PHD-Department of Environmental Education

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Adaptation and Coping Strategies to Climate Variability among Small-Scale Farmers in Arid and Semi-Arid Agro-Ecological Zones of Laikipia County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Ndichu, Gitau D.; Cecilia Gichuki; Richard Kerich
Climate variability as expressed by droughts, heavy rainfall, flooding, intense temperatures, hail storms and cyclones pose a major threat to small-scale crop farmers. Arid and semi-arid regions are known to have hot and dry climate with low and erratic rainfall that varies widely both in spatial and temporal parameters. Unpredictable seasons have been exacerbating the perennial uncertainty of farmers in most parts of ASALs where subsistence farming is practiced. This study aimed at delineating the adaptation and mitigation strategies applied by small-scale farmers in Laikipia County due to climate variability. The research sample population was drawn from the agro-ecological zones which are determined by the climatic parameter patterns. The sample size was determined systematically using probability proportion to size sampling method. Questionnaires were administered in randomly sampled households in five arid and semi-arid regions, namely; Salama, Rumuruti, Ol Moran, Mukogondo and Ngobit which experience frequent drought related challenges. An interview schedule was prepared and administered to local leaders. Rainfall and temperature data from the Kenya Meteorological department between 1970 -2018 were obtained to gather further information on climate variability in Laikipia County. The quantitative data collected were then analysed using descriptive statistic and presented in charts, tables and graphs. The qualitative data at household level were collected through focused group discussions, key informant interviews, and observations and were analysed thematically according to the set objectives of the study. More secondary data were derived from a review of existing literature and records from relevant institutions.These data were then analysed using statistical Package for social Sciences (SPSS Version 22.0) Computer programme to generate descriptive statistics like frequency, mean, percentage and standard deviation. The results showed that, over the years (1970 – 2018), there was a decline in the precipitation in Laikipia County with an R2 value of 0.76%. During the same period, the maximum temperature tended to increase with R2 value of 17.41% .The average minimum monthly temperature also increased, R2 value of 14.24%. Further, the perception of the farmers was sought using multivariate probit model (MVP). The results indicated that 92.3% had perceived changes in climate.Further,54.5% had noted that the rainfall was receding while 76.0% had noted an increase in temperature. The MVP model showed that crops production had declined and seasons changed. The study showed that the small scale farmers had varied adaptation strategies depending on; their locality, climate, topography and availability of resources for both on-farm and off-farm. Among the adaptation strategies employed by the farmers included use of drought resistant crops at 4.72%, irrigation along the riparian areas at 11.6%.Others provided labour to the green house farms at 23% and reducing their livestock at 8.6% . The study recommended that the small-scale farmers need to be supplied with water, certified seeds and technical assistance from Agricultural extension officers. Farmers reported several barriers in the implementation of adaptation strategies that included; accessibility to seed varieties, lack of skilled labor, advanced farm implements, climate change information, and capacity to learn and apply techniques in their daily practice. The information gathered from the study was intended to improve the social capacity of the small-scale crop farmers in addressing adaptation strategies and the policy/decision makers to formulate policies aimed at addressing the challenges faced in Laikipia and ASAL regions.
Adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices among Small Scale Farmers of Kitutu and Nyaribari Chache in Kisii County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2017-11) Wamalwa, Isaac Wafula
Climate variability and change has caused instability in production and decline in productivity exacerbating food insecurity particularly in Latin America, Africa including Kenya and some parts of Asia. The magnitude and frequency of extreme climatic events is projected to increase. The effects of these climatic changes will become even more pronounced among small scale farmers whose farming activities are weather dependent and vulnerable to climate change, and already affected by environmental degradation and socio-economic risks. Effective adaptation to climate change among small scale farmers is therefore of critical importance, and is dependent on adoption of climate smart practices. However, studies have shown low adoption of climate smart farming practices among small scale farmers world over, in Kenya and Kisii county. This study therefore examined factors influencing adoption of climate smart practices among farmers of Kitutu and Nyaribari Chache in Kisii County, evaluated their existing knowledge, attitude and practice of these practices, assessed their perception of climate change, examined the extent of climate information dissemination, and the resultant impact on uptake of these practices. The research adopted a survey research design, where both quantitative and qualitative research strategies were used. Data was gathered through Focus Group Discussions, questionnaires, key informant interviews, observations and desk review. Both simple random and purposive sampling were used to sample 420 small scale farmers and technical officers of the agriculture sector respectively. Data was analysed using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. To test the statistical significance of the findings and relationships between the variables, chi-square test was used. The study revealed low (23.3%) access to weather and climate information, but growing (63.1%) awareness of climate change problem as evidenced by increase in temperature (48.1%), change in rainfall patterns (24.3%), emerging new strains of diseases and pests (40.7%), and decline in production (47%) for over 3 decades. The study further showed an emerging need (74%) for adoption of climate smart practices. The findings also revealed high awareness (66%) and positive attitude (84.5%) of farmers towards climate smart practices, but exhibited low knowledge (15%) and adoption (59.2% - 1.9%) of these practices. The low adoption was shown to be as a result of low diversification of income sources (86%), lack of awareness of available policy provisions (75%), lack of knowledge (85%), financial limitations (64.3%), low access to weather and climate information (76.7%), inadequate extension services (47.5%), dysfunctional farmer groups and weak policy framework. Besides the influence of perceived characteristics of climate smart practices, adoption of climate smart practices was shown to be enhanced by higher income level (P =0.028), educational level (P =0.028), size of the farm (P= 0.0), farming experience (P=0.002), knowledge of the practices (P=0.0), weather and climate information (P=0.0) based on chi-square test results, which were within the significant level (p < 0.05). The study concluded that, while there was an emerging appreciation of climate change problem and need for adoption of climate smart practices, their adoption was mainly constrained by weak legal and policy framework, financial setbacks, limited climate information and knowledge of climate smart practices. The study therefore recommends up scaling of climate and weather information sharing, promotion of skill and knowledge of climate smart practices, development of sound policy and legal framework, and mobilization of funds
Climate Variability Risk Perception on Rainfed Agricultural Practices among Small-Scale Farmers in Embu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Adiel, Ruth Kangai; James Koske; Evelyn Chitechi Wemali
Agricultural productivity is a function of climate variability and its associated impact on farming practices and farmers’ adaptive capacity. Small-scale farmers in the study area have involuntarily engaged in climate variability adaptation mechanisms. This study was instigated to assess the extent of variation in temperature and rainfall, analyze the economic impact of climate variability on crop and livestock production, examine climate variability risk perceptions, adaptation mechanisms and how they influence rainfed agricultural practices, determine farmer and farm characteristics that influence climate variability perceptions and adaptation, and assess the effectiveness of institutions and information channels in facilitating climate variability adaptation mechanisms and risk perception. The research design involved a descriptive survey that allowed the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. The sampling procedure involved a multi-stage sampling procedure to obtain 411 respondents, purposive sampling for 10 key informants, and quota sampling techniques to select 5 focus groups. Data were analyzed by the use of descriptive statistics, the Mann Kendall test, Logit regression, chi-square, Likert scale analysis, and the use of variables produced through the Ricardian model and Heckman approach. Results show that there is climate variability and the rise in maximum temperature and rainfall variability are significant at P<0.002 with a 0.02ºC increase in temperatures and a 10.2mm decline in rainfall amount per year. Economic impact on crop and livestock production indicated that temperature rise affects crop net revenue negatively and that of mixed farming positively respectively at p≤0.05. Apart from climate variability, other factors were found to influence the net revenue of the three sectors such as distance to the market centers, size of land under cultivation, level of education, and soil fertility. The farmers perceived climate variability as real. The perception was expressed in terms of extreme changes in both rainfall and temperatures. The majority (85.4%) observed the outbreak of crop pests and diseases as a result of climate variability. Whereas 97.6% of the respondents perceived that training and extension services would minimize the negative impact of climate variability on agricultural practices. However, 86.4% attributed the failure to the adaptation of climate change to inadequate time. Perception and adaptation were influenced by gender, social networks, education, extension services, land size, and age. Both formal and informal institutions exist in the study area and among the formal institution cooperative societies were the most influential in the adaptation of climate variability while Departments of Agriculture and Livestock Development were more likely to influence small-scale farmers on climate variability risk perception. Access to credit and extension services were more likely to attract farmers to membership in informal institutions. However, only formal institutions were significant (P≤0.05) in improving farmers' perception and adaptation to climatic variability. Five information channels namely, farmer to farmer, agro Vets, radio, lifetime experience, and school knowledge were more likely to influence farmers’ perception and adaptation mechanisms. This study concludes that there is climate variability which leads to an economic impact on agricultural practices and adaptive capacity is influenced by climate change risk perceptions, institutions, and the dissemination of information. This study recommends that the Department of livestock and that of Agriculture continuously provide climate-related information for effective risk perception and adaptation to climate change by small-scale farmers.
Contribution of cultivated African indigenous vegetables to agro-biodiversity conservation and community livelihood in Mumias sugar belt, Kenya
(2014) Wemali, Everlyn Nambiri Chitechi
Worldwide, agricultural activity causes great concern to conservation of natural biodiversity. In Kenya, agricultural expansion into natural habitats continues unabated, thus posing a threat to biodiversity. Research into the rate of loss of biodiversity and regain through agro-biodiversity practices are largely lacking. This study was carried out to examine how cultivation of African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) have contributed to agro-biodiversity conservation and enhanced community livelihood in Mumias sugar belt area of Kenya. The study set out to specifically isolate and analyse factors that promote cultivation and consumption of AIVs, determine the contribution of cultivated AIVs to community livelihood, assess indigenous knowledge (IK) that has sustained cultivation of AIVs and evaluate opportunities and challenges that exist in consumption and cultivation of AIVs. This study adopted a descriptive research design. It used 392 individuals sampled from sugarcane out-growers of the Mumias Sugar Company. Key informant interviews, structured questionnaires, checklist and Focused Group Discussions were used to collect data. The resulting data was statistically analysed, discussed and presented in graphs, tables and charts. Further, species diversity was determined using the Shannon–Weaver Diversity Index (SDI). From the resulting analysis, it was noted that farmers contribute to agro-biodiversity conservation by cultivation of 10 AIV species and by preserving genetic material in the cultivated AIVs. The vegetables cultivated were: C. olitorius, V. unguiculata, G. gynandra, C. maxima, C. brevidens, C. ochroleuca, B. junceae, S. nigrum, A. hybridus and A. lividus. Cowpeas were cultivated by 83.1% of respondents compared to African kales cultivated by only 2.4%. The highest SDI was 1.85 in Lubinu sub-location and the lowest was 0.69 in Bukaya sub-location. The types of cultivated vegetables were predicted from previous year data by the relationship: y = 1.048 + 0.368x. Factor analysis isolated five factors that motivated cultivation of AIVs: financial gains, diversification, household size to land-size ratio, availability of land and seeds, and vegetable sufficiency. There was a positive correlation between household size and cost of vegetables as explained by regression model: y = 2.432 + 0.162x. This study observed that AIVs contribute to livelihood of households through increased food security, diversification of sources of income and provision of sustainable natural resource base. Indigenous knowledge is important in sustenance of AIV cultivation. Cowpeas and pumpkin leaves are most preferred. The vegetables on decline are spider plant, bitter slender leaf, African kales and nightshades. Primary factors underlying the decline include scarcity of seeds, scarcity of land and divergent attitude. Challenges facing production of vegetables are intermittent production, market, drought, pests and access to seeds. Opportunities in production of AIVs are education, medicinal potential and preparation time reduction techniques. The study concluded that cultivation of AIVs conserves, sustains and improves biodiversity and livelihoods. It recommends inclusion of teaching of AIVs in formal and non-formal education curricula, creation of awareness through special days, development of county seed banks, and feeding program initiatives that incorporate AIVs.
A decision support system for the management of biodiversity resources in Kenya: a case study from Kenya Wildlife Service
(2012-02-06) Amuyunzu, Charles Lwenya
Throughout the world, environmental problems resulting from human activities are causing great concern to environmental scientists and the general public. Although many of the human activities that contribute to these problems are localized, the repercussions are felt not only at the local level but also at the regional, national, supra-regional, continental and global levels. Concern about many of these problems was first expressed in the late 1960s and culminated in the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm in 1972 that led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). However, it took another 21 years to formalize the international legitimacy of these issues, which found its expression in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, and its Agenda 21-an agreement that was signed by many heads of state. Loss of biodiversity is one such problem. Over the last two decades, there has been general agreement that global biological resources are declining at an accelerated rate, mainly through species extinction. Concern for the loss of biodiversity in Kenya has resulted in a number of government policy initiatives that address the problem. The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) has been given the mandate to conserve the existing biodiversity resources in the country. Decisions related to biodiversity conservation are made at three levels: national, regional and local levels, each of which requires different levels of abstraction of information. Although the different decisions made at each level generally require specific information, similar data acquisition procedures are needed at all levels (ground truth, airborne and satellite data). Because collection of data on biodiversity resources can be very costly, a large organization like KWS needs to restrict acquisition to those data items that are essential for information to support biodiversity conservation decisions and to ensure consistency in the use of data and subsequently derived information. Research to determine how this can be accomplished was the main focus of this study and Tsavo ecosystem was used as a case study. This study was designed to define, develop and test a prototype of such a decision-support system for management of biodiversity resources on a sustainable basis. This study applied existing system analysis and information system development methodologies, tools, and techniques to develop a prototype decision support system for management of biodiversity resources in Kenya. This system has been tested using two case studies from the Tsavo Ecosystem. Results from the case studies show that modern information technology concepts and theories can be modified to provide a powerful tool for effective and efficient management of biodiversity resources on a sustainable basis. The prototype should now be tested and implemented in the whole Kenya Wildlife Service Organization.
Effect of Cuscuta Species (Dodder) on Urban Ornamental Plants in Mombasa County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Ngare, Innocent Osoro; James Koske; John Muriuki
Dodders are annual parasitic plants that reproduce by seeds and do not have leaves that parasitize different plant species across the globe. These holoparasites forage on a variety of plant hosts by sucking nutrients through vascular bundle interaction of haustorium activity. Dodders threaten the survival of plant hosts in Kenya, ranging from trees, shrubs and herbaceous that some are grown as ornamentals. This study was carried in Mombasa to assess the effects of dodder on urban ornamental plants in the coastal urban region. The following objectives guided the study: to identify dodder morphological and anatomical characteristics; to determine the effect of temperature and rainfall on dodder infestation; to assess the effects of dodder on urban ornamental plants and to examine the perceptions of urban household heads on the spread and control of dodder in Mombasa County. This study used a mixed-method research design where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. In the study, different sampling techniques were used; snowballing, purposive sampling, stratified sampling, and random in the study. A total of 382 respondents were sampled. Questionnaires were used to obtain primary data attaining Cronbach’s Alpha reliability index of 0.72%. Secondary data was obtained from the Kenya Metrological Department and relevant published peer-reviewed articles. Data analysis and interpretation was done by the Statistical Package of Social Sciences, analysis of variance, laboratory microscopic pictorial and micrograph observations, and thematic content analysis. Dodders are androgynous angiosperms with both pistil and stamen reproductive structures. Observational microscopic and anatomical dodder demonstrate numerous productions of seed capsules, each containing a single seed, with hairy stems that are environmentally sensitive to wind direction to identify the immediate host through the haustorium. Dodder undergoes three haustorium phases to establish host vascular bundle interaction – the adhesive, intrusive and conductive phase. When dodders intertwine, they parasitize their own stems, revealing an intraspecific trait. Mombasa (1989–2019) experienced climate variability, with a maximum temperature of t=-5.628, =23, P:0.000 and a minimum temperature of t=-5.401, df:23, P:0.000, and total rainfall of t= 2.025, df=23, P:0.275.The linear regression analysis shows rainfall variation y =-9.588x + 1217.1 and temperature variation y =0.0258x + 29.888 with an increase of +0.4°C. Dodder had ravaged ornamentals where 82.7% of respondents asserted it was attacking and foraging on trees, herbaceous and shrub 𝜒2: 40.73, P:0.000. Cuscuta was fast spreading and the majority (73%) of respondents preferred a mechanical method through cutting of stems 𝜒2 : 1.645, P: 0.026 to control dodder infestation. A majority of respondents (97.1%) knew about dodder across all constituencies, with a mean significant difference of F (5,361) =5, P: 0.000. This study discovered dodder, a generic weed parasite that is rapidly spreading and attacking a diverse community of ornamentals in Mombasa County. Dodder laurel (Cassytha filiformis) species are hemiparasites as they photosynthesize, unlike field dodder (Cuscuta campestris) species that are primary holoparasites. The study recommends fast mitigating measures to be undertaken through biotechnological control methods that are effective with limited environmental impacts.
Effects of learning environmental management concepts on secondary school pupils in Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2012-05) Muthiani, Nelson Timothy
In Kenya, the integration of environmental concepts into the school curriculum was effected in 1985. The goal of the study was to assess and determine secondary school pupils' understanding of environmental management concepts infused in the Secondary School Curriculum in Kenya, and how they act to improve their environment. The influence of sex and the school environment on pupils' understanding of environmental management concepts was examined. The study investigated forms three and four pupils' grasp and understanding of environmental management concepts infused in various subjects in the secondary school curriculum and its effect on their attitude toward the environment. This study was conducted in Machakos County, Kenya. Random sampling was employed to select a total of 140 pupils (70 girls and 70 boys). Forty-two teachers of physical science, agriculture, geography and biology, and fourteen school heads were selected for the study from fourteen schools to determine the challenges to teaching and learning Environmental Education in the secondary schools. The instruments for data collection were structured questionnaires, Focus Group Discussion Guide and Observation Schedule. Past Kenya Certificate of Secondary Examination papers were also analysed for Environmentai Education content in deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, air and water pollution, depletion of energy resources, ecological disruption, loss of biodiversity and environmental conservation among others which revealed that not more than two Environmental Education questions appeared per year between 1995 and 2005 in science, agriculture and geography. Data analysis was done qualitatively and quantitatively. A chi-square test revealed significant differential understanding based on sex and school type (p = .05). However, the overall understanding of the environmental concepts was rated moderate, even among the teachers. The study recommended a refresher course for head teachers, in the short term, to improve the management of the school plant and enhance its role as a learning resource for Environmental Education. The study concludes that there is attainment of low to moderate understanding of environmental management concepts and environmental awareness, very positive attitude and desire to act for the welfare of the environment among secondary school pupils.
Exploring Strategies for Addressing Climate Change: The Role of an Education for Sustainable Development Perspective in Lake Victoria Catchment, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Otieno, M.
The purpose of the study was to examine Education for Sustainable Development as a possible modality of dealing with the climate change challenges in Lake Victoria and Kenya in general. The study was carried out in the Lake Victoria catchment in Kenya with the main objective of demonstrating the role that a sound and practical ESD programme can play in addressing the adverse effects of climate change, thereby contributing to solutions to the current climate change challenges. The study focused on the Kenyan project sites of Homabay, Nandi and Transmara. Options for combating the effects of climate change are of key interest to policy makers globally. International, regional and national policy makers have come up with and implemented various strategies for combating the effects of climate change such as information sharing about national greenhouse emissions, international cooperation and national activities, wide range of climate change policies and measures, energy, industry, agricultural and educational sectors related policies, international carbon trading market amongst others; despite these actions, the effects of climate change continue to worsen. In 2010, the Kenya Government came up with the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS), this is one of the guidelines against which the study bench marks the capacity of ESD to support the efforts towards climate change abatement. The case study of Lake Victoria Catchment Environmental Education Programme (LVCEEP), an ESD project, was conducted using multiple methods of data capture. The study used random sampling to select 6 sample project schools. Total population sampling was done for the community groups and project stake holders. While the primary source of data collection was done using semi-structured in-depth interviews, questionnaires, direct observations, focus group discussions and field observations, secondary data was obtained from programme literature. The results showed that LVCEEP positively influences response to climate change. 66.7% of the teachers in the study felt that the LVCEEP activities are addressing real climate change issues. Further, 82.6% of the community members in the study were of the opinion that the projects they are implementing under LVCEEP are closely related to the subject of climate change because the projects are aimed at conserving the catchment resources and restoring the catchment ecosystem as it was before, and thereby combating the effects of climate change. Moreover, the findings indicated that there is a relationship between LVCEEP interventions and the expected outcomes of climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. The study concludes that Education for Sustainable Development should be recognized as a possible response to the effects of climate change and recommends that the findings of this exploration of the ESD programme (LVCEEP) interventions should be promoted to enhance the methods for coping with climate change and climate variability in Kenya.
Growth Performance of Tilapia in Different Culture Systems on Varying Input amounts and Aquaculture Technologies Adoption in Meru County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mbaabu, Patrick; Esther Lesan Kitur; Ezekiel Ndunda
Prior to 2010 aquaculture production in Kenya was low, 4895 MT annually and adoption. Information on effects of various inputs on growth performance of tilapia, the best culture system and aquaculture adoption in Meru County is scanty or missing. The purpose of this study was therefore to find out the effects of varying the amounts of fish feed pellets, fertilization and liming pond water under different physicochemical parameters on the performance of Oreochromis niloticus in different culture systems (ponds) in Meru County, Kenya over a period of three months, August 2015 to November 2015. The study also investigated determinants of adoption of fish farming technologies (liner, concrete and earthen culture) in the study area. Fourty Eight (48) fish ponds of size 2m x 1m x1m deep of each type were constructed in a randomized block design in the study area. Each pond was stocked with 8 Oreochromis niloticus monosex fingerlings each of approximately 20gm. Fish were fed daily at 10 am and 4 pm. Growth performance of the fish was measured after 30, 60 and 90 days under different treatments. The parameters which were measured were, weight gain of the fish, total production from the various ponds and adoption level of fish farming technologies. ANOVA was used to determine if there was any significant difference in the mean weight gain of the fish in the three culture systems under different treatments. On adoption, a questionnaire was used to collect information on the factors which influence adoption of fish farming technologies. Ninety (90) fish farmers and Ninety (90) non – fish farmers were interviewed through a structured questionnaire to determine the factors and level of adoption. Logit regression analysis was used to analyze primary data on adoption collected from the field. Results revealed that varying amounts of fish feed pellets (2, 4, and 6 gms) had no significant difference in the weight gain of fish in the three culture system. When pond water was fertilized at different fertilization rates, concrete culture system produced highest mean weight gain of 11.21 ± 3.27 gms, earthen 7.67 ± 1.36 gms and liner 6.41 ± 4.88 gms with 4 gms DAP showing a significance difference in mean weight gain (F = 20.07, df = 2, P = 0.002). Liming the pond water produced almost a similar trend with fish in concrete pond recording a mean fish weight gain of 8.87 ± 3.75 gms, liner 7.20 ± 1.89 gms and earthen 7.12 ± 1.91 gms with 4 gms lime showing a significance difference (F = 5.18, df = 2, P = 0.049). On combining all the inputs at various levels of (pellets, fertilizer and lime), there was no significant difference in mean weight gain of fish in the culture systems. Concrete culture system recorded the highest mean weight gain of 9.44 ± 2.05 gms and liner 7.35 ± 3.70 gms. On determinants of adoption, the study showed that, out of the eleven factors assessed, market access, extension services, credit access and annual farm income significantly (p<0.05) influences the adoption of fish farming technologies (liner, concrete and earthen) in Meru County. The study concluded that the use of different levels of aquaculture inputs affects the growth performance of Oreochromis niloticus in different culture systems. Planners and Fisheries managers of aquaculture projects and programmes are encouraged to prioritize market access, extension services, credit access and annual farm income in their administration and implementation of all fisheries projects for higher success rate leading to improved fish production and livelihoods of fish farmers. Policy makers to create provision in law for market access, extension services, credit access, farm income streams and linkages strengthening inorder to transform the aquaculture sector.
Improving agronomic efficiency in cassava- based farming systems in the Democratic Republic of Congo using organic and inorganic inputs
(2014-09-04) Thandar, Nyi
Cassava is an important food crop in small-holder farming systems in DR. Congo. Due to the limited use of organic and inorganic inputs, soil fertility becomes a major problem in cassava production systems. Inorganic inputs for small-holder farmers are often too expensive to apply at optimal rates and combining use of organic and inorganic fertilizer inputs is a suitable management principle for small-holder farmers. A study involving 15 households was carried out in DR. Congo with the following objectives: (ii) to determine the effect of an improved variety and fertilizer on agronomic efficiency in cassava or groundnut monocropping, (iii) to establish the effect of the combined use of inorganic and organic inputs on fertilizer response in cassava intercropping and (iv) to evaluate the influence of agronomic practices on the productivity of cassava-legume intercrops. Field trials were conducted to determine the use of improved variety and fertilizers at different rates on agronomic efficiency in the pure cassava or groundnut, the effect of combined application of inorganic and Chromolaena inputs, the effect of three legumes on yields in the cassava intercrops, the optimal cowpea spacing in the cassava-cowpea intercrop and the optimal cassava planting time in the cassava-groundnut intercrop in the two study sites. Data on rainfall, biomass, grain and root yields were collected. Significance differences between yields and varieties or soil types were tested using univariate analysis of variance. The CROSSTAB procedure using Pearson Chi Square analysis was used to test for significance effects of varieties on yields and farmer fertility score within site. Yield data were subjected to ANOVA and means separated using LSD (P < 0.05). Different soil types did not influence cassava root yields while different cassava varieties influenced cassava root yield in all surveyed sites. The use of improved variety and fertilizer application significantly (P = 0.017 and P = 0.016) increased crop yields by 48 to 173% and 58 to 156%, respectively over the control in both pure cassava and groundnut in both sites. Sole NPK, sole Chromolaena or combined use of NPK and Chromolaena significantly (P = 0.013, P = 0.003 and P = 0.03) increased casssava yields by about 45%, 43% and 77%, respectively relative to the controls in both sites. Cassava intercropping with soybean or cowpea was significantly (P < 0.001) superior over the pure cassava in terms of cassava tubert yield and the net benefits in both sites. Closer intra-row spacing of cowpea (30 cm) significantly (P =0.02) increased the net benefits by about 101% over the wider spacing (50 or 70 cm). Cassava planted 3 weeks after the groundnuts significantly (P = 0.042) decreased cassava tuber yields by 48 to 60% relative to cassava planted at the same time as groundnut. The results of this study showed that farmers should use an improved variety and apply fertilizer to improve the cassava and groundnut monocropping systems. Sole fertilizer or Chromolaena and the combined use of fertilizer and Chromolaena increased the yields and profitability of a cassava-groundnut intercrop. Cassava intercropped with soybean or cowpea has benefits in the cassava intercropping systems. The closer spacing (30 cm) of cowpea gave a higher income than the wider spacing (50 or 70 cm) in a cassava-cowpea intercrop. Cassava should be intercropped with groundnut within 2 weeks after sowing of groundnut. This study recommended that to improve cassava-based production systems, famers should use improved varieties and apply both organic and inorganic fertilizer, legume intercrop, space and plant at times when optimum yields are obtained as per the findings of this study.
Influence of Agroforestry Adoption on Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods among Smallholder Farmers in Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Kinyili, Benjamin Mutuku; Ezekiel Ndunda; Esther Kitur
Agroforestry provides a number of ecosystem goods and services. Yet evidence of agroforestry supporting these perceived benefits in rural areas have increased over the last three decades. This study determined influence of agroforestry adoption on ecosystem services and livelihoods for smallholder farmers in Machakos County. The study was conducted using utilized concurrent transformative design where both the qualitative and quantitative data were collected at the same time. The study was based on sample size of 248 households’ selected using stratified, random sampling. Qualitative data were collected using questionnaires and interviews while soil data was collected following standard soil sampling techniques and analyzed in the laboratory for textural characteristics, pH, bulk density and micronutrients. Statistical data were done using chi-square (χ2), binary logistic Model (BLM), ANOVA, t-test and bivariate regression. Agroforestry was adopted by 82% of the respondents in the form of boundary tree planting (73.8%), hedgerow (69.4%), scattered trees in rangeland (51.2%) and alley cropping (37.1%). Age, level of education, household size and non-farm income were significant (P < 0.05). Socio-economic aspects affecting adoption of agroforestry were access to credit, training and inputs were significant (P < 0.05) institutional factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry. Ecosystem services obtained by majority of the households were supporting functions in the form of nutrient recycling and soil formation (81.5%) and regulatory functions in the form of soil erosion, water infiltration and micro-climate regulation (80.8%). Provisioning services was dominated by fuel wood (84%), fruit and nuts (75%), poles (74%) and timber (72%). Total income was higher among adopters of timber, fuel wood, posts/poles and fodder. Adopters also had more money to spend on food, clothing, education, medicine and basic needs. Thus the overall gross revenue was higher among adopters. There were higher net returns above Total Variable Cost (TVC) for the adopters (US$ 346.57) compared to the non-adopters (US$ 94.7), which resulted in positive net returns above Total Cost (TC) for the adopters (US$ 275.77) and positive operational costs above the fixed costs for the non-adopters (US$ 23.9) resulting in higher margins above TVC (%) for the agroforestry adopters (28%) than the non-adopters (12%). The soil physical attributes indicate that the proportion of sand particles was significantly (P < 0.05) higher among non-adopters while the proportion of silt and bulk density in the soil was higher among the adopters. The total nitrogen (TN), total organic carbon (TOC), Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn and C/N ratio were significantly improved (P < 0.05) in soils where agroforestry was being practiced. Overall physical and chemical attributes in the soil improved significantly with increasing age in years of agroforestry adoption. The study recommends adoption of agroforestry to maximize ecosystem benefits. However, more training is required for the farmers to enhance their ability and potential to optimize agroforestry practices and new innovations.
Integrating Indigenous and Conventional knowledge-based climate forecast for farmers’ enhanced adaptation to climate variability in Tharaka-Nithi and Kitui Counties
(2014-09-04) Mugi, Esther Wangeci
Climate variability has a negative impact on crop productivity and has affected many small-holder farmers in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs). Small-holder farmers in the study area are faced with the constraint of climate variability and have consequently made effort at the local level to utilize indigenous knowledge (IK) in addition to conventional knowledge to mitigate the impacts of the variability. However, documentation of the IK indicators is limited. This study was therefore undertaken with the aim of identifying the IK and preparedness techniques employed in coping with climate variability by small-holder farmers, integrate the indigenous and conventional knowledge of climate forecasting and assess how the household’s socio-economic factors influence the level of adaptation to climate variability. The study was conducted in Tharaka and Kitui-Central Sub-Counties in Tharaka-Nithi and Kitui counties, respectively and used both primary and secondary data. Data collected included: (i) Indigenous and conventional knowledge of climate forecasting employed by small holder farmers, (ii) Household demographic and socio-economic characteristics, (iii) Farmers’ adaptation strategies to cope with climate variability, (iv) Rainfall and temperature data from Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD). Research design involved a triangulation approach to simultaneously collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Primary data was specifically gathered through the use of a survey. Sampling strategy involved random sampling and also a purposive sampling in combination with snow balling technique. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, multinomial and binary logistic regression, using variables produced through Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Results showed that there were significant differences in the use of indigenous strategies such as change in the sky (2=14.631), moon (2=7.851) and wind (2=5.864) at p<0.05 in the two sub-counties. Majority (87%) of the farmers used change in the colour of trees’ leaves as an indigenous strategy in weather forecasting. Results from the analysis of conventional data (rainfall and temperature) were found to conform to the information from small-holder farmers’ perception on how climate has varied over the reference period. The study considered five strategies as measures of level of adaptation to climate variability; crop adjustment; crop management; soil fertility management; water harvesting and crop types; boreholes and crop variety factors. Average size of land under maize, farming experience, household size, household members involved in farming, education level, age, main occupation and gender of the household head were found significant (p<0.05) in predicting the level of adaptation to climate variability as being either low or medium relative to high. This study concludes that IK of weather forecasting is still in use today hence, effort should be put in place to document the indicators that are used in combination with conventional knowledge for use in future by small scale farmers. Furthermore, effort should be put in place to integrate the IK and the conventional knowledge. In addition, household socio economic factors that explain the level of adaptation should be considered in any efforts that aim to promote adaptation to climate variability in the agricultural sector among the smallholder farmers
Municipal solid waste management challenges and opportunites : a case of Kampala City, Uganda
(2012-04-24) Ojok, Julius
Municipal solid waste (MSW) raised serious concerns in Kampala in light of the rapid increase in volumes of unattended SW with the associated risks to human health, the steady increase in its handling costs and logistical difficulties, the scarce landfill spaces and the difficulty in finding suitable locations and getting public approval for new ones. The objectives of the study involved determination of the rate, quantity and composition of SW generated and its recycling potential; identify the current solid waste management (SWM) practices and challenges; determining households' willingness to pay (WTP) for improved SWM services and estimating the aggregate benefits in revenue of WTP. Purposive sampling techniques were used, thus the divisions of Kampala were stratified according to already existing parishes. Sampling areas were stratified into three income groups of low, middle and high, using the quality of housing. Public survey through prepared questionnaires was the main source of data. Information from the survey was analyzed using descriptive statistics of Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). A dichotomous choice contingent valuation technique was used to elicit households' WTP. Results revealed that the rate of SW generation for Kampala was 0.56 kg/person/day with a total of 848,155 kg/day of SW being generated. The SW composition generated was 83.6% vegetable/organic matter, 10.9% waste paper, 1.2% waste plastics, 0.3% waste metals, 0.1 % glass/cullet materials and 3.9% other materials, with high potential for recycling. Households (HHs) with access to central collection mainly used KCC skips, while those without, practiced open dump and bum (33.6%) and backyard dump and bum (26.2%). MSWM in Kampala city had many challenges, among which were: inactivity of KCC to support and mobilize effective MSW collection and disposal; inadequate equipment and SW handling facilities; inadequate funding of MSWM services; inadequate awareness of households due to inadequate sensitization; lack of cooperation among stakeholders in MSWM to solve a common problem and poor community attitude towards MSWM. 48.1 % of households in Kampala were willing to pay for improved SWM services with a mean monthly WTP of UGX 5,382 (USD 2.91). The minimum WTP amount per month was UGX 100 (USD 0.054) while the maximum was UGX 70,000 (USD 37.84). The total WTP for improved MSWM services for low, middle and high household income groups, were respectively UGX 45,635,000, 320,411,000 and 643,523,000 (USD 24,667.57, 173,195.14 and 347,850.27) per month giving a total of about 200% of the total requirement for MSWM in Kampala. The factors which influenced WTP for improved MSWM services significantly were gender (p
Socio-Ecological Factors Influencing Conservation of Rothschild’s Giraffe in Ruma National Park and Mwea National Reserve in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Gathuku, George Njagi; Cecilia Gichuki; Charles Warui
The Rothschild’s giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi), is among the listed vulnerable animal species globally. In this study, two wildlife protected areas were studied; Mwea National Reserve and Ruma National Park both in Kenya, where Rothschild’s giraffes inhabit. Human activities ranging from robust agricultural activities, and human settlement as well as snaring have led to loss of habitat for the giraffe and the giraffes themselves. A socio-ecological approach is given emphasis by the study to ascertain human wildlife conflict propelled towards Rothschild’s giraffe in these demarcated protected areas. The study objectives were: assess the population size, structure and distribution of Rothschild’s giraffe in the two Protected Areas; evaluate the effect of human activities on population distribution and abundance of Rothschild’s giraffes in Ruma National Park and Mwea National Reserve; assess the attitude of the local inhabitants towards their adjacent protected area and their knowledge on wildlife conservation and evaluate government policies on wildlife conservation and giraffe protection in Kenya. To calculate giraffe population abundance, purposive sampling method was used. Four roads transects in each of the site were set up using a GPS 10trex. High resolution images of the left side of the giraffes were taken using a Nikon Coolpix P900 camera and recorded for WildID. Human activities and indigenous knowledge data was collected using open ended and structured questionnaires which were administered to the sampled households within 5 kilometres radius of the two Protected Areas. Interview schedules were also administered to the community members and Kenya Wildlife Service officers. The field obtained sample was 356 respondents resulting in an 89.2% response rate. Secondary data from existing literature was reviewed and this included reports and records from relevant institutions. The quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS to apply descriptive, chi-square and ANOVA techniques, while content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data. The results showed that Ruma National Park had a large number of giraffes (N=314) compared to Mwea National Reserve (N=56). Regarding the population structure of the giraffes, the analysis showed that age distribution of the giraffes was statistically different in both sites χ2 (2, N=370) = 8.762, p=0.013. Ruma National Park was found to have significantly more females (57.6%) than males, whereas Mwea National reserve had significantly more males (57.1%) than females χ2 (2, N=370) = 4.205, p=0.04. The level of human-wildlife interaction was found to be significantly higher in Mwea compared to Ruma with more cases on farm invasions by giraffes χ2 (1, N=343) = 124.538, p = 0.000, and giraffe hunting activities χ2 (1, N=325) = 107.684, p=0.000. Also, findings revealed that the residents around Ruma National Park had a more positive attitude towards their park compared to those around Mwea National Reserve t (354) =2.637, p=0.0045 despite more residents in Mwea (90%) claiming to have an education on wildlife conservation. The study recommends proper fencing of the protected sites, involving the community in decision making and introduction of incentive for the communities living adjacent these protected areas.
Tree Cover Perspectives and Climate Change Resilience in the Drylands of Matungulu Sub-County, Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020-02) Mutuku, Heeran M.
Rapid population growth, increasing demand for land, over-exploitation and the degradation of local natural resources have led to serious socio-ecological challenges in Matungulu Sub-county. This situation, compounded by the effects of climate change, has impacted negatively on the livelihood resilience of the local people. The specific objectives of this study were to: analyze tree cover trends in Matungulu Sub-county between 1987 and 2017; examine major socio-economic factors that influence tree cover; assess farmers’ perceptions of the effects of climate change on tree cover; examine the role of tree cover in community resilience against poverty and effects of climate change; and identify specific constraints that have hampered improvement of tree cover in the Subcounty. Systematic random sampling was used to collect data from 412 farmers in the study area. A structured questionnaire, FDGs, key informants and direct observations were used to collect household socio-economic data. Landsat maps for historical analysis of land cover change and climate data in Matungulu Sub-county were used to study changes in tree cover and climate parameters over the three-decade period. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the data analysis. Results showed that forest cover reduced by 64% over the 30-year period (from 17,044 ha to 6,136 ha) while all other land uses increased (farming by 34%, shrubs by 9%, water by 245% and urban settlements by 600%) in the same period. A logistic regression model with R statistics was used to test for relationships between tree cover (dependent variable) and the socio-economic parameters. Socio-economic variables that significantly influenced tree management included gender (p= 0.011), house-hold size (p=0.030), and title deed ownership (p=0.023). Majority (84%) of respondents perceived climate change to have occurred over the 1987-2017 period. Farmer-perceived climatic patterns in the area over the same period were corroborated by data from the Kenya Meteorological Department. Farmers used trees to enhance their resilience against effects of climate change and poverty. Respondents had 58 different types of tree species, all for different roles and uses. Major tree species included Eucalyptus saligna, Grevillea robusta, Mangifera indica, Persea americana, Croton megalocarpus, and Terminalia brownie. Tree uses included firewood, timber, charcoal, poles, shade, utensils, fodder, food and medicine besides others. Environmental benefits of trees included soil erosion control (27%), mulch (15%), soil fertility (13%), aesthetics (10%) and pest control (3%). 79% of the respondents had experienced lack of information (24%), lack of capital (24%) and lack of water for seedlings (20%) as constraints to tree cover. The study concluded that there was overall tree cover loss over the three decades and recommends afforestation and reforestation programmes and incorporation of local participation and use of indigenous knowledge in climate change adaptation and mitigation interventions in Matungulu Sub-county

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