RP-Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies
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Item An Anatomy of Violent Crime and Insecurity in Kenya: The Case of Nairobi 1985-1999(CODESRIA, 2001) Gimode, E. A.Item Anthropology in Africa: what future for the historian?(Kenyatta University, 2002) Murunga, G. R.The relationship between anthropology and history has been differentiated by the notion of change. Also, the history of anthropology lends itself to specific people as its object of study- people without history. Its construction as a discipline was imbued from the start with historically - determined white racism. This racism capitalized on the fact that Africa was little known as a historical entity and so the continent was consigned into the realm of a historical anthropology. For long, this form of colonial anthropology has been dominant. One of the main objectives of anthropology in Africa, as distinct from African anthropology, has been to rethink the role of the discipline in Africa and for Africans. A new field of study called historical anthropology has developedfrom this endeavour. This paper raises the central question of whether anthropology and history in Africa have resolved their contradictions in relation to disciplinary peculiarities and methodology. It argues that the notion of change and that of historical explanation define and refine the historians' approach and differentiates historians from anthropologists. It posits that historical anthropology as constructed in some western academies fails to resolve the tension emanating from the differences between the two disciplines. This is in so far as the notion of change is used and also the advantage the historian employs in the methodological approach of historical explanation. It is concluded that the feasibility of a historical anthropology is only tenable if the contradictions between the two disciplines are negotiated and resolved. Whatever vested interests African anthropologists might have in their discipline, after 25 years of hibernation they have been overtaken by events both in Africa and in the North. The deconstruction of anthropology has more or less been done for them by the Northerners and naturally from their point of view.Item Colonial Legacies and Their Implication to Marriage Relations among the Gusii of Kenya (1895-1960)(EANSO, 2023) Orera, NahashonThis paper examines the legacies of colonialism using Abagusii, a community in western Kenya, as a case study. Firstly, the paper briefly summarizes the key aspects of Abagusii marriage relations in pre-colonial society. It then defines colonialism in the context of Gusii and examines the effects of invasion, the spread of western ideals, the influence of western education, and missionary interactions in the highlands. The research also looks at how colonial economic and social policies affected marriage relationships. The main contention made in this essay is that pre-colonial and colonial social-political and economic dynamics, in combination, have shaped and continued marriage ties across time.Item Colonial Roots of Food Shortage in Kenya: The Marginalizaion of the Agikuyu Women’s Indigenous Knowledge System on Food Crop Production(ijlass, 2020-03) Muraya, Martha Wanjiru; Ngare, Lazarus Kinyua; Gathungu, Geofrey King’oriSince pre-colonial period, the Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) on food crop production have played a significant role in enhancing the supply of food in the society. This paper examines the effects of marginalization of Agikuyu Women‟s Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AWIKS) on food supply during the colonial period in Kiambu County of Kenya. This is done to show how the colonial land alienation, commercialized agriculture, and forced labor policies undermined and neglected the AWIKS on food crop production, which contributed to lack of enough food supply in the households. The findings demonstrate that due to intensive land alienation, the Agikuyu women lacked enough productive land for cultivation which led to poor crop harvest, inadequate space for food storage facilities, and increased destruction and spoilage of food crops due to poor storage. The European commercial fast growing high yield food crops were more vulnerable to increased temperatures, low rainfall, and they required high farm inputs and mechanization which were not affordable by the Agikuyu women. The paper concludes that the integration of indigenous knowledge systems and western modern scientific agricultural knowledge systems on food crop production can be an effective way of ensuring food security.Item Congestion, Conflicts and Urban Politics; Understanding the 2017 Post-election Violence in Nairobi Slums.(Edition Consortium publisher, 2022-03) Ondere, PhilipThis article examines the violence that marred the 2017 General elections. Within the post-colonial theoretical context, the article explores the more localized narratives that drive violent skirmishes with specific reference to Nairobi’s sub-spaces, such as the Kawangware slum. Further, the article seeks to explain why the sub-space is vulnerable to violent skirmishes (often ethnic) that accompany divisive elections and the implications of these conflicts for the future of urban politics in Nairobi’s post-colonial space. The overall survey approach and delivery process of this article drew heavily on goodwill data and information from various respondents, majorly slum dwellers, who were randomly sampled. The questionnaires were designed to capture qualitative data on aspects of identity politics, people’s political attitudes and perceptions that drive them to engage in violence before, during and even after elections. In analysing the causes of violence during the electioneering period, it was concluded that political maturity is measured by the degree of public participation and, to be precise, their engagement in political processes. On the other hand, Nairobi’s post-colonial space is plagued with a myriad of challenges, key among them poverty, unemployment and crime. This has precipitated identity politics as a blueprint for preferred politicians, thus making the electoral process a protracted one, exacerbating political uncertainty and endless unrests characterized by violence. This study recommends that urban violence be examined in view of the interactional effects between emerging issues and the existing power holders and governmental agents representing them.Item A Critique of Kenya’s Security Sector Reforms (SSR) in the Fight against Terrorism(International Journal of Science And Research, 2019) Mwangi, Susan Waiyego; Okinda, Albert OchiengThe waning of the Cold War marked a shift in the concept of security from state-centric to the person-centered notion. In addition, this notion aimed at making security more applicable to such emerging threats of the 21st century such as terrorism, poverty and global warming, which present greater threats to humans than interstate wars. One of the major enduring threats in the provision of security has been radicalism and terrorism. In this regard, states have increasingly treated terrorism and terror threats as the single biggest challenges, initiating, in their wake several reforms in the security sector to deal with the challenge. This paper using data from extensive field research spanning three months and literature from various sources, examined the correlation of security sector reforms and global terrorism with a focus on Kenya. The government of Kenya, since the terrorist attack of 1998, has taken various security sector reforms in order to address the existing weaknesses with the national security architecture. These reforms have involved measures of reorganizing security institutions and rewriting of laws to strengthen these institutions in the fight against global terrorism. Despite the fact that many of these reforms have been undertaken and embedded in the current constitution, the threat of terrorism in Kenya remains a reality. Geo-politically, why do terrorists target Kenya? What are the (in)adequacies of existing SSR in curbing terror threats? What more can the government and its partners do in order to curb the threat to radicalization of the youth?Item Development of Human Figure Drawings from Gesture Drawings to Shaded Drawings -Analysis of Selected Drawings by Second Year Students at Kenyatta University(East African Nature and Science Organization, 2022) Kamau, WangoHuman figure drawing or life drawing is a fundamental requirement for all art students. It is applied in all disciplines of art from basic line drawings, to all aspects of design work as well as sketching in painting, sculpture, and ceramics. This paper examines selected work of second year students to determine whether they are able to progress from gesture drawings to developed shaded drawings and achieve this objective within the prescribed unit duration of a semester. The paper also seeks to determine the extent to which observation in life drawing is significant as a formative strategy in helping students create their drawings and whether the drawings created meet the standard of drawing required at University level. Ultimately the purpose of life drawing is to enable the students to confidently engage in other related units where their figure drawing skills are required. The students were required to use pencil for all stages of creating their drawings in order for them to focus on the sequential development. Pencil is a foundational tool and is easy to use and affords the students adequate manoeuvrability both in terms of basic sketching and shading. The use of other media would follow in subsequent related units after the students have achieved the prescribed level of foundational skills. In this series of drawings, the students used a female studio model but also drew each other as temporary or stand-in class models in order to add alternate variety in body shapes, attire and other adornments presented by using both male and female students. This approach to life drawing created an enhanced sense of enjoyment and engagement. This interest and enthusiasm in drawing each other was presumably caused by the fascination with trying to capture each other’s body shape as they already perceive it, since they spend significant time together. The female studio model, however, provided them with the opportunity to visually interact with the specific model without the inherent pressure to produce undistorted drawings as in the case when drawing their colleagues. Both approaches were designed to help the students collectively draw inspirational drawings as well as make the drawing exercises methodical, enjoyable, and purposeful. The drawings were analysed using an analytical framework suitable to the approach applied in this study.Item Ecclesia Anglicana Conference of September 2020: Cooking Anglican ecclesiology in a Kenyan Pot?(Jumuga Journal of Education,Oral Studies, and Human Sciences, 2020) Gathogo, JuliusAsthe first wave of Corona Virus Disease 2019 (Covid-19)was beingexperienced in Kenya since 13 March 2020,when a 27-year-old Kenyan woman became the first person to be diagnosed with it, some Anglicans in Kenya were contrariwiseovercomingthe shock,that went with it, as they undertook nobleintellectual activities. As numbers went on soaring,andassome celebrated artists, scholars, clerics, and other cadres of society became early casualtiesof Covid-19, an Ecclesia Anglicanawas boldly entering the ecclesiastical market-place with new rhythms hitherto unknown in Kenya’s historiography. In other words, atheo-ecclesial creativity was cooking inan African pot, and cooking well from the nethermost depths of the Ocean floor, rather than from thetopstratums. While the revolutionary trigger was set on 6 August 2017, it had to await the worst pandemic since the Spanish Flu of 1918-1919 before it pickedupits momentum. Put it differently, the momentumpickedup astoundingly during Kenya’s Covid-19 lockdown,as two major conferences were successfully held during this chillingmoment. The first major webinars’conference was held on 26 August 2020;while the second one was held on 16 September 2020. Characteristically, the two conferences made a bold attempt at understandingthe Anglican ecclesiology by cooking it from the local resourcesand spiced itupthrough the modern science and technology. Was it a protest against theo-intellectual lockdowncutting across the continent, a phenomenon where a casual observation shows that social and ecclesial leadership has largely attractedthe less intellectually-inclined sons and daughters of the land? Methodologically, this article seeks to explore, and indeed make a survey of Ecclesia Anglicanaand attempt to understand it beyondthe founders’perspectives, after interviews with some of them, and make an informed analysis. Second, this article will attempt to show how Ecclesia Anglicanais usheringina new rhythm,as it beats the drums of science and technology, modern communicationand social mediaplatforms,and hopefullychange the status quo for the better. It appears that nothing will slow down this rapid tempo; for if the pandemic has not, what else can do so?Third, the article will focus more on the 16 September 2020 webinar conference which, in my view, was the most climactic moment for Ecclesia Anglicanasince 2017 when the idea was mooted and subsequently released to the public squarefor broaderconsumption.Will Ecclesia Anglicanahelp in buildinga more informed and/oran intellectually engaging Kenyan Anglican society?Item Emerging Africa: How 17 Countries are Leading the Way by Steven Radelet. Washington, DC: Center for Global Development, 2010.(Wiley Periodicals, Inc, 2012-10) Kiruthu, Felix MachariaItem Environmental Reconstructions in the Upper Tana region, Kenya(JJEOSHS, 2020) Ngari, Lazarus KinyuaThis article sets out to unravel aspects of environmental changes in the Upper Tana during the second millennium AD. This aspect has not been adequately addressed in the Upper Tana. This makes it clear that a lacuna exists in the study of communities of the Upper Tana and the way they interact with their environment in the past and present times. The objective of this article is to evaluate the relationship between human activities and environmental change in the Upper Tana from AD 1000 to 1950. It is hypothesized that the advent of iron technology and its attendant economic activities led to the depletion of indigenous forests and the general environmental degradation. The article has employed archaeological, ethnographic, oral and historical methodologies to gather data on vegetation change in the Upper Tana and other related regions. It argues that livestock grazing, iron smelting, slush and burn agriculture, and the clearing of forests for housing are key contributors to vegetation change in the Upper Tana. Results from oral reconstruction of the past vegetation of the area, and using the plant succession theory, shows that the lowland area of the Upper Tana is actually savannah with scattered trees probably inhabited by grazers. It is posited that the above factors, together with persistent droughts have altered the vegetation cover of the area. What we have today is colonization of less desirable stunted growth. The theory advanced here is that the vegetation change has been a result of human activities. Overwhelmingly, results the study that the researcher carried out, showed that the causes of these changes have been socio-economically associated with the expansion of agricultural communities into the area; rather than through climatic factors. Colonisation and other forces of modernisation have also contributed to the underlying problem. The article concludes that anthropogenic factors have greatly contributed to environmental change in the upper Tana. Certainly, environmental change is a global phenomenon that has elicited research interests due to its negative impacts on human population. It is recommended that knowledge of environmental change in the past should be used to extrapolate modern environmental challenges affecting African ecosystems.Item Ethical Practices For Effective Leadership: Fact Or Fallacy-The Kenyan Experience(KCA Journal of Business Managementt, 2009) Minja, D.M.The subject of ethics in Kenya has been a hot one for the last few years. The country has witnessed some of the worst corruption scandals in her history since independence. Even with the establishment of the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission, the situation has not improved. This article tries to argue that laws alone cannot ‘convert’ the society that has developed and perfected the art of unethical practices. A new way of thinking is necessary that will involve and empower everyone to start thinking and behaving in an ethical way. I have in this article developed a model which can be used to transform societies. Several recommendations applicable not only to the Kenyan society but any other society that desires to transform its people into ethically responsible people has been made. Among the main recommendations is the adoption of a systemic approach to dealing with unethical practices as opposed to only a legalistic approach. In addition, the work of transformation begins with leaders who in turn mentor others to produce the desired behaviour. Hiring a person responsible for overseeing issues of ethics won’t do the job until everyone is involved. It is for that reason that I have adopted the systems approach in handling this challenge. The adoption of the proposed model will offer assistance to those who desire to influence their societies to be ethically responsible. In the light of this argument, ethical leadership can be a fact and not a fallacy.Item Gender and Sports: Historical and Contemporary Perspective of Women in Kenyan Sports(ajhg, 2022) Kimaiyo, Lorna Jepkoech; Wekesa, Peter WafulaFor decades, Kenyans have dominated world athletics, especially in middle and long-distance races. From the middle of the twentieth century, Kenyans were already gaining international recognition on the world stage. However, the dominance of men in sports was clearly apparent. The gender gap at that time was huge with only a handful of women participants. This paper on the exploration of women and sports participation in Kenya is twofold: it examines the genesis of gender disparities in the participation of women in sports in pre-colonial and colonial Kenya and what changes led to a reduction in those discrepancies in the post-colonial period. This paper argues that cultural limitations in different African societies and colonial policies which were highly patriarchal inhibited women’s participation in athletics during the pre-colonial and colonial periods. Nevertheless, from the 1990s, the number of women started to increase significantly in different sporting spheres including athletics. This is attributed to positive change in advocacy, formal education, and inclusivity through government policies that gave women a better platform to excel in sports and athletics in general. The increase in institutions that acted as nurturing areas for sports such as schools’ incorporation of women in the disciplined forces, among others was instrumental in giving them an opportunity and resources to engage in various sporting activities just like their male counterparts. The study was informed by the patriarchal and feminist ideology theories to explain the gender issue in sports. In methodology, the paper uses primary sources of data, mainly oral interviews, focus group discussions, and archival materials, as well as secondary sources to explain the representation of women in Kenyan sportsItem The Genesis of Land-Based Violence in Mt. Elgon from the Precolonial Period to the Postcolonial Period(JHCS, 2024) Ndiema, Kiptoch William; Wekesa, Wafula; Oduor, IsaiahThis study traces the genesis of land-based conflicts in Mt. Elgon from the precolonial period to the postcolonial period. This research was conducted in Mount Elgon Sub County in Kapsokwony, Kaptama, Kopsiro, and Cheptais. This research utilised primary as well as secondary sources of data. Secondary data was procured from Kenyatta University Library, among other libraries. Primary data was collected from the Kenya National Archives as well as from oral sources through interviewing the identified respondents in the field. Data instruments that were used include questionnaires and question guides. The procedures employed in collecting primary data included in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions. The primary oral data was analysed by first translating oral interviews from the Sabaot language to English, grouping data according to the objectives, and verifying any possible contradicting information. After that, the data was coroborated with archival and secondary data and then presented through descriptive narratives. The families in the Mount Elgon area faced several difficulties, which called for the government to handle the issues, which undermined the significance of peace in the region. This study concludes that the land issue and the emergence of the Sabaot Land Defense Force in Mount Elgon, Bungoma, dates back to the pre-colonial and post-colonial periods and the postcolonial Government's inefficiency. The colonial Government's land ordinances, laws, and concessions played a significant part in the challenges facing the land issues in Kenya.Item A Global Mennonite History: Volume One: Africa(American Society of Church History, 2005-06) Gimode, E. A.Item A History of Social Exclusion and Poverty of the Thagichu of Igembe Sub - County, Meru County from 1907 To 1962(ISO 9001:2015 Certified Publishing Group, 2016) Kithinji, Caroline Mucece; Okelo, David O; Muriungi, Colomba KaburiThis study is on social exclusion and poverty of the Thagichu of Igembe Sub - County, Meru County in Kenya from 1907 to1962.The study traces the history of social exclusion of the Thagichu from the colonial epoch of the years1907 to 1962. Kenyan Government strategies towards alleviation of social exclusion and poverty between 2013 1nd 2015 are also explored.The study was guided by the theories of Underdevelopment, Materialistic Conception of History and Social Darwinism. The study employed the descriptive research design. Data was collected from oral, archival and secondary sources. A total of 50 people were purposively sampled and interviewed. Data from oral sources was corroborated with data from archival and secondary sources. The major findings of this research are that the Thagichu have been socially excluded by the colonial Government. This exclusion was noted in inadequate infrastructure like roads, schools, hospitals and lack of access to social services like banks compared to other areas of Meru County. The study also established that the government has come up with strategies that could help in tackling social exclusion and poverty of the Thagichu. Such strategies are building more educational facilities, provision of free primary and day secondary education, adult and continuing education, non-formal education and provision of educational funds through the constituency development fund and Affirmative Action Social Development Fund. Other strategies aimed at poverty alleviation are establishment of road networks, land adjudication, presence of NGOs, provision of formal employment, Health facilities, growth of an urban centre and Provision of electricity. This study has contributed to the Thagichu historiographyItem Household Income and Linda Mama Maternal Healthcare Cover Uptake in Mukuru Slums in Nairobi City County – Kenya(INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS OF ACADEMICS & RESEARCH, 2023-10) Wambua, Ruth; Kaviku, Benjamin K.The low utilization of maternal health care coverage in sub-Saharan Africa is a pressing concern, as it impacts the well-being of mothers and children and the reduction of maternal morbidity and mortality. Despite recognizing the critical role of insurance in risk management, there is limited uptake, necessitating swift policy interventions. This study investigates the influence of household income on the adoption of Linda Mama maternal healthcare coverage in Nairobi's Mukuru slums, guided by the Cumulative Prospect Theory. Using a descriptive research design and stratified random sampling, data were collected from 230 individuals, including county health executives, health directors, community health workers, and expectant women aged 18-49 living in Mukuru Slums, out of a possible target population of 524. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for data analysis. The study found a significant positive correlation between household income and the uptake of Linda Mama maternal healthcare coverage in Mukuru slums. Consequently, the study recommends that policymakers take action to alleviate financial constraints for low-income households, with the aim of increasing the utilization of the Linda Mama program among vulnerable populations in Mukuru slums. This intervention would contribute to improving maternal and child health outcomes in the region, addressing the perplexing issue of low maternal healthcare coverage in sub Saharan Africa.Item The Impact of Colonial Policies on the Waata People of Kilifi County, Kenya, 1895-1963.(enso, 2021-12) Wambua, Cyprian Kioko; Wekesa, Peter Wafula; Mwangi, SusanThe Waata community is among the indigenous Kenyan communities whose social, political, and economic organization has not been adequately studied. The objective of the study was to examine the impact of colonial policies on the history of the Waata people of Kilifi County in the period 1895-1963. The study was guided by the cultural interaction and identity formation theory. The study was conducted using the descriptive research design which offered a chronology of events as they unfolded over time. A qualitative approach was significant because it allowed an in-depth collection of data to ascertain the attitudes, feelings, and opinions concerning the theme under study. The study site was Kilifi County. The study targeted both males and females above 18 years within Kilifi County who were knowledgeable about the existence of the Waata people. Purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were used to select the sample for the study. One hundred and twenty-two participants were interviewed. The study used both primary and secondary data. Primary data was derived from the one-on-one interaction with participants using interview schedules and Key Informant Interviews, oral interviews, and focus group discussions. Question guides and questionnaires with open-ended responses were also used. Secondary data was obtained from critical analysis of books, articles, papers, thesis, and dissertations. Additionally, archival sources, particularly colonial documents, annual reports, correspondents, letters, diaries, and political record books related to the area under study were consulted. The findings of the study revealed that colonial policies impacted significantly on the history of the Waata forcing them to adapt to different lifestyles in order to survive cultural extinction. This adaptation was informed by the colonial labelling of traditional hunting communities like the Waata as poachers and the progressive government efforts to stop them from their traditional source of livelihood as well as their eviction from their indigenous habitats and creation of National ParksItem The impact of globalization on African countries economic development(African Journal of Business Management, 2012-11) Nguhi, S.; Wenjing, W.; Rongcheng, W.; Ayenagbo, K.; Kimatu, J. N.; Makse, P. J.The term globalization captures the attention of everyone and especially economic development researchers. However, despite the prior prosperity promises of globalization and the benefits of an information accessing society, the afterwards benefits have not been universal and global inequality has increased instead. Some studies show that globalization has widened the gap between rich and poor countries in its relentless progression while others are unclear about its effect. Although the idea of globalization had gradually been developed since the Second World War, its impact gained momentum in the early 1990s; Africa has not been spared from the implications of this phenomenon. We used the KOF Globalization Index with a special bias on African countries. The purpose of this article is to examine the progressive position of Africa in the global economy and highlight key sustainable approaches which African countries can adopt as economic development priorities as it fits into a globalized economy. However, the losses could be higher for African countries or less depending on its approach. African governments’ policies should be designed systematically so as to balance between its current low economic status, its political teething problems and the pressures to catch up and fit into the inevitable globalization trends. This would minimize the economic marginalization of Africa and increase it utilization of its raw materials and human resources.Item Land and the Rise of Sabaot Land Defence Force from 1991 to 2010(JPIS, 2024-02) Ndiema, Kiptoch William; Wekesa, Wafula; Oduor, IsaiahThis research sought to assess the connection between land and the rise of the Sabaot Land Defence Force. This research was conducted in Mount Elgon Sub-county in Kapsokwony, Kaptama, Kopsiro, and Cheptais. This research utilised primary as well as secondary sources of data. Secondary data was procured from Kenyatta University Library, among other libraries. Primary data was gathered from the Kenya National Archives as well as from oral sources through interviewing the identified respondents in the field. Data instruments that were used include questionnaires and question guides. The procedures employed in collecting primary data included in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions. The primary oral data was analysed by first translating oral interviews from the Sabaot language to English, grouping data according to the objectives, and verifying any possible contradicting information. After that, the data was corroborated with archival and secondary data and then presented through descriptive narratives. The study identified the causes of SLDF as land scarcity, land as a birth right, leadership structure of SLDF for land claims, injustice on land leading to a sentiment of marginalisation and deplorable state presence in the region, the proliferation of weapons aiding in land protection, and finally collusion of politicians as well as government officials who had an interest in land. In conclusion, the research identified factors such as land scarcity, marginalisation, and inter-clan conflicts as the main reasons for the Sabaot Land Defence Force's emergence and rise among the people of Mount Elgon. This study recommends that the government should play a key role in dealing with land conflicts before they become a major issue leading to militia groups' formation in the future.Item Land, labour and capital in Natal: The Natal Land and Colonisation Company 1860–19481(Cambridge University Press, 1975-04) Slater, H.The history of the London-based Natal Land and Colonisation Company is explored against the background of the evolving political economy of rural Natal. In the early years of the colony, white-controlled farming operations consistently failed. The landholdings of bankrupt colonists passed into the hands of a small group of men with capital. In 1861 this group activated its links with financiers in Britain to float the Natal Land and Colonisation Company. The Company ‘bought’ 250,000 acres of surplus lands from them in return for an injection of metropolitan capital into productive operations to be carried out on the remaining mainly coastal lands, or into further speculative activity. In fact, white-controlled farming activity in the interior continued to stagnate. Money which the Company loaned to white farmers in the 1860s, secured as mortgages on their farms, was not repaid, and the Company took over the lands of the bankrupt until in 1874 it controlled 657,000 acres in Natal. Anxious for a sizeable and more reliable source of income, the Company, in common with some colonists, concentrated on extracting rent from Africans, as yet the only successful farming population of the Natal interior. The increasing importance of this source of income to the Company was rudely interrupted in the 1890s by a fundamental shift in the Natal political economy. New mining centres in South Africa looked to Natal to furnish some of their needs for raw material and labour. The balance of economic and political forces favoured those who demanded labour, not rent, from Natal Africans. The Company switched its capital in good time out of renting land to African farmers and into renting and property development in the growing urban areas of white South Africa. Its properties were brought within the empire of the Eagle Star Insurance Company in 1948.