared to 16.6% that is for environmental benefits. Notably, 43.2% of the respondents reported environmental improvement associated with bamboo farming. Among the bamboo farming products, posts, chairs and baskets were reported by the majority of 30.9%, 27.2% and 20.2% of the respondents, respectively. A K-mean analysis revealed two clusters based on variables environmental-related and economic sustainability livelihood-related. In the first cluster, both variables: a sustainable alternative to trees and Land improvement or reclamation had a significant impact on its aggregation. However, in the second cluster, variables: bamboo as a source of income, household size and literacy level had a significant impact on its aggregation whereas variable: main source of income has none. The majority of 77.8% of the respondents involved in bamboo farming were in Ksh. > 2,000 - < 8,000 earning categories. Therefore, the study had shown the potential of bamboo farming in mitigating soil degradation, sustain and improve community livelihoods.Item Analysis of utilization of coffee pulp and husk for agricultural and energy services in Kiambu County, Kenya(2013-03-26) Gituma, Caroline Kanyiri; Thoruwa, T. F. N.; Waswa, F.Coffee is one of the most important beverages in the world and its yearly production is about 1 million tons (green bean) in more than 50 countries. Kenya is among the leading coffee producers in Africa, exporting 850,000 bags (51,000 metric tons) in the year 2010 alone. Coffee harvesting and processing can however lead to different types of environmental loads such as a High demand for clean water, a significant amount of solid organic wastes, waste waters and off gases from coffee drying. It is estimated that 2 tons of spent coffee pulp and husks is wasted at the production facilities per Jon of consumable coffee beans. This means that the main bi-products, pulp and husk amount to one million tons worldwide, which is a serious problem due to presence of toxic materials such as caffeine and tannins. To contribute to safe disposal of solid biomass waste in coffee processing this research was conducted to assess the opportunities and challenges of expanded use of solid waste from coffee processing in energy and agricultural services in Kiambu County. Sustainability concerns in coffee processing were evaluated using the life cycle assessment approach. This research was based on a survey design targeting coffee farmers, factory employees, and selected key respondents in the County. The specific tools used were questionnaires, interview schedules, environmental and observation checklists. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics using both SPSS and Excel spreadsheets. Results showed that about 2 tons of fresh coffee was received cumulatively in all six factories surveyed per year. Coffee processing generates 51% solid biomass waste of the total input. This represents a significant load on-the environment, which calls for more innovations towards waste reduction in the entire coffee processing life cycle. There was no significant difference in the proportion of quantities of coffee processed and the amount of husk produced among the six factories, which suggests that production inefficiency levels in all the six factories are comparable. Low awareness on the diversified uses of coffee husk and pulp, limited finances and appropriate technologies were the key constraints to maximizing their use in Kiambu County. About 40% of respondents identified inadequate demand for husk as a serious problem while 75% stated that there is poor response to the re-use of husk and pulp. About 47% of farmers used coffee husks for compo sting. In line with the growing importance of sustainability thinking, there is need to integrate waste management practices into decision-making at the policy level in coffee factories in Kiambu County. This should take an entrepreneurial approach in order to open opportunities for more income generation to stakeholders besides enhancing environmental health. It is hoped that the findings of the study will assist farming communities, factory authorities, researchers, development agents as well as policy makers on maximizing the potential of coffee husk and pulp generated from coffee processing through offering remedial actions in creating jobs and promoting technology transfer beneficial to the area as well as foster environmental management practices.Item Assesing the effectiveness of the lower Imenti forest reserve electric fence in mitigating human-wildlife conflict(2011-11-01) Kaugiria, Rose M.Human-Wildlife Conflicts (HWC) in Meru central district continues to be a pressing challenge with potentially heavy negative effects on community livelihoods. To date, different traditional and conventional strategies have evolved in the area to mitigate the conflicts, with varying degree of success. The latest mitigation strategy under implementation is use of an electric fence around Imenti forest reserve. The fence was an initiative of Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), local community and biodiversity conservation programmes in 2001. However, the effectiveness of this fence in mitigating conflict since its completion has never been evaluated.This study, therefore, assessed the effectiveness of the fence in deterring elephants from invading farms, reducing human and elephant deaths and injuries. It also sought to examine the implications of the fence on forest resource use and management in the area. The study targeted the total numbers of households adjacent to the electric fence within a band of 1 km in four sub-locations selected from the conflict prone divisions of Mirigamieru west and Mirigamieru east. Simple random sampling method was used to select 125 households for questionnaire survey. Purposive sampling was used to select key in informants for interview and individuals for case studies. The field research employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Primary data was collected using questionnaire surveys, participatory rural appraisals (PRAs) methods and case studies. Secondary data was obtained from previous research such as the internet, Assessment reports, and KWS Occurrence Book (OB). Data analysis involved use of descriptive statistics mainly frequency distributions, means and percentages and presented in form of pie charts and graphs. Paired sample t- test was used to test significant differences between selected variables before and after fence construction. The respondents' attitudes and perceptions were measured using a 5-point likert scale. Qualitative data from the PRA tools were put under themes and logical conclusion made, they were then used to compliment quantitative data. According to the results, 76% of the community members noted that the electric fence has effectively resolved HWC in the area. Up to 96% felt that the number of elephant and human deaths and injuries had reduced after construction of the fence. Additionally, 90% of the respondents noted that fanning had intensified after the fence while 66% reported that the relationship between KWS and the local community had improved greatly, thus enhancing both wildlife and forest conservation measures. The major limitation of the fence according to 68% of the respondents was basically related to poor maintenance, which led to elephant's breakages into farmlands. Analysis of secondary data showed that crop raiding incidences in the area had reduced significantly after the fence construction (t= 7.3, p=0.05, n=5). The number of human deaths due to HWC had also decreased significantly (t--6.8, p=fl.05, n=4). Though cases of human injuries by elephants had also reduced, this was not significantly different (t=2.78, p=0.05, n=4). Cases of elephant's deaths due to illegal activities had also reduced though not significantly different when compared to number of cases before the fence construction (t=5.4, p=0.05, n=4). Elephant injuries had also reduced but not significantly (t=5.4, p=0.05, n=4). The number of illegal cases of forest resource use had significantly reduced (t=3, p=0.05, n=4) hence improving forest biodiversity and conservation. To maximise on the benefits of the electric fence, pro-active measures, both policy and otherwise, should focus on ensuring proper maintenance of the fence and encouragement of community participation in wildlife and forest resource management.Item Assessing the challenges of adopting biogas technology in energy provision among dairy farmers in Nyeri County, Kenya(2014) Wachera, Ruth WanjiruAbout 90% of Kenya's rural population relies on wood fuel to meet their daily cooking energy needs. The consequences of over reliance on biomass energy are far reaching with adverse effects on the economic, social and environmental spheres of sustainability. Animals are an important source of food and income for many rural people, but their manure is a source of one of the world‟s most potent greenhouse gases. Turning manure into biogas, as an alternative source of energy has not being fully exploited in Kenya. The study aimed at assessing the challenges of adopting biogas technology in energy provision among dairy farmers. This study employed a descriptive research design: to determine the relative importance of cooking energy sources, to evaluate the impacts of biogas technology on households and assess the challenges facing households in the uptake of biogas technology. It also sought to establish the opportunities available in disseminating biogas technology. To achieve the above objectives, the study sampled 120 households and 7 key informants. Primary data were derived from field surveys using questionnaires, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Qualitative and quantitative data was descriptively analysed through descriptive statistic like frequencies, correlation coefficients, percentages and measures of central tendency such as means and mode were used to summarize and interpret the research findings. The results of the study show that primary cooking fuels were firewood (76.7%) and charcoal (6.7%). The results also revealed that only about 35.8% of the farmers are using biogas technology. On the impacts of biogas technology, about 88.4 % of the biogas users confirmed reduced household energy costs, over 83.7 % of the users noted reduced work load hence more free time, about 93% of the users indicated that cooking was more convenient while 9.3 % of the farmers confirmed increased income (mean of KES. 3500) from the sale of bio-slurry. In addition, majority of the biogas users made use of bio slurry as an organic fertiliser to maintain soil fertility. As the study indicates, dairy farmers faced challenges in the uptake of biogas technology. These challenges include high installation costs coupled with lack of credit facilities as well as absence of locally trained technicians. On the opportunities towards increasing the uptake of biogas technology among households, the study found that both public and private extensions agents were active involved in promoting biogas technology. However, they are faced with a myriad of setbacks such as poor promotional strategies and limited support by the government; inadequate funds, gender issues, ignorance and low level of awareness about biogas technology. The study concludes that the potential of biogas technology in energy provision is huge but it is poorly tapped. In order to unlock the huge potential of biogas technology, financial credit facilities should be made more accessible especially for the low income farmers, sustained and comprehensive educational and awareness creation on the use of biogas technologies should be enhanced and more efforts ought to be done in training biogas technicians at the local level. This calls for good partnership between public, private sector and civil society.Item Assessment of Adoption of Farming Technologies among Maize Farmers in Yatta Division of Kitui County, Kenya(2013-11-25) Kimondiu, Joshua MatataThe need to enhance food production and the efforts by stakeholders to introduce newfarming innovations in addition to enhancement of agricultural extension servicesin farming areas of Kenya is largely under reported. This study was undertaken at YattaDivision of Kitui County to assess new maize farming technologies, diffusion andadoption by farmers in Yatta Division. Specific objectives were to identify maize farmingtechnologies that exist in Yatta, to identify factors determining observed preferences toimproved maize seed varieties, attitudes related to new farming innovations and to analyzechallenges that maize farmers face. Improved maize production in changing climaticconditions requires innovative interventions to mitigate the effects of such conditions.Data was obtained from 96 randomly selected maize farmers through the use of structuredquestionnaires. Data analysis reveals traditional maize farming methods to be the mostdominant (63.5%). Their adoption of improved maize farming innovations was low withthe use of improved seed being the most widely adopted (20.8%). Non-adoption due to farm size, soil fertility management, extension contact and labor saving technologies were statistically significant at p<0.05 an indication that challenges present constraining factors to adoption of maize farming innovations and the hypothesis that maize farmers in Yatta do not face challenges was therefore rejected. Chi-Square distribution reveal that there were significant differences in the levels of farm size (Chi-square test: df=2, p<0.05 (4.45957), soil fertility management (Chi-square test: df=l, p<0.05 (3.83787), extension contact(Chi-square test: df=3, p<0.05 (7.82453) and by labor saving technologies (Chi-squaretest: df=3, p<0.05 (7.92576) among non-adopters and adopters in relation to adoption ofmaize farming innovations. There were no significant differences in the levels of landtenure (Chi-square test: df=I, p<0.05 (0.10005733) and by education (Chi-square test:df= I, p<0.05 (1.26331). Afive-point Likert-type scale used to measure attitude to adoptionrevealed that superiority of hybrid maize seed over local seed variety recorded the highestpositive response (56) while the ease of process of adoption attracted the least positiveresponse (40). Chi-square test on specific attitude to adoption reveal that there was nosignificant differences between positive respondents in respect to hybrid seed and ease ofadoption (2.20905), extension contact and ease of adoption (0.1572993). The study pointsout that the tendency of many studies to consider innovation adoption in dichotomousterms (adoption Inon-adoption) may not be appropriate in many cases where the actualdecisions are defined over a more continuous range. More attention needs to be given tothe socio-cultural and institutional environment in areas studied so that their interrelation with economic factors affecting adoption can be inferred.Item Assessment of Adoption of Watershed Management Approaches for Sustainable Constituency Development Fund Projects in Funyula Constituency, Kenya(2013-10-18) Naburi, NamenyaDanielManagement of the natural resource of a drainage basin primarily for the production and protection is considered essential for soil and water conservation. Despite an increase in CDF allocations, watershed management approaches are not integrated in local development projects to realize sustainability. The study assessed the need and ways of considering watershed management approaches in CDF projects. Key objectives included to determine the relative importance of factors that influence the allocation of CDF for community development projects; assess how the local bio-physical environment has been affected by CDF projects activities; establish the relevant community institutions and organizations to enhance watershed management activities; and determine the community perceptions and opportunities for enhancing watershed management activities in the CDF projects in Funyula Constituency. Three level multistage samples of 123 household heads and 8 purposively selected key informants were involved in the study. Quantitative information was mainly obtained using a questionnaire, an observation checklist and interview guide. Participatory mapping, transect walk and photography were used to obtain the qualitative information. Quantitative data was subjected to descriptive analysis mainly frequency distributions, and percentages presented in form of tables and graphs. Perceptions were measured using a 5-point likert scale, while participatory map and transect walk data were used in the analysis to complement quantitative data. According to the fmdings, 91.1% of households in Funyula earned their income from all farm activities which included both on-farm and off-farm activities with 66.9% earning less than Kshs. 1,500 per month. Poor roads network, health and educational facilities, need for clean and safe water supplies were main local factors that determine CDF allocations to various development projects utilizing a lot of CDF leaving watershed management unattended to. Among the effects, the most common were graded roads, rehabilitated dams, springs and dug fish ponds. Abandoned brick making sites and quarries, silted streams and cleared vegetation along the graded road were most visible effects of CDF activities on biophysical environment. Limited community participation in CDF decision making process, lack of watershed management knowledge and awareness on the need for undertaking Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on the CDF projects among the CDF committees and the public were the main limitations in considering watershed management approaches. The major household limitation to watershed management identified included, 82.1% limited credit and inputs, 50% lacked watershed management capacities. However, there was a positive correlation between lack of watershed management knowledge and community participation in watershed management (r=0.0l3, n=123, p< 0.05), more so, 43.1% of the respondents felt that high start up costs were the main limitation, and 19.5% identified interference from their neighbour. To conclude, CDF has undertaken projects which are bound to improve livelihoods through providing social services such as education and health, but they are not sustainable due to lack of watershed management approaches, therefore, the need to urgently address the sustainability need. The study recommends the integration of watershed management approaches such as undertaking EIA on CDF projects, capacity building the public and CDF committees, provision of incentives, alternative livelihood source, to enable community participate in watershed management activities.Item Assessment of factors affecting adoption of soil fertility improvement technologies in Eastern Kenya: the case of Kirege location, Chuka Division(2014-03-17) Adiel, Ruth Kangai; Mugendi, D.N.; Otor, S.C.J.; Ramisch, J.Declining soil fertility is a key problem faced by most farmers in Eastern Kenya. The problem has been worsened by increased population growth and consequently high demand for agricultural produce. To solve the problem, land users are being encouraged to adopt soil fertility improvement technologies using locally available resources. In a demonstration trial at Kirege Primary School, Chuka division, soil fertility improvement technologies were demonstrated from which farmers were encouraged to voluntarily select and practise on their farms. This study therefore set out to evaluate the extent to which farmers adopted and adapted the demonstrated technologies and also to identify the factors that influenced either adoption or nonadoption of these technologies. A farmer follow-up study was carried out in Chuka division over a period of two cropping seasons. Data were collected using farm surveys, on-farm trials, and visual records. The data were then subjected to logit regression and cost-benefit analysis to determine important variables affecting adoption and the most profitable treatments of the new technology, respectively. The study indicated that the use of inorganic fertilizer, though preferred by most farmers, was low due to the high cost of the fertilizer. Most farmers practiced soil fertility improvement technologies involving the use of cattle manure, which was readily available, though in inadequate quantities to supply the required nutrients. Further, lack of access to credit and inadequate extension services were identified as some of the critical issues limiting effective adoption of soil fertility improvement technologies. Eighty farmers adopted the soil fertility improvement technologies during the 2001 short rains season. During the subsequent two seasons, 163 and 206 farmers representing an increase of 99 and 150% above the initial adopters were practicing the proposed soil fertility improvement technologies. Technologies involving the use of Tithonia diversifolia and Calliandra calothyrsus alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizer were readily adopted due to the high yields obtained. During the first season of farmer follow-up, tithonia plus half rate of inorganic fertilizer gave the highest net benefit (Kshs. 50133 per hectare) followed by the full rate of inorganic fertilizer treatment with a net benefit of Kshs. 37,568. Tithonia treatment had the highest benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 5.4. Sole manure treatment recorded the lowest net benefit of Kshs. 4601, and hence, the lowest BCR of 0.9. However, during the second season manure plus half-inorganic fertilizer recorded the highest net benefit of Kshs. 41567 with a BCR of 3.7. Farmer practice involving no input had the lowest BCR of 0.2 with a net benefit of Kshs. 9853. Constraints to the adoption of the proposed soil fertility improvement strategies were identified as inadequate labor, inadequate organic and inorganic resources and reluctance due to fear of failure. Gender, farmer's occupation, land size, and land under food crops, were identified as major factors significantly affecting adoption of soil fertility improvement technologies. In conclusion there is need for the researchers to put in mind the factors that might affect adoption of a technology in order to have high adoption rates in any given area.Item Assessment of household solid waste management in Makina informal settlements, Nairobi Kenya(2012-04-12) Mwangi, Catherine MuthoniThe purpose of this study was to assess the household management of domestic solid waste in the Makina area informal settlements, Kibera division of Nairobi city. This is because of the increasing sites of unattended solid wastes in its public places. The objectives of the study were: To establish the types of domestic solid waste generated in Makina area; to evaluate the effectiveness of the solid waste management at the household level and to examine the role-played by stakeholders in domestic solid waste management in Makina area. The study adopted Quasi-experimental design (one shot case study) since the subjects sampled were not randomly assigned to groups but were all relevant cases in the study . The researcher used simple random sampling in selecting the desired sample of 200 households; the study also used purposive sampling method in identifying key informants with relevant information such as the Self-help Groups, the Nairobi City Council staff and other stakeholders involved in the management of the household wastes. Being a survey research, in collecting the primary data, the researcher designed and administered 200 household questionnaires to the randomly selected Makina residents as well as interview schedules that were used to collect the data from the snow-balled key informants. Four FGDs were also conducted in the four comers of the Makina area as well as observation that was done through transects walks with an aim of gathering more information that did not require interview. The secondary data was obtained from the previous documented information on Solid waste management, and informal settlements. The data collected was qualitative and quantitative in nature. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the data analysis. The results indicated that plastic and container ranks are the most generated DSW. The study also found that Makina residents have inadequate capacity to handle solid wastes generated from their households. The practice of the 3Rs: Reduction, Reuse and Recycling of the domestic solid waste is barely there. The 72% of the residents dump the generated domestic solid waste (DSW) in the unprotected dumpsites and only 28% can afford to pay for the existing collection services. The findings also identified various opportunities that exist in Makina area for improvement of the current situation like intensive community training how to reduce, reuse and recycle DSW. The study makes various recommendations as follows; there is need to create intensive community awareness on integrated solid waste management especially on the 3Rs for Makina residents since its only 7% of the population that has some knowledge about DSW. The many stakeholders handling DSW in Makina such as the Makina residents, civil societies, international organizations, Private Firms and the Local Government; should employ an integrated approach and work together in the management of the household solid wastes. Finally, the NCC should enforce the waste management's by-laws in order to ensure adherence among Makina residents.Item An assessment of impact of charcoal making on distribution of some tree species in Kibwezi Division(2002-05) Kariuki, Peris M.This study was carried out in Kibwezi Division, Makueni District Kenya. The aim was to assess impact of charcoal making, abundance and distribution of some selected tree species. The selected species were: Acacia tortilis (Forrsk.) Hayne, Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth, Newtonia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Torre var. hildebrandtii, Haplocoelom foliolosum Hiern Bullock and Terminalia brownii Fresen. Stem sizes of standing trees and stumps were used to investigate the abundance and distribution of selected species and past harvesting patterns in Kibwezi Forest Reserve, DWA Estate Forest and Privately Owned Land, areas subject to different management regimes. Data such as dominant plant species, vegetation cover and kiln sizes were collected by direct field observation from 158 randomly located plots each measuring 20m by 20m. This data was supplemented by interviews and focus group discussions. Data gathered was analysed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics such as Analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results of data analysis showed significant (P<0.05) differences in distribution of A. tortilis, N. hildebrandtii and H. foliolosum in the three study sites while no significant (P<0.05) variation was observed in the occurrence of A. mellifera and T brownii . Results further indicate differences in the population structure of selected species. The highest percentage of stems for most species among them A. forti/is (29.8%), A. mellifera (44.1%) and T brownii (43.9%) were < 10cm in basal diameter. H. foliolosum had the highest percentage of stems (32.1%) between 20cm and 30cm while N hildebrandtii had most of the stems (34.4%) above 90crn. From this study it was observed that charcoal making was more prevalent in Kibwezi Forest Reserve. Results further showed that at least 32 different tree species are used for charcoal making using the earthmound kiln method. Preferred species such as N hildebrandtii, Balanites aegyptiaca, Berchemia discolor, Acacia senegal and Olea europea ssp africana wer e rarely VI encountered and as a result poor quality species such as Sterculia africana and Commimphora africana are progressively being used to make charcoal in the area. Stumps of over 30 different tree species were found in 55.6% of the plots sampled and there was a significant difference (P<0.05) between the mean of stumps in the three study sites. There were also significant differences in the number of stumps recorded between various stem size classes with the highest (41.1%) ranging from 10cm to 20cm. Over half (60.1%) of stumps were observed to be re-sprouting. A relatively high rate of regeneration was noted among certain species such as Combretum collionum (92.3%) and Euphorbia c,andelabrum (50.6%). Observed impact of charcoal making included loss of vegetation cover, change in population structure of harvested species and change in species composition. The study recommends that a policy on charcoal production and marketing should be formulated. Research on efficient charcoal kilns, alternative fuels and agro-forestry as means of minimizing some negative effects of charcoal making in the study area should be undertaken.Item Assessment of occupational and environmental safety concerns on pestcide use among small-scale farmers in Sagana, Nyeri District, Kenya(2011-10-31) Kariuki, Peter MureithiThe purpose of this study was to examine whether farmers' perceptions, attitudes and behaviour with respect to handling pesticides in Sagana Nyeri district Kenya predisposed them and their environment to pesticide-related hazards. The objectives of the study were: a) to determine the farmer's attitudes, perceptions and behaviour towards pesticides at Sagana, b) to assess the potential occupational safety hazards associated with such attitudes, perceptions and behaviour, and c) to determine the potential hazards to the environment resulting from observed farmer-pesticide interactions at farm level. The study adopted a Life Cycle Approach where hazards to human health and the environment were evaluated at all stages of pesticide handling including purchasing phase, transportation, storage, mixture preparation, application and disposal. Data were both qualitative and quantitative in nature and were collected using questionnaire surveys, interview schedules, participatory rural appraisals, field observations and content analysis for secondary data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Person's correlation coefficient was particularly useful in determining the relationships between selected key variables. Results showed that farmers had high levels of perceived vulnerability, perceived severity and perceived benefits of taking action to mitigate pesticide hazards. However, barriers to taking safety measures included perceived high cost of personnel protection gear, apathy and resignation to fate, and low levels of training in pesticide management. Most farmers engaged in activities hazardous to human health such as spraying in windy weather (96%), storing pesticides in the main houses (96%) thus exposing particularly children to danger, not changing clothes after work (84%) and eating or smoking while handling pesticides (83%). Farmer activities hazardous to the environment included failure to calibrate pesticide application equipments (89%), spraying during windy weather (97%), lack of appropriate pesticide measuring equipment (84%) and disposing empty containers and excess mixes to the environment. Trained farmers engaged less in hazardous pesticide handling activities than untrained farmers. Further, contrary to conventional thinking, formal education did not play a significant role towards adoption of safety behaviour. Highly hazardous products banned in many developed countries like DDT were still in use. Over 69% of farmers took no action to protect themselves from pesticide hazards resulting in potentially risky operator exposure. There was evidence that significant poisoning was occurring as 79% reported signs of ill health associated with pesticide exposure. These included breathing problems (25%) skin problems (18%) and chest pains (14%). Therefore, for pesticide safety to be raised and inculcated among low-income farmers, extension, training and education must urgently address issues predisposing farmers to pesticide hazards along the pesticide-handling life cycle as described above. Changes in perceptions and attitudes and hence behaviour when dealing with pesticides are the most important policy and action challenges. Policy interventions should also encourage collective responsibility among all stakeholders in the pesticide life cycle in minimising the hazards. Investment in alternative technologies should also be emphasised, given the growing importance of biotechnology and eco-products in the global market.Item An Assessment of Poverty Reduction Interventions in Kiandutu Slum, Thika West District, Kiambu County, Kenya(2014-02-24) Kiarie, Lucy Njeri; Mutinda, Jane Wanza; Kamau, Peter K.Poverty has often been seen as a purely rural problem but for many developing countries, the pervasive nature of urban poverty constitutes an enormous challenge for policy makers and in development efforts. Poverty reduction tools and approaches that have been developed for rural poverty reduction cannot be replicated in urban areas because urban poverty is different in nature from rural poverty hence, understanding the nature of urban poverty as well as having accurate data that presents its dynamics, trends and conditions is vital. Kiandutu slum is one of the largest slums located in Kiambu County. It consists of poor people majority of whom are unemployed resulting from the closure of many industries in Thika town and the collapsing of coffee plantations rendering the residents to live in abject poverty. This research focused on the effectiveness of organizations working in Kiandutu Slum to reduce poverty, it assessed the poverty coping strategies employed by residents in Kiandutu, challenges facing poverty reduction interventions in Kiandutu Slum and recommended some comprehensive poverty reduction strategies. The study employed a survey design targeting 350 households which were systematically selected at a confidence level of 95% and confidence Interval of 5.18. Focus group discussions were held with the Community Health Workers (CHWs), Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).Data collected was then analysed through SPSS (version 12) and presented inform of graphs, tables, texts, pie charts and photographs. The results indicated that poverty coping strategies could be grouped in terms of: economic activities, expenditure and purchasing pattern, rural-urban ties, social network and community participation. The challenges facing poverty reduction included: inadequate housing and environmental services, lack of clear and secure tenure, informality, inadequate information, high levels of insecurity and high unemployment rates. Recommended poverty reduction strategies included: formulating clear and consistent city/town development strategies, revision of tenure security and property rights, empowering vulnerable households and disadvantaged groups, expanding microfinance, credit systems and income generating activities in Kiandutu slum, improving social infrastructure, shelter and physical infrastructure, capacity building, HIV/AIDS prevention and mitigation, decentralization, community organization and mobilizationItem Assessment of small-scale water harvesting and saving technologies and their application in Mitaboni Location, Machakos County(2014-08-26) Munyao, Ruth MwongeliWater scarcity remains a major development challenge in Kenya and particularly in the Arid and Semi-Arid lands (ASALs) like the Machakos County. Existence of few dams like Muooni dam, near the Kathiani market, has failed to deliver sustainable supply of water to the Mitaboni residents. Despite the emergence of small-scale water harvesting technologies, 54% of the households in Mitaboni still take more than one hour to carry water to their homes. This study sought to assess the existing small-scale water harvesting and saving technologies and their application in order to suggest ways of maximising their effectiveness. A total number of 200 households were randomly selected and heads of households were interviewed. Proportionate sampling was used to determine the sample size from each of the three sub locations. The study had 20 key informants selected based on their involvement in water management. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analysed using descriptive and inferential analysis. Pearson‟s Chi-Square was used to assess the relationships between selected variables in the study. Results showed that the commonly used small-scale water harvesting structures included the shallow wells, water weirs, water tanks and water pans due to their affordability and low requirement of specialised skills. Although unreliable rainfall remains a key concern, lack of adequate water harvesting structures denied farmers access to water during the few rainy days. Factors that hinder the investment in water harvesting structures included the lack of funds, unreliable rainfall and lack of appropriate skills. As such this study concluded that although existing technologies are useful, they fall short of satisfying household water requirements to the next rains - a period of about three months. Most households cope with persistent water shortages by accessing water from open dams, which are equally far away. Drudgery and health risks due to the poor quality of water remain risks households must contend with. Other hitherto missing technologies that could increase water availability in the households and the challenges that reduced farmers‟ propensity to maximise benefits from small-scale water harvesting technologies were identified. To increase access to water by households, this study recommends investments in more and closely distanced small-scale water harvesting technologies as well as capacity development in cost-effective water harvesting technologies. The sustainability of water security requires involvement of target communities in resource mobilisation for effective structural and capacity development investment.Item Assessment of the effects of habitat transformation on the Nairobi National Park and Kitengela ecosystem(2011-10-31) Kuria, Anne Wanja; Mireri, C.; Waswa, F.Nairobi National Park's wildlife migratory and dispersal area (Kitengela) has over the last three decades undergone numerous changes from an open, communally owned wet season grazing area to heavily fragmented private property. New immigrants have introduced land uses that are incompatible with wildlife management. These include urban residential, industrial and commercial premises; and agricultural land uses. This research aimed at evaluating the drivers, trends and effects of habitat transformation on the Nairobi National Park and Kitengela ecosystem. The ultimate aim was to isolate policy and action entry points towards the ecosystem's effective management (use, care and improvement) for the common good. The research was based on the assumption that if the current trend of habitat transformation in Kitengela continues; Nairobi National Park will be reduced to an ecological island and will eventually "collapse". The park will thus lose its value as a major tourist destination. Although various interventions are being employed in the area, the problem still persists. Primary data were collected using seasonal calendars, historical timelines, maps, direct observations, photography, questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews. Secondary data sources included journals, books, and other published reports. Stratified random sampling and Purposive sampling was used for sample selection. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods were used. More specifically, descriptive statistics were used to summarise and interpret findings. Pearson Correlation Coefficient was applied to assess the relationship between selected variables under study. The study findings indicate that approximately 68% of Kitengela wildlife habitat has been transformed from communally to individually owned land. The main causes of habitat transformation were the rapid increase in human population in Kitengela, estimated to be growing at a rate of 3.8% per annum. There were also high rates of industrialization in the area. This has resulted to loss of Nairobi National Park's wildlife dispersal and migratory habitat and restricted movement of wildlife. This is because as human population increases in Kitengela, the land sizes have become smaller (r=-0.81, n=127, p=0.01). Decline in wildlife numbers was strongly related to decline in tourist visitation in Nairobi National Park from 1996 to 2006 (r=0.86, n=11, p=0.01). As a result, there were reduced national and community benefits accruing from wildlife tourism. About 60% of the entire Kitengela population felt that they had received some benefits accruing from Nairobi National Park's management, This study therefore recommends that wildlife conservation within the NNP and Kitengela ecosystem should be guided by a national land policy that designates zoned land use activities and recognizes biodiversity conservation as critical in sustainable environmental management and development. The success of this approach would require among others changes in institutional and environmental governance frameworks, promoting the use of economics and incentives, dealing with social and behavioural responses, and integrating indigenous systems into conventional scientific knowledge systems.Item An Assessment of the Implementation of Participatory Forest Management (Pfm) by Ngong Road Community Forest Association (Cfa) in Nairobi County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2015) Kosgey, B. A.In Kenya, the forest ecosystem has undergone such considerable degradation that the country’s forest cover is only 3% of the total land area, way below the internationally recommended level of 10% cover. From independence, only the government was involved in forest management. Despite this, the country’s forest cover continued to deteriorate. To stem this decline, the Kenyan Government enacted the Forests Act, 2005, which allows for the participation of both government and communities living around forests in the forest management. The communities enter into management agreements with the Kenya Forest Service. They then form and register Community Forest Associations which serve as the avenues through which they can be allowed to manage the forests. This arrangement gave rise to the concept of Participatory Forest Management. The aim of this research was to study the implementation of Participatory Forest Management by Community Forest Associations using Ngong Road Forest in Nairobi County, Kenya as a case study. It specifically focused on description of the organizational arrangement of the Community Forest Association of Ngong Road Forest; assessment of their activities and roles; and identification of the opportunities and challenges that the CFAs face in the course of implementing PFM. The study used both qualitative and quantitative research designs to present a detailed picture of Participatory Forest Management in Ngong Road Forest focusing on its CFA members. The data source comprised of the Ngong Road Forest CFA members. Data collection was done by use of questionnaires and interview schedules. This study generated both qualitative and quantitative data which was collated and summarized descriptively in the form of tables, graphs and maps. The study found out that Ngong Road Forest has formed a CFA in line with the provisions of the Forests Act, 2005. The CFA members are categorized into forest beats for ease of management. In each beat, there are user groups who specialize in diverse activities within the forest. There were more women than men in the association. The activities of the CFA members ranged from tree nursery establishment, beekeeping, fuel wood collection to harvesting of plant parts for medicinal purposes. Their roles included conservation of the forest through tree planting, weed control, forest fire control and forest protection from illegal activities. A number of opportunities and challenges were found to face the community members in the course of their execution of the forest management mandate. The study concluded that CFAs play a very important role in the restoration of forests and the paradigm shift in forest management can pave the way for achieving the internationally recommended 10% forest cover by 2030. It is recommended that capacity building for the community members on the provisions of the Forests Act 2005 be carried out by the Government to sensitize them on the requirements of the new forest dispensation.Item Assessment of the Opportunities and Challenges of Infrastructure Development and Service Delivery in Kianda Kibera Slums, Nairobi(Kenyatta University, 2008) Elijah, Lillian MwikaliDespite the increasing slum population, the problem of infrastructure and service delivery remains largely unresolved in Kianda village, Kibera shims. This has led to increased human and environmental health risks. This research therefore sought to assess the opportunities and challenges of infrastructure development, basic service delivery and aesthetic enhancement in Kianda, focussing on several variables namely: housing, education, energy, playgrounds and roads, water, sanitation and waste management and health care facilities. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected using questionnaires, Interview schedules, Focused Group Discussions, field checklists and content analysis of secondary data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Pearson correlation coefficient was used in determining the emerging relationships between selected key variables. Results obtained showed that while households desired improved infrastructural development and service provision, they had poor housing structures, inadequate health care, education and water facilities, poor communication networks, low quality energy sources and inappropriate waste management systems. As a result, there were low levels of education attainment and high rates of school dropouts, water, air and soil pollution and consequently the impact of water borne diseases. Barriers to improved service delivery included poverty and lack of negotiating skills, poor slum policies and absentee landlords, corruption and unresponsive governing authorities. Households were noted to engage in survival mechanisms hazardous to human health such as disposing wastewater directly outside their houses (83%) and use of flying toilets (8%). Household practises hazardous to the environment included among others use of firewood and charcoal for cooking (81%), disposing wastewater in channels draining into Mutoine River (83%), and use of flying toilets (8%). Educated households engaged less in hazardous practises than in uneducated households. Likewise, higher income households engaged more in less hazardous practises than lower income households particularly the use of own latrines and ablution blocks, Both local and international organizations were providing several services in Kianda in the absence of the City Council, though none was involved in road network provision. There were few health care facilities in Kianda mostly private clinics. This, compounded with risk factors like unsafe water, poor sanitation and hygiene had contributed to the burden of water borne diseases. Reported cases of ill health included Malaria (39%), Typhoid (26%) and diarrhoea (35%). There fore, for service provision to improve in Kianda, awareness on the dangers of the households' survival mechanisms must be created. This had greatly been caused by the high poverty levels in the slum, which urgently calls for more focused urban poverty reduction policies. There is also the undisputed need to actualise tenure rights in the slum so as to give the households an incentive to negotiate for services from concerned urban authorities. A participatory slum-upgrading programme should also be emphasized, given the inclination of the global world towards participatory development.Item Bird species richness in three fragmented coastal forests, Kwale District-Kenya(2011-08-09) Musila, Nganda Simon; Manohar, Shyam; Mango, NelsonThis research work was conducted in between October 2007-August 2008 in Kaya Gandini Important Bird Area, Kaya Mtswakara and Mwache Forest Reserve, mainly to investigate bird species richness in the three adjacent coastal forests. Three ringing sites harked 200-500m from each other, each with two net lines (60111 (18m x 2, 12m x 2) and (54m (18m x 3) placed at 60111 from one another were used to survey understorey birds in each forest. Canopy birds were surveyed using 22 Timed Species Counts (TSCs) in each forest. Vegetation data was collected within l0m2 plots marked at intervals of 50m from one another and located at 10m perpendicularly away from the footpaths around the ringing sites and TSCs survey routes. 141 bird species were recorded in all sites, with 93, 88 and 91 species respectively recorded in Gandini, Mtswakara and Mwache. 41 bird species types (29% out of 141) were common in each of the three fragments, which represented 44%. 47% and 45% of all species recorded in Gandini, Mwache and Mtswakara respectively. A total of 38 forest birds were recorded in all forests (17 recorded common/overlapping in all sites). with 34 in Gandini and 2 5 in both Mtswakara and Mwache. Four globally threatened birds and 14 East African Coastal Biome Bird Species (EACBs) were recorded in all forests. There was no bird species observed dispersed from one forest to another even though the three sites were connected to each other. 'The habitat structure of three sites was similar even though Gandini and Mtswakara were more similar. Firewood collection, extraction of building poles (5-10cm DBH) for domestic and commercial use in all three forests and quarrying activities in Mwache threatened the survival of birds. Compared to other two forests, Kaya Gandini was the most important site for avifauna conservation because it Was richer in Forest Specialist (FF), Forest Generalist (F), under-storey, globally threatened birds and EACBs species. The three forests were very important sites for avifauna conservation. and due to proximity to each and high number of overlapping forest birds and globally threatened bird species, they should be protected or managed as a single Forest block, because habitat destruction in one fragment will affect bird species richness in the other neighboring forests.Item Boran Pastoral Innovations in Response to Climate Change: a Case of Merti Division, Isiolo County, Kenya(2014-03-10) Aga, Omar Boru Jillo; Koske, James K.A.; Muriuki, J.Pastoralism is the main source of livelihood for Boran community inhabiting Northern Kenya. Over time, they have developed coping strategies aimed at rninimising losses from aridity. Although the strategies may have served the community well in the past, they are presently perceived as inadequate in the light of climate change. This study investigated necessary adjustments in the strategies and innovations among the Boran in Merti Division of Isiolo County. Specific objectives were to investigate innovations by Boran pastoralist' in response to climate change, to find out the main drivers of innovation practices and to establish the relationships between herders' innovation practices, climate change and livelihood strategies Qualitative and quantitative approaches were applied. The target population was 400 from which a random sample of 80 herders was drawn. All the 6 local chiefs and 6 community leaders in the area were also interviewed. Data was collected using semi structured questionnaires and key Informant interviews. The resulting data was coded and statistically analyzed using the statistical package for a social scientist (SPSS). Then the results were analysed, discussed and presented in graphs, pie charts and tables. The results showed that there were main drivers of innovations among Boran pastoralists in Merti Division. They include prolonged droughts, conflicts and invasive species which are linked to climatic changes. There were also response strategies which were found to be improvement in their usual drought coping strategies while others are newly emerging strategies. The innovation practices include agreement between herders and ranchers, livelihood diversification, inter-community negotiations, change in mobility, among others. The study established that 53% of the pastoralists were aged over 40 years while 47% were aged below 40 years though there was no significant difference between the two groups (p=0.092I ). On the period the respondents had worked as pastoralist, the results showed that majority (52%) had worked for more than 9 years while the rest had worked for less than 9 years as pastoralists. Further, the results of the study established that climate change was a key driver of herders led innovation practices. The study established that a unit deterioration of the climate change would lead to an increase in the herders led innovation practices by 4.5 units with this being significant at 5% level of significance (p=O.OOO). On the other hand, livelihood strategies were also to be significantly associated with herder led innovation with a p-value of 0.000. The study concluded that climate change has had an impact on Boran pastoralists' forcing them to improve their existing drought coping mechanisms and adopt newly emerging strategies. Some of the key recommendations are increasing participation of pastoralist in development of pastoral policies, reducing obstacles that hinder pastoral mobility and strengthening of security and peaceful existence in Northern Kenya in order to enhance adaptation to climate change.