PHD-Department of Conflict Resolution And International Relations

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Collective Security Institutions and Stabilization of the Eastern Africa Subregion, 1990-2018
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kibochi, Robert Kariuki; Lucy W. Maina; Felistus Kinyanjui
Despite the existence of Collective Security Institutions (CSIs), the Eastern Africa subregion still experiences resurgent and protracted conflicts and hosts over 4.6 million refugees and 6 million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Between 2013-2020, over 28,000 fatalities were recorded in South Sudan and Somalia while in the last decade, terror attacks accounted for over 5,000 deaths in the subregion. The objectives of the study were to: establish contemporary security threats in the Eastern Africa subregion; analyze the extent to which Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), East Africa Community (EAC) and Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF) have managed the contemporary security threats; examine the extent of contribution of IGAD, EAC and EASF to conflict resolution in Somalia, South Sudan and Burundi and assess the structural and institutional challenges facing the CSIs in pursuit of conflict resolution. The study was guided by Neorealism, Neoliberal Institutionalism and Constructivism theories. A mixed methods research approach incorporating cross sectional survey and phenomenological research designs was adopted. The target population included 638 CSIs staff: IGAD (230), EAC (190), EASF (218) and 210 Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) dealing with peace and conflict. The study sample size comprised 226 staff from the three CSIs, 21 CSO representatives and 138 beneficiaries. Proportionate stratified random sampling procedure was used to identify the sample of strategic, operational and tactical level staff of the CSIs while cluster and purposive sampling techniques were used to obtain CSOs representatives and beneficiaries. Questionnaires, interview schedules and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) guides were used to collect data from the CSIs’ respondents, CSOs interviewees and FGD participants respectively. Content validity procedures were used to ensure instruments’ validity while reliability was tested using Split-Half technique and Cronbach Alpha coefficient. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics aided by SPSS (version 23) while thematic and content analysis were used for the qualitative data set. The study established that a myriad of contemporary security threats among them terrorism, electoral-induced violence, proliferation of SALWs, cybercrime and resource-based conflicts continue to evolve and lead to violent conflicts in the subregion. The three CSIs performed satisfactorily in conflict early warning, early response and capacity building elements of Conflict Prevention Management and Resolution (CPMR). Moderate performance was reported in peace keeping and mediation while poor performance was reported in humanitarian intervention. The CSIs performed poorly in post conflict peace building owing to being under-resourced, existence of weak legal frameworks and impediments attributed to sovereignty concerns. Comparatively, IGAD CPMR rating was higher followed by EASF and EAC with IGAD outperforming the rest in conflict early warning (95%), early response (88%), mediation (72%), peace keeping (86%) and peace enforcement (68%). Under-investment in conflict prevention and post-conflict peace building greatly undermined CSIs’ response to sub-regional conflicts. Structural and institutional challenges such as overlapping mandates, over reliance on donor funding and lack of political commitment to agreed treaties and protocols exist. The study recommends that sub-regional states designate IGAD as the CSI with the overall mandate for peace and security while EAC focuses on regional economic and political integration with EASF being primarily a military-heavy institution providing the security intervention dimension.
Concept of Justice That Shape the Uptake of Judicial Safeguards within Maslaha Processes in Garissa County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Karanja, Joseph Kimaru; MERECIA ANN SIRERA; . JOSEPH WASONGA
Maslaha systems of justice continue to be utilized as mainstream and alternative forums in conflict resolution, adjudication of felonies and minor crimes among communities in North Eastern Kenya. Despite maslaha playing an important role in adjudication of criminal matters through established structures based on customary norms, studies report that their processes are vulnerable to abuse and may lack objectivity. This puts the victims at a disadvantage. Yet, evidence indicate that attempts to entrench safeguards through operationalization of Article 159 of the 2010 Constitution of Kenya in order to uphold fairness indicate varied adherence. Using Critical Procedural theory and Model of Informal Institutional Change, this study sought to identify salient contextual realities and social interests that shape the interpretation and application of norms, process, actors and remedies within maslaha forums. The study was guided by three objectives which were; to examine salient features of maslaha criminal justice process that influence the uptake of regulatory safeguard; to analyze judicial regulative models prioritized for maslaha criminal justice systems; to find out whether operationalization of judicial regulative safeguards was responsive to salient features of maslaha systems of justice. Phenomenological research design was adopted to study concepts of justice constructed from respondents’ experiences and interactions with contextual realties and their implication on the adherence of judicial safeguards. Multi-stage sampling was used to cluster Garissa County according to its administrative units where purposive, snowballing and convenience approaches were used to sample study sites and respondents within customary justice forums, justice practitioners, government administrators, legal officers, human rights and paralegals. Data was collected through interviews and focus group discussion. Critical discourse analysis was used to analyze data. The findings of the study show that the main salient feature in maslaha judicial system were prioritization of social harm, collective responsibility, and communal reconciliation for peaceful coexistence. These were underpinned by contextual realities of clan rivalry that could trigger retaliation, local dilemmas of criminal justice administration, power dynamics between disputing parties and concerns for peace and order respectively. In regards to emerging jurisprudence on operationalization of Article 159, findings of this study show that the main values prioritized were disputant direct participation, autonomy and third-party neutrality. These were operationalized through original jurisdiction, non-related mediator and facilitative intervention strategies. They are expected to enhance objectivity in the process. As regards to responsiveness of the judicial safeguards to the salient justice features, the findings show that operationalization of the safeguards was not accommodative to situations and scenarios when salient features of justice linked with sustenance of social harmony, peace, order and community reconciliation were priced. For example, confining mediators to facilitative roles for objectivity purposes impeded their ability to avert retaliation through evaluative, directive and coercive interventions more so when crimes occur in situations of animosity and distrust among disputants’ clans hence limited compliance. The study also shows that safeguards that promote non-interest related mediators thus displacing elders as mediators were less likely to be complied with since community members found elders to be more persuasive in pushing parties out of stalemates thereby preempting retaliations. The study also found that involvement of state justice institutions through original jurisdiction as a safeguard was limited due to institutional constraints such as complex procedures involved and witness intimidation. Thus, this study concluded that, less attention of judicial safeguards towards salient contextual realities identified affects their compliance within maslaha system of justice. Accordingly, this study recommends the need to carefully blend of regulations and with salient community justice practices.
Dynamics in Internal Security and Community Protection Initiatives in Laikipia County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Macharia, Hannah Muthoni; Hamasi Linnet; Kibaba Makokha
The purpose of this study was to explore the security experiences and the underlying forces that inform these experiences among communities in Laikipia North. In line with the security experiences, community protection measures used to deal with insecurity were examined. The underlying forces informing the use of these initiatives were teased out. The study was guided by three objectives, that were; to establish the underlying forces that informed security experiences among communities in Laikipia North; to examine the nature and forms of community protection initiatives, and to explore the determinants for the use of community protection initiatives. Three theories informed the study securitization theory, Critical Security Studies (CSS), and Theory of State-Society Relations. The study used qualitative approach and phenomenological method. The sample size for the study was 86, and data was collected using semi-structured interviews, focus groups discussions, observations and analysis of relevant secondary sources. Data was analyzed thematically in line with the objectives of the study. The study found out that the meaning of internal security differed from the state interpretation but also varied across communities. Among communities, vernacular language was the matrix from which security was defined. The study also found out there were historical and emerging issues that informed the state of security. To address insecurity, the study established that customary practices and customized practices were primary means of countering security threats. Other initiatives included hybrid systems. The study found out that the use of community protection initiatives was subject to factors such as; community perceptions of security and security agencies, nature of government interventions, bureaucratic weakness, gendering of security as well as societal beliefs of security. The research concluded that the conceptual meaning of internal security was contextual and relational while concept of internal security was misleading. Related to the contextual and relational constructs, were historical, cultural, societal, governance and jurisdiction issues that informed the security experiences. The study further concluded that, teetering of security was part of the security experience in communal conflicts areas with limited stateness. Subsequently, community protection initiatives such as customary and customized practices were the primed sources of protection. Security was also result of community partnership with the state and non-state actors. Preferences for the different approaches were informed by structural, institutional, systematic as well as by state pursuit of objective security. The study recommends that internal security needs to be debunked from purely focusing on security the state as a political entity and issues of crimes (violation of law) to addressing causal and opportunistic factors that hinder the attainment of security-felt needs of communities affected by protracted communal violence.
French Cultural Diplomacy towards Kenya; 1958-2020
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Odhiambo, Onyango Evans; Peter Wafula Wekesa; Susan Mwangi
Cultural diplomacy has become a popular discipline of study in international relations in the post-cold war period. France has a record of accomplishment in its cultural diplomatic engagements since the 19th century. This study contributes to the growing literature on cultural diplomacy in international relations by discussing the French Cultural diplomacy towards Kenya, 1958-2020. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the basis adopted by France in her cultural diplomacy in Africa since 1958, to examine the issues that shaped the evolution of French cultural diplomacy towards Kenya from 1963-1994, to analyse the strategies adopted by France in her cultural diplomacy towards Kenya,1995-2020. The study used soft power and constructivism theories in international relations to discuss the research findings. This study was premised on the assumption that state actors and non-state actors were the dominant agents that promoted French cultural diplomacy in Africa in general and Kenya in particular. The study justification was based on the argument that there is scanty knowledge of French cultural diplomacy in Kenya. The significance of the study was to demonstrate that cultural diplomacy is an effective soft power tool to advance a nation‟s political, economic, and social hegemony. This study used a descriptive and exploratory methodological design. The study employed primary and secondary sources of data. Purposive sampling was used in selecting respondents who participated in the oral interviews and focus group discussions. The researcher observed all ethical considerations. This study established that France used several strategies to institutionalize cultural diplomacy in Kenya. The strategies included; the popularisation of the French language, provision of education to Kenyans in France, exchange programmes targeting different interest groups, development of French electronic and print media in Kenya, promotion of French cuisine, beauty products, and recreational facilities in Kenya and signing of bilateral agreements between France and Kenya. Finally, the study observed that French cultural diplomacy towards Africa in general and Kenya, in particular, created an enabling environment for France to venture into various infrastructural and other business enterprises in the African continent. Thus, cultural diplomacy was a handmaiden of French soft power in Africa.
Gender Transformation in Cattle Rustling and Its Implications on Security Management in West Pokot County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Kimani, Andrew Gitau; Pacificah Okemwa; Casper Masiga
The purpose of this study was to examine gender transformation in cattle rustling and its implications on security management in West Pokot County in Kenya. Insecurity in some sections of Kenya especially the North Rift and North Eastern, has been in the past threatened any meaningful development. Further cattle rustling has metamorphosized from a traditional practice to organized crime where lives are lost and property destroyed; which has negatively impacted people‘s livelihoods and has posed a challenge to security management. The study therefore, sought to establish gender transformation in the practice of cattle rustling and its implication for security management. The study objectives were; to explain the gender transformation in cattle rustling among the Pokot community, to determine the effects of gender relations on cattle rustling among the Pokot community, to assess the effects of transformation in cattle rustling on security management in West Pokot, to evaluate from a gender perspective the strategies put in place to curb cattle rustling in West Pokot County. The study was anchored on Social Cubism Theory and the Harvard analytical framework. The independent variable for the study was gender transformation which included: role of men, gender relations, role of women and changes in identities ; whereas the dependent variable was security management which included: Security apparatus/committees, gender equality in the security composition officers, Law enforcement agencies, disarmament initiatives and reintegration and intervening variables were Kenyan Laws/Penal code ,the two thirds gender rule ,C.o.K (2010) and Mifugo Protocol. The outcome of the variables included: peace, development of infrastructure ,security enhancement, women leadership, high literacy level ,high school transition rate by both boys and girls, alternative and diversified livelihoods. The study involved 350 respondents (210 men and 140 women) selected from adult residents of Pokot community, community elders, opinion leaders, political and administrative leaders, the local youth, women and men as well as local and international NGOs dealing with cattle rustling issues in West Pokot County. Data collection instruments included questionnaires with closed and open-ended questions, key informant interview guide, FGD guide and an observation checklist. Stratified and simple random sampling techniques were used to select men and women who participated in the study. Content and construct validity of research instruments were determined using a pilot study and review of empirical and theoretical literature respectively. The coefficient of internal consistency was used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire. Thematic analysis was used to analyze qualitative data while Descriptive and Inferential statistics were used to analyze quantitative data. The key findings included: cattle rustling was once a cultural activity with structured rules and taboos for both men and women but has now become a murderous criminal endeavor; gender relations have changed over time as a result of cattle rustling; security implications, costs and solutions to cattle rustling do not take into account the impact of gender and hence are ineffective and lastly, some of the strategies applied to curb cattle rustling were fair while a few were considered to be rather extreme. The study concluded that significant changes have taken place in the practice of cattle rustling in West Pokot. Thus, it is no longer a communal practice that ensures the sustenance of the community. Contemporary cattle rustling is a rather radical and disjointed practice that is shunned by both men and women because of its negative consequences. The study recommended that appropriate approaches that involve men and women such as peace talks, enlightenment on contemporary ways of livelihoods to help the Pokot community adopt alternative sources of livelihood. The study also recommends the use of more advanced technologies to enable cattle identification and tracking, sensitization on laws criminalizing cattle rustling and ensuring full-scale prosecution of its actors. Finally, the study gave a suggestion for further studies on cattle jacking as an emerging security concern in the region.
Interagency operational dynamics and collaborative disaster management in Nairobi city county, Kenya
(Kenyatta university, 2023) Zakayo, Chris Ndunda
The increasing frequency and severity of disasters is a global security concern which has led to adoption of new disaster management tools embracing collaborative disaster management (CDM). However, to achieve effective collaboration, there is need to understand how the dynamics involved interact and influence collaborative arrangements. Interagency Agency Operational Dynamics (IAOD) which influences CDM includes Organizational Dynamics (OD), Human Dynamics (HD) and Process Dynamics (PD). The study sought to assess the influence of IAOD on CDM in Nairobi City County (NCC), Kenya and specifically assessed the influence of OD, HD and PD on the effectiveness of CDM. The study was anchored on resource dependence theory, social capital theory and institutional collective action theory, it employed both cross sectional survey and phenomenological research designs. Target population was 3045 persons working with disaster management agencies in NCC and a sample size of 317 was selected where senior DMAs were purposively sampled, stratified sampling and simple random sampling was applied to select junior respondents. Data collection instruments used in the study were questionnaires and key informant interview guide. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistical procedures and inferential analysis specifically linear regression. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically. Findings of the study revealed that there is a significant positive relationship between IAOD and CDM where a correlation coefficient (R) of R=0.326 was obtained, this implied that IAOD influences CDM performance fairly with a strength level of 32.6%. Coefficient of determination (R2) was R2= 0.106: P= 0.00, this implies that 10.6% of variability in CDM is explained by IAOD. As regards influence of specific dynamics on CDM, the study revealed that a correlation coefficient of r =0.203; P= 0.001 was established for OD on CDM, this implies that OD contribute 20.3% of the outcome, for HD and CDM a correlation coefficient r = 0.288; P = 0.000 was established, an indication that HD contributes 28.8 % of outcome while for PD on CDM, a regression coefficient r = 0.191; P= 0.002 was established, an implication the contribution of PD to CDM is 19.1%. From the findings, HD had the greatest influence on CDM compared to other dynamics. The study concludes that managing diversities as a result of inevitable differences in agency cultures, structures, procedures, beliefs, values and philosophies is key to achieving successful collaboration. Regular interactions between agencies create an understanding of each other’s strengths, weaknesses, cultivate trust and help in forming and expanding CDM networks and that having a single disaster coordinative agency is key as it improves coordination process by minimizing competition over which leader or agency is taking charge during CDM. The study recommends the development of policy to guide CDM by managing diversities, creating opportunities for regular interaction through joint training, workshops and meetings and the creation of a single national coordinative agency to be replicated at all levels to offer effective leadership in CDM.
Marginalization Dynamics and their Implications on National Cohesion in Kenya: Case of Mombasa County
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Oyombra, Ochieng’ George; Joseph Wasonga; Cyprian Kavivya
Peaceful co-existences among various groups in the society is paramount for wellbeing and development. Regional, ethnic and religious inequalities and imbalances have increasingly become sources of tensions and social conflicts in many parts of the world. Marginalization, real or perceived, of certain groups and regions based on their ethnic background, place of origin, religious creed or any other distinctions, breeds hatred, erodes trust, undermines national development and may ultimately escalate into open hostilities thereby undermining national cohesion. The main objective of this study was, thus, to examine the marginalization dynamics and implications on national cohesion in Kenya with a focus on Mombasa County. The specific objectives of the study were to assess how the various communities in Mombasa County conceptualized marginalization; examine the socio-economic indicators of marginalization and their implications on national cohesion; analyse the cultural indicators of marginalization and how they are likely to impede on national cohesion; and to evaluate the implications of political marginalization on national cohesion. The study was carried out in Mombasa County, Kenya. Two theories guided the study: the Relative Deprivation Theory and the Framing Theory. While the Relative Deprivation Theory explains how inequalities among groups and regions are likely to cause conflict and undermine national cohesion in the society, the Framing Theory explains how the societal elites and/or media outlets construct frames around which a narrative is created for group mobilization to violence. The study adopted phenomenological research design using qualitative approach. Non-probability sampling techniques particularly purposive, stratified purposive and snowball techniques were used to obtain study participants from the six sub-counties that form Mombasa County. A total of 65 interviews, 19 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and 7 Key Informants (KII) were conducted. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used in the study. The data collection instruments were semi-structured interview guides and F G D guides. Data collection techniques included interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data was analysed through critical discourse analysis and presented using narratives and verbatim quotations. The study revealed that marginalization of Mombasa County was both a reality and a perception. This could explain the tensions and restlessness that sometimes characterize the relationship between the locals and upcountry immigrants in Mombasa County. Further, the study revealed that even though marginalization was a key concern for Mombasa residents, resentments and tensions that threaten national cohesion are also as a result of relative privilege and reference to some treaties signed during colonial period. The study recommends, among others, equitable sharing of state resources, more decentralization of authority and resources, and enhanced hegemonial exchange in political leadership.
Regime change, police reforms and their implications on human rights practice in Kenya; 1920-2014
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Njiri, Nelson Mugweru; Susan Mwangi; Joseph Wasonga
Historically the police institution has been linked to human rights violations. With the political transformation taking place across the world to change the institutions of governance, reforms in the police institution have been considered in many countries. In Kenya a lot of efforts have been witnessed in an attempt to bring changes in the police institution from independence. However, studies have not adequately addressed the implications of regime change and police reforms on human rights practice in Kenya. This study explored the implications of regime change, police reforms on human rights practice in Kenya from independence. The study’s specific objectives were to examine the emergence and the role of the police force in Kenya from 1920s to 1978, determine the implications of the reforms in the police force on human rights between 1979 and 2002, examine the police reforms during the Kibaki’s administration and their implications on human rights practice up to 2009 and to interrogate the implications of the police reforms enshrined in the 2010 constitution on human rights practice in Kenya up to 2014. A historical design was chosen to guide the study with Lewin’s theory of change, the protest theory and the predictive model chosen as the theoretical underpinning. The specific study groups consisted of the high-ranking serving and retired constabularies, human rights lawyers, members of the community policing, human rights activists and the judiciary, criminal law professors, county government administrators, retired provincial administrators, political detainees and political scientists and former and present politicians in Kenya. Purposive sampling was adopted to select 166 study participants. Data was collected through focused group discussions, document analysis and interview guide. The qualitative data was elaborately analyzed based on the thematic content analysis. The results suggested that successive governments instituted police reforms purposely to adequately equip the police officers to secure the political interest of the political elite. During the Kenyatta administration, several amendments such as the preventive detention act were made but the changes failed to meet the expectation of the Kenyans as acts of human rights violation remained profound. During the Moi administration, there were minimal changes in the police force but increased and unabated human rights violation. The political leadership used the police to consolidate and secure power by infringing on human rights. During the Kibaki administration, instrumental changes in the police force were initiated to bring changes to the police institution. In the 2010 constitutional dispensation new laws were enacted to strengthen the police reforms. However, police brutality, impunity, complicity, extrajudicial and arbitrary executions, corruption and a widening rift between the police officers and the civilians were largely the enduring features of the police institution. The study recommended that reforms should be directed to the legal, economic, electoral and political systems which impact the police operations if meaningful police reforms can be actualized.
Shifts in the European Union’s Aid Strategies towards Kenya, 1976-2015
(kenyatta university, 2023) Gathu, Joseph Ndung’u; Joseph Wasonga; Peter Wafula
This thesis analysed the shifts in the European Union's aid strategies towards Kenya dated 1976 to 2015. It has delved into fractured epochs in the context of the European Union‘s aid interventions to Kenya during the Cold War power configuration, 1976 to 1989; the European Union‘s aid initiatives towards Kenya in the new world order, 1990– 1999; and the character of the European Union‘s aid approaches to Kenya in the evolving international system, 2000-2015. The scope of the study included transitions of European Union‘s aid strategies towards Kenya as a recipient aid developing country. The inquiry made use of rational choice theory. It employed a historical research design. Purposive sampling was adopted to select officials from the European Union Delegation to Kenya, Kenya Foreign Affairs and International Trade Ministry, and Kenya Ministry of National Treasury and Planning, and Kenya Institute of Economic Affairs. Derived data was collected within the study‘s time frame of 1976 to 2015. Primary data was obtained by use of interview schedules, archival sources, European Union, and Government of Kenya official documents. Secondary data was adopted from scholarly publications, including books, journal articles, working papers, and reports from the EU, Kenyan government, and OECD databases. Qualitative methodology was used to scrutinize the collected data. The analytical results were presented thematically in the form of a narrative. The findings, which also serve as complementary scholarly materials, prospectively aim at benefiting policymakers, the Kenyan government, the European Union, and other international actors. The findings of this research revealed that the European Union‘s domestic and external factors from the international system shaped the Union‘s aid strategies towards Kenya in the three epochs scrutinized in this study namely 1976-1989, 1990-1999, and 2000-2015. The necessity to confront long-term issues-in improving lives in developing nations and institutions while working with scarce resources, has pushed foreign assistance to the forefront as a means of facilitating development. Funding to enhance Kenya's well-being as a developing country has arisen as a crucial feature of adjustments in assistance tactics, particularly in the aftermath of repeated development issues. The emphasis on capacity development stems from the conviction that institutional flaws are the primary impediment to social-economic transformation. This means that, in order to be sustainable, development aid must foster local ownership, involvement, institutional building, and respect for local values. The concept of capacity development is a response to prior rational ideas of development that ignored the influence of context and the importance of local ownership. In addition, the research established insights into the alterations to the EU model of funding to African, Caribbean, and Pacific Countries (ACPs), including Kenya, through the European Development Fund (EDF) and EU General Budget Support (GBS). The revelations illustrate how the EU has re-invented its aid strategies to benefit its Member States' interests in Kenya and other Sub-Saharan African countrie
The Use of Intelligence Gathering and Sharing in the Management of Transnational Terrorism in Kenya; 1975 – 2018
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mwangi, Wanderi Simon; Susan Mwangi; Joseph Wasonga
Intelligence gathering and sharing (IG & S) crosscuts all other approaches whether political, economic, legislative or ideological employed to curb transnational terrorism (TT). However, despite Kenya’s efforts to IG & S, transnational terrorism remains a major security threat. This raises the question, is the problem in the institutions, the system or the methods used in IG & S? The central objective of this study therefore was to assess the use of IG & S in the management of TT in Kenya. The research was anchored on four theories: liberalism, realism, constructivism and securitization theories. The research covered diverse categories of informants from various institutions and agencies cross cut by intelligence gathering and sharing in Kenya. These included: security officers from the national police service, members of civil society organizations working in areas of security and human rights, academicians and members of the public. Government officers, members of community policing department and former police reservists were also included. Exploratory research design was applied. An exploratory research design was applied to carry out this study due to its strength in addressing the study problem through an in-depth analysis of issues over time. Based on the design, a historical interrogation approach was applied to interrogate various facets of IG & S and terrorism in Kenya whereby they were chronologically documented, and the changes that have occurred over time analyzed. Purposive sampling and snowballing sampling techniques were used to select a sample size of 113 respondents. Primary data was collected using open and close-ended questionnaires, and interview guide. Data analysis done through mixed analysis method whereby quantitative data was analyzed through descriptive statistics of percentage, mean, standard deviations and frequency. Qualitative data was analyzed through content analysis where themes and or trends were extracted and interpreted in line with the study objectives. The findings revealed that TT has morphed overtime in terms of actors, motives and targets. Initial TT attacks in the country were indirect attacks on U. S and Israel interest but most subsequent attacks have been direct targets to Kenya. The study found that diverse security reforms that have been implemented in the country since independence which have helped to improve IG & S. Major improvements were highlighted to have been streamlined in technology used, training and the information shared. Among the different forms of intelligence, human intelligence and signals intelligence were found to have played the greatest role in containing TT. The study concludes that the question of intelligence being effective or ineffective in curbing transnational terrorism is dependent on the reaction of all security agencies who receive it. Therefore, although TT is still high, effectiveness of IG & S in the country has improved overtime but more needs to be done especially on precision of the target of anticipated attack and timeliness of the intelligence gathered and shared to other security agencies. This is evidenced by numerous incidents of TT thwarted. The study recommends that the ability of terrorists to morph should be met with equal efforts by security forces changing their strategies in gathering and sharing information on terrorism from members of the public. All agencies should continuously go through retooling and capacity building on early warnings. Furthermore, there is need for interagency cooperation in sharing intelligence. Both domestic and foreign agencies involved in intelligence sharing should work together to boost their confidence with each other to enhance their readiness and commitment to share security intelligence.
The Use of Intelligence Gathering and Sharing in the Management of Transnational Terrorism in Kenya; 1975 – 2018
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Wanderi, Simon Mwangi; Susan Mwangi; Joseph Wasonga
Intelligence gathering and sharing (IG & S) crosscuts all other approaches whether political, economic, legislative or ideological employed to curb transnational terrorism (TT). However, despite Kenya’s efforts to IG & S, transnational terrorism remains a major security threat. This raises the question, is the problem in the institutions, the system or the methods used in IG & S? The central objective of this study therefore was to assess the use of IG & S in the management of TT in Kenya. The research was anchored on four theories: liberalism, realism, constructivism and securitization theories. The research covered diverse categories of informants from various institutions and agencies cross cut by intelligence gathering and sharing in Kenya. These included: security officers from the national police service, members of civil society organizations working in areas of security and human rights, academicians and members of the public. Government officers, members of community policing department and former police reservists were also included. Exploratory research design was applied. An exploratory research design was applied to carry out this study due to its strength in addressing the study problem through an in-depth analysis of issues over time. Based on the design, a historical interrogation approach was applied to interrogate various facets of IG & S and terrorism in Kenya whereby they were chronologically documented, and the changes that have occurred over time analyzed. Purposive sampling and snowballing sampling techniques were used to select a sample size of 113 respondents. Primary data was collected using open and close-ended questionnaires, and interview guide. Data analysis done through mixed analysis method whereby quantitative data was analyzed through descriptive statistics of percentage, mean, standard deviations and frequency. Qualitative data was analyzed through content analysis where themes and or trends were extracted and interpreted in line with the study objectives. The findings revealed that TT has morphed overtime in terms of actors, motives and targets. Initial TT attacks in the country were indirect attacks on U. S and Israel interest but most subsequent attacks have been direct targets to Kenya. The study found that diverse security reforms that have been implemented in the country since independence which have helped to improve IG & S. Major improvements were highlighted to have been streamlined in technology used, training and the information shared. Among the different forms of intelligence, human intelligence and signals intelligence were found to have played the greatest role in containing TT. The study concludes that the question of intelligence being effective or ineffective in curbing transnational terrorism is dependent on the reaction of all security agencies who receive it. Therefore, although TT is still high, effectiveness of IG & S in the country has improved overtime but more needs to be done especially on precision of the target of anticipated attack and timeliness of the intelligence gathered and shared to other security agencies. This is evidenced by numerous incidents of TT thwarted. The study recommends that the ability of terrorists to morph should be met with equal efforts by security forces changing their strategies in gathering and sharing information on terrorism from members of the public. All agencies should continuously go through retooling and capacity building on early warnings. Furthermore, there is need for interagency cooperation in sharing intelligence. Both domestic and foreign agencies involved in intelligence sharing should work together to boost their confidence with each other to enhance their readiness and commitment to share security intelligence.

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