PHD-Department of Environmental Planning and Management

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An assessment of the potential of life cycle Management system on project performance in the Building industry in abuja, nigeria
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Usman, Napolean Daniel
ABSTRACT The building industry (Bl) has continued to be a major player in the socioeconomic development of many countries globally. Apart from creating employment, it provides shelter to millions as well as operational infrastructure such as offices, schools and hospitals. The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja continues to expand as a result of shift of the Federal Administration from Lagos to Abuja. This has attracted increased private and public investments in the BI to cater for the increasing population. Despite this expansion, issues of quality, costs, reliability, and human and environmental safety have posed a challenge to the growth of the BI. These issues are linked to the processes in building production. Studies express concerns over issues of poor quality and the high cost of buildings as well as longer duration before project completion which prevents the B1 from successful project delivery. Hence, this study focused on the assessment of the potentials of Life Cycle Management on project performance in the building industry in Abuja, Nigeria. The objectives of the study were to: examine policies/procedural framework within the BI; investigate how adoption of initial phase principles may affect project performance within the BI; examine how planning phase principles influence project performance within the Bl; determine how implementation phase principles may influence project performance within the B1; and ascertain whether completion phase principles can improve project performance within the industry in Abuja, Nigeria. Data for this study was collected from a population of 231 0 (350 architects, 352 builders, 354 engineers, 354 Quantity Surveyors, 350 Urban and Regional Planners, and 350 contractors) and a sample of 341 representing 20% from a population of 2310. Proportional Stratified Random Sampling was used to select 341 samples and purposive sampling was used to select six projects from project files for qualitative data analysis. Data was collected by use of questionnaires and interviews. The responses to the questionnaires were coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17. Descriptive statistics and frequency tables were used to present the data. Chi-square statistics and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were conducted to test hypothesis at 95% level of significant. The study established that policy and procedural frameworks are not fully adhered to as stated in the National Building Code. It was established that from the initial to completion phases, LCM principles have not been adequately applied leading to projects being delivered at high cost, and to time and quality standards being compromised. Despite LCM principles successful use in B1 (UK, USA and Singapore), its use in Nigeria is yet to be optimal. The study recommends that LCM principles be adopted to improve project delivery according to time, cost and quality standards in the B1 in Abuja, Nigeria.
Assessment of vulnerability of water resources to climate variability in Mara river basin, Kenya
(2014-09-09) Waithaka, Reuel Kamau
Africa's water resources are at risk due to climate variability further aggravating the water scarcity and also ability to cope with other external pressures and calamities. Climate variability on intra-seasonal and decadal time scales has had significant impact on water resources. The main objective of the study is to assess the vulnerability of water resources to climate variability in Mara River Basin. To achieve this, study analysed rainfall, river flow and satellite imagery data. The rainfall data spanned from1980 to 2011 and satellite imagery from the years 1985- 2010. The study relied on secondary data (rainfall, temperature, river gauges measurements and satellite imagery) various empirical tools such as key informant interviews and field observation guides. Numerical tools for data analysis comprised descriptive statistics and non-parametric test. Satellite imagery were ana lysed by use ILWIS and Arc GIS software's and climatic data analysed through Microsoft excel. The study results showed great inter annual variability of rainfall and corresponding river flow. Temperature data trend line analysis showed an annual increase of 0.2oC. Rainfall showed an increase of 0.02mm/yr at Narok station while Ilkerin weather station showed a decreasing trend of 0.002mm/yr. The rainfall showed uneven distribution both in spatial and temporal scales with cyclic nature of high intensity followed by drought periods. The inter-annual variability in rainfall is more sporadic and unpredictable, and this affects water supply both to the ecosystem, domestic and agricultural use. The study predicts that this will have detrimental effect on the basin water resources at a local level and regional. Vegetation cover type and trend over time was utili sed as an indicator of water resources vulnerability. The analysis of NDVI, NDWI and LULC thematic maps from 1985-2010 provided compelling analysis of vegetation density and distribution in the basin. Forest/shrubland reduced by 38% while cropland/shrubland increased by 28% and surface water aerial coverage reduced by 10.7% within the same period. There is direct relationship between vegetation cover change and reduction of aerial coverage of surface water. Majority of the respondents interviewed were farmers (24.4%) planting mainly maize and pastoralists (45.5%). Drought and crop failure were the many effects of climate variability. The respondents (45.2%) experienced more than 5months of food deficiency. Majority associated the insufficiency to climate variability. Distance travelled to access water averaged 2-5km,while most of the water resources were seasonal (56.7%), apart from distance other challenges affecting water accessibility include ,dirty water and conflicts with neighbours. To overcome these challenges there is need to develop basin management strategies geared towards increased forest conservation. The need for education and awareness creation on crop diversification and investment in both household and community water harvesting strategies. There is need for integrated waters resources management especially on education on efficient water use mechanisms both for domestic and agriculture.
Development control and standards in decentralized Sanitation systems in Karengata and Ongata Rongai, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Kiama, Philip Mbugua; Sammy Letema; Aggrey Thuo; Daniel Okang’a Oyoo
Sanitation and hygiene promotion is an integral part of national development strategy. Everyone is entitled to adequate, safe, accessible, and non-discriminatory sanitation as enhanced in the 2010 Kenyan Constitution. The research employed the use of general system theory in sanitation services delivery chain, which requires the participation of various stakeholders or players in a framework for wastewater management. This is achieved through sanitation systems that are compliant to sanitation standards contained in development controls. This research was conducted in Karengata and Ongata Rongai, which are peri-urban areas that have undergone rapid urbanisation and population growth. The main objective of the research was to establish the existence of sanitation standards in development control mechanisms and their relationship to installation and management of decentralised sanitation systems and their compliance. The specific objectives were to: assess sanitation standards governing decentralised sanitation systems, examine the types of decentralised sanitation systems in use, evaluate compliance of decentralised sanitation systems to sanitation standards, and effects of compliance on the environment in Karengata and Ongata Rongai areas. The research used a descriptive survey research design with a sample size of 400 households. Eight zones were sampled using spatial stratified systematic random sampling. The tools used for collection of data include household questionnaire, global positioning systems, digital distance measuring instrument, Olfactometer, observation, and desktop research. Statistical Packages for Social Science software was used to run descriptive statistics and produce frequency distribution, and percentages. Data from observational methods were in the study results as graphs and photographs. Inferential statistics such as t-test and analysis of variance were used to determine associations between variable and its significance. Sanitation systems in Karengata and Ongata Rongai were septic tanks at 75% and 50% respectively and pit latrines at 24% and 50% respectively. The most preferred type of pit latrine was with slab at 20% in Karengata and 34% in Ongata Rongai. On the other hand, for septic tank systems, those without Soakaway facilities were dominant with 57% in Karengata and 72% in Ongata Rongai. Compliance to sanitation standards showed variance between Karengata and Ongata Rongai. The sanitation standards in both areas were not compliant (p=0.0019<1.96), which confirm the null hypothesis. Standards on separation distance of sanitation facility from boundary showed significance in pit latrine (p=0.003<0.05) and no significance in septic tank (p=0.180>0.05). Based on the research findings, the study recommends establishment of a central institution governing sanitation at National and County levels, which will be responsible for coordination, regulation, monitoring and enforcement of sanitation development control policies and regulations. In addition, the public should be sensitized on sanitation standards to enhance compliance and adoption of safe sanitation systems.
Drought, Land Use Change and Livelihood Diversification among Pastoral Communities in Oltiasika, Kajiado County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2018-11) Nyangena, John
This study investigated the implication of drought and land use changes on pastoral livelihood in Oltiasika area of Chyulu-Amboseli ecosystem. The study objectives were to assess the relationship between drought and vegetation conditions, assess biophysical changes that have occurred in Oltiasika between 2009 and 2016, and analyse the effect of livelihood diversification on household drought resilience. Rainfall data was obtained from Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) climate database, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer (MODIS) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data was obtained from the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) in Vienna, while land use changes detection was analysed using Google Earth images. Primary data was generated through a cross-sectional survey carried out in January-February 2015 in a sample of 354 households. Auto regression analysis of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was carried out to investigate the relationship between drought and vegetation greenness. Herfindahl-Hirschman Index was computed to measure the degree of household livelihood diversification and Ordered Logit Regression analysis was performed to examine the effect of diversification on household resilience. The results showed that between 1983-2014 145 months were categorized as drought based on their Standardized Precipitating Index (SPI). Months with severe drought (SPI value between -1.50 and -1.99) were the most common (69 months) followed by those with mild drought (SPI ranging between 1-.00 and -1.49) in 57 months, while extreme drought (SPI less than -2.00) occurred in 19 months. The vegetation greenness for the period 2000-2016 produced Normalized Vegetation Difference Index (NDVI) with a mean of 0.34, which is below the normal mean (0.5). The driest period in the area was observed in September 2004 when the NDVI value was 0.193, while the wettest was in December 2006 with NDVI value of 0.62. The study found a significant relationship between NVDI and SPI with an R2 of 59.6% and revealed that vegetation condition responded positively to drought with a lag period of two months. In the sampled sites between 2011 and 2016 the area under cultivation increased by 707% while the number of Manyatta settlements increased by 37.5%. Results of the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index showed that 22.73% of the households had an index of less than 0.25 and only 2.84% had an index greater than 0.5. Further, household’s capacity to meet food requirements decreased with age and household size, while, education, total assets and net non-farm income had no effect. A unit change in the degree of diversification was associated with a 17.1% more likelihood for a household to fall in a strong category to meet food requirement, a 13.5% less likely to belong to a moderate category and 9.2% less likely to fall in a low category. Biophysical changes taking place in the area had limited the availability and accessibility of pasture upon which pastoralism thrive. While crop farming may provide answers to the immediate challenges confronting pastoral communities, the prevailing cultural and physical limitations makes this livelihood an ecologically destructive system. Pastoralism remain the most suitable livelihood activity in dry lands and adaptation actions, which complement rather than substitute it, should be encouraged.
Ecological Dynamics of Nyumba ya Mungu Dam and Its Implication on Fisheries Productivity, Pangani Basin, Tanzania
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mangi, Halima O.; Simon M. Onywere; Esther Lesan Kitur
Dams significantly contribute to freshwater fisheries that provide food and employment. However, their production potentials are constricted within a narrow window due to overwhelming multiple competitive objectives. Land use and cover changes are connected to a 95% decline in fisheries, thus affecting the socio-economic well-being of people living close to and depending on dams, most of them being displaced during dam construction. The study was undertaken between 2018 and 2020 in the Nyumba ya Mungu Dam (NMD) catchment, in Pangani River basin. The broad objective of the study was to investigate ecological dynamics and their influence on fish production in the NMD. Specifically, the study aimed at establishing the hydrological responses to change in land use and cover, assess water quality of NMD and associated rivers in relation to catchment land management, and investigate impact of water abstraction within the catchment on the ecology of NMD. It also aimed at determine the link between water quality, dam water level stability, and fish production in the NMD. QGIS was used to assess spatial data. QSWAT was used to simulate hydrological changes due to land cover changes. NMD water levels and river discharges were assessed to determine water level uncertainty. To determine water quality, physical and chemical parameters of water from NMD and associated rivers were analysed through laboratory standard procedures and Multiparameter instrument (HI9829). ANOVA was used to analyse water parameters temporal and spatial variations. Relationships between water levels, water quality, and fish production were analysed using Pearson’s correlation and multiple linear regressions. Results indicate that agriculture expanded from 96,737 ha to 314,871 ha between 1987 and 2017. Forest and bush lands lost 89,719 ha and 83,445 ha respectively between 1987 and 2017. Land cover changes resulted in increase in surface run-off from 60.84 m3/s to 73.02m3/s, and sedimentation increased from 6.9 to 12.74 ton/ha/year (46% increase) between 1987 and 2017. Dam water levels fluctuated by up to 8 m between minimum and maximum water levels in 1971 and 2019. The NMD water level decreased by a factor of 0.056 m, while fish catches decreased by a factor of 162.54 kg annually (P < 0.05). Chlorophyll-a, TN, and TP indicated that water bodies studied were nutrient-rich. The highest chlorophyll-a concentration was 120 μg/l. TSI (Chl-a) ranged between 51 and 71 μg/l. Correlation analysis indicated that monthly fish yield positively correlated to turbidity (r = 0.461, P < 0.01) and TP (r = 0.405, P < 0.01). It was also negatively correlated to trophic state index of the dam (r = - 0.267, P < 0.05), dissolved oxygen (r = -0.287, P < 0.05), temperature (r = - 0.239, P < 0.05) and depth of the fishing area (r = -0.253, P < 0.05). It concluded that, change in land use practices and consequent land cover transformation in the catchment has not only changed the biophysical structures but also determine the state of dam ecological functions. Reforestation and minimization of water abstraction are recommendated to maintain the environmental flow of the dam.
Environmental Sustainability in Informal Settlement Upgrading Projects in Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu Cities in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020-09) Muthoni, Purity Njeri
The phenomenal growth of urban centres in developing countries makes cities important sites for engaging with environmental issues. The prevalence of informal settlements in cities and its implication on environmental sustainability has become a growing concern. Metabolic processes of these spatial units significantly shape the urban ecological system and define quality of life in cities. However, the significance of this space in the environmental sustainability function has not been adequately considered. Policy makers and urban planners have often failed to recognize informal settlement upgrading projects as conduits for integration of environmental sustainability in cities. As a result, the upgraded settlements do not sufficiently contribute to improved urban environmental quality. In this regard, this study sought to establish the environmental sustainability performance of government led informal settlement upgrading projects in Kenyan cities so as to recommend measures that can be taken to improve environmental quality in the upgraded settlements. It assessed the environmental performance of 11 upgraded informal settlements, the existing environmental sustainability integration pathways and analysed the impact of institutional arrangements on environmental sustainability integration in informal settlement upgrading programs in Kenya. A list of 16 environmental sustainability indicators was developed based on the theoretical and empirical frameworks. The indicators were grouped into four categories: resource consumption, waste management, environmental quality and community organization. The study adopted a case study research design. Household and key informant interviews, observations and focused group discussions were used to collect data. A total of 600 households were sampled from the eleven settlements through multistage method involving cluster and systematic sampling. These households were distributed equally between Nairobi, Kisumu and Mombasa. The 200 households in each city were distributed proportionately among the selected settlements. A scoring system was devised to help determine significant differences in performance between the three cities. The highest environmental sustainability score in the upgraded settlements is 61.4% while the lowest score is 37%. The scores vary significantly between cities. Upgraded settlements in Nairobi have higher scores than those in Kisumu and Mombasa. Environmental quality indicators have the highest predictive ratio for environmental sustainability performance of an upgraded settlement. Government led informal settlement upgrading programs indicate significant achievement in the use of green enterprises, clean technologies, community based institutions and environmental education to integrate environmental sustainability in upgraded settlements. Environmental infrastructure and environmental impact assessment have achieved minimal environmental outcomes. Housing tenure is not a significant environmental integration pathway in informal settlement upgrading. Institutional structure and functional reconstruction poses both challenges and opportunities for environmental integration in informal settlement upgrading processes. Informal settlement upgrading programs have not been adequately utilized to diffuse environmental sustainability in the urban space. The study recommends improved actor coordination; broader stakeholder engagement, institutionalizing an environmental unit in the ministry in charge of informal settlement upgrading and multi levelled environmental education in the implementation of upgrading programs.
The impact of participatory natural resource management on forest quality and livelihood systems in and around Arabuko Sokoke forest, Malindi, Kenya
(2013-11-25) Matiku, Paul Museng'ya
The study assessed the impact of participatory natural resources management onlivelihoods.systems and forest quality. From the year 1993 to 2008, over ksh 331million was invested in Arabuko-sokoke forest (ASF) supporting household livelihoodsand strengthening local institutions to work with government to protect the forest. Priorto this study there were no studies relating the presence of policy and capacity buildingto household livelihoods and forest quality and biodiversity conservation. Between 2008and 2010, this study assessed the impact of participatory forest management (PFM)on forest quality and forest bird communities in ASF. The study questions were: i) doexisting policies and institutional frameworks provide for adequate natural resources managementand benefits sharing with local communities?; ii) is PFM an asset or liabilityto households living adjacent to ASF; iii) is the capacity oflocal community groups in PFMzones different from no PFM zones?; iv) and are forest birds and forest quality measuresin PFM areas higher than those without PFM? Policy and institutional frameworks wereanalysed through desk reviews with validation through interviews. Interviews were used to collect socio-economic data from 150 households in each of the PFM and no PFMzones. Data were collected within the intervention zone at 5 km equidistant from the forestedge in both the Mixed Forest (MF) and Cynometrawoodland (CW) PFM and no PFMzones along 10 km transect lengths. Forest quality and birds data were collected using1 km equidistant transects running from the forest edge towards the core of the forest.Sampling for birds and vegetation parameters were taken at intervals of 100 m. Vegetationmeasurements were taken within 15 m radius and birds point-counts inside 30-m radiuscircular plots totalling 200 plots per study zone. The study findings showed a strong policyand institutional framework ranging from the Kenya Constitution, 2010, Land Policy 2009to Forest Act 2005 among others. These policies have not been implemented in ASF asthe results showed a lack PFM management agreements between local communities andKFS, there are no benefit sharing mechanisms with local people and there is no genuineinvolvement oflocal communities in forest management against the policy provisions. Thestudied 600 households depend on the forest for extracting fire-wood, building materials,herbal medicine, non-timber forest products (butterflies, honey and mushroom), drinkingwater and grazing livestock. Forest benefits and costs are highest for households next to the forest and these reduce with distance from the forest. In 2009, the net daily householdincome in PFM zones was positive while that of no PFM zones was negative. Incomegenerating activities, particularly butterfly fanning and honey production are assets tohousehold livelihoods and 99% of households support forest conservation objectives with72% thinking the ASF has positive impacts to their livelihoods. The PFM zones havethe highest numbers of mature local groups and highest numbers of group members whosupport forest conservation. Measures of good forest quality were significantly higherin PFM than no PFM zones while vegetation disturbance measures were highest in noPFM zones. The Sorensen's Similarity Coefficient depict PFM and no PFM zones tobe either similar or closely related in birds distribution. The abundance of East CoastAkalat(Sheperdiagunningisokokensis) is significantly higher in the PFM than no PF11zones. The study concludes that while PFM is a good tool for forest conservation, it lacksthe requisite resources for implementation in ASF. It is critical to mainstream PFM ingovernment budgetary processes.
The Impact of Policies on the Development and Management of Recreational Spaces in Nairobi, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Ikawa, Joseph Victor Otieno
Recreational spaces within cities provide numerous benefits to the resident inhabitants;these include reduction of pollution, reduction of surface run-off, improvement of social interaction and biodiversity conservation amongst other services. The large population increase in Nairobi is stressing the existing gazetted and non-gazetted recreational facilities that were developed during the pre -independence period and that have been scantily improved. These recreational spaces were in themselves created to favournon - African residents. Formal and non-formal policies have a strong influence on the availability and management of these spaces. As Nairobi actualises her futuristic plans , there is need for a more harmonised look at the needs and aspirations of the Nairobi population who have been largely ignored in the design of recreational space. Such spaces are immensely useful in many facets of mental, ecological and physical health and also in biodiversity conservation education and in the provision of ecological services. Recreation leads to a healthier people thereby reducing the health budget. Currently, the quality and quantity of provision of recreational spaces is not well documented within Nairobi County. The study entailed a mix of approaches that are used within political ecology and urban environmental planning and management. These included face to face interviews using randomised approaches within selected spaces and the use of Geographical Information Systems(GIS), to map change in space and equity of access to recreational spaces. The different spaces were categorised based on historical mandate and then randomly sampled. Thestudy was also triangulated to encompass managers, users, neighbours and observation of the recreational spaces. The objectives of the study were to determine the growth and development of recreational spaces within Nairobi County; to assess the management issues within different geopolitical management contexts; to assess the benefits ofrecreational spaces to different users within Nairobi County; and lastly, to assess the walkability in Nairobi County neighbourhoods. The study found that a resident of Nairobi Countyhas 22 m 2 of recreational space on average from a high of 159 m 2atindependence. This translates to 2.162 acres per thousand residents compared with the best practice in the United States and in Europe of 6- 10 acres per thousand.Only 5% of Nairobi Countyis currently available for recreational spaces.The study found that due to large geopolitical neglect, the management and development of recreational spaces has been wanting and in the process, various private sector arrangements are leading the way in design and management. The study found that education affects the type of spacevisited, indicating social and political differences in access. Access to spacesis largely skewed to the higher social classes who have access to “members only” parks and golf courses. The study also found out that on average, the Nairobi County resident takes between 22 minutes and 90 minutes to access recreational spaces. Recreational spacesin general are preferred for relaxation(35%)and for socialising (12%) The study also confirms that the best managed spaces within Nairobi Countyare managed by the private sector an example being the Jaffery Park which had the highest scores on several measures. .
Implications of biodivesity conservation on food security around volcanoes national park, Rwanda
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Nyiratuza, Madeleine; Caleb Mireri Felix; L.M. Ming’ate
This study investigated the implications of biodiversity conservation on food security around Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda. The objectives of this study were to examine existing policy and institutional framework in relation to biodiversity conservation at Volcanoes National Park and local food security, examine the effects of changes in land use on Volcanoes National Park and evaluate the contribution of benefits from Volcanoes National Park to local food security. It was guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods and Integrated Landscape Frameworks. To address the research objectives, it used mixed research methods. First, quantitative data involved conducting a survey with a sample size of 400 households, and collection of remote sensed data. Secondly, qualitative data was collected from 21 key informants and 10 focus groups. The study area comprised of a belt of 0km-5km and 5.1km-10km from the park edge to outside to enable comparison of findings in the vicinity of the park and places far away. Policy action gaps and institutional challenges were analyzed using desk review while trends in land use and cover changes from 2000 to 2019 were analyzed using Exelis Environment for Visualizing Images software. Furthermore, food security was analyzed using the Consolidated Approach to report the Food Security Indicators. Analyzed data were statistically presented in the form of figures, tables and maps for easy interpretation. The findings revealed that several policy documents do not mention food security and different institutions did not consider food security in their interventions. Out of the 7 policy documents analyzed, only the wildlife and biodiversity policies, mentioned food security in relation to conservation of protected areas. The study reveals that the geospatial dynamics that took place in the past 19 years inside the park and in a 10-kilometer belt around the park caused big transformations in the landscape. Over time, in some areas, forests and woodlots have been replaced by agriculture and grassland, while in other areas they have been taken over by buildings. The 5.1km-10km belt lost 92.29% of its forest and woodlots while the 0km-5km radius lost 92.52% between 2000 and 2019. Although reforestation efforts are more in 0km-5km belt than in 5.1km-10km belt, deforestation-reafforestation ratio remains wide around the park (12:1 in 5.1km-10km and 6:1 in the 0km-5km). The Volcanoes National Park’s biodiversity is at risk as local people continue to enter the park for trees and bamboo harvesting for firewood, construction and bean poles. Therefore, re-afforestation efforts need to be increased in the two belts around the park to reduce human pressure on its resources. This study reveals that while food security is an important issue that has received a lot of attention in different Rwandan government institutions, its application in Volcanoes National Park’s conservation is minimal. The results also show that 71% of local people around the Volcano National Park, are food insecure with most food insecure households located in the vicinity of the park, within the 0km-5km belt. Although the number of households that benefit from the National Park is still small at 38%, about 72% of them are found in the 0km-5km belt. This reveals that the community conservation and revenue sharing programmes are more invested in the vicinity of the park. Possible entry points to integrate food security into the conservation of Volcanoes National Park include the revision of existing policies, laws and ministerial orders and park management plans. It would also be important to raise local awareness about the provisions of the policies, solve the crop raiding issue, create off-farm jobs around the park, increase access to clean water and improve agricultural production.
Integration of Motorcycle Transport in Selected Urban Areas and Its Implication on Safety and Livelihoods in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2019-09) Godwin Omondi, Opinde
Urban centres in Kenya have experienced rapid uptake of motorcycles for commercial transportation to fill the gap between transport service supply and demand. This rapid increase is due to zero rating of motorcycle imports and relatively more efficient and affordable motorized transport offered by this mode. Motorcycle transport presents road safety challenges and opportunities in employment. A review of literature reveals that there is relatively less focus on motorcycle transport services in medium sized urban centres in Kenya considering their vital role as growth centres in devolved governance system. The impact of government’s initiative to promote integration of motorcycles in urban transport systems through Integrated National Transport Policy remains unkown. This study examines integration of motorcycle transport and its implication on safety and livelihoods in Busia, Kakamega and Thika towns in Kenya. It examines integration of motorcycle transport in transport systems in these towns, evaluates the effects of motorcycle transport towards employment generation and assesses safety of motorcycle transport in the respective towns. The study uses descriptive survey design in which random samples of 1093 commercial motorcycle operators are obtained from members in registered motorcycle associations existing in the towns. Questionnaires are designed to obtain information from respondents regarding variables derived from the objectives. Further, key informants are interviewed and focus group discussions are undertaken using a set of items in an interview schedule. Other relevant information are sourced from electronic and non-electronic depositories. Data is statistically analyzed, discussed and displayed in tables and figures. Findings indicate lack of integration of motorcyclists safety needs in design, operation and maintenance of roads and its respective infrastructure in the three towns. Motorcycle transport offers reliable services to key destinations in the towns. Monthly incomes of commercial motorcycle operators increased significantly compared to their monthly earnings before venturing in commercial motorcycle transportation. Their mean daily incomes are above poverty line in Kenya. The number of operators earning below the poverty line decreased by 56%, 40% and 75% in in Busia, Kakamega and Thika towns respectively after venturing in motorcycle transport. Ownership of motorcycle is statistically significant determinant of incomes of commercial motorcycle operators in the three towns while hours worked per day is statistically significant determinant of incomes in Busia and Thika town, p < 0.05. Possession of license is a significant determinant of operators’ monthly earnings in Kakamega town, p < 0.05. Motorcycle accidents are high in Kakamega and low in Busia. Accident incidents are under reported in all the towns. Rider experience and training are not significant predictors of accident involvement among commercial motorcycle operator. Ownership of motorcycle is statistically significant predictor of accident involvement in all the towns while hours at work per day is not statistically significant predictor of accident involvement among operators in all towns. The study concludes that motorcycle transport has improved incomes and reduced poverty among the youths in Busia, Kakamega and Thika. Lack of integration of motorcycle safety needs in road designs and risky rider behaviour leads to unsafe motorcycle transport operation which erodes this gain. The study recommends review of road design manual to incorporate motorcyclist’s safety needs, formulation and implementation of strategies that promote motorcycle ownership to enhance safety and improve livelihoods in urban areas.
Modelling the Spatial Relationship between Built-Up Volumes and Surface Urban Heat Islands in Upper Hill, Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020-07) Mwangi, Patricia Wanjiku
Urban heat island refers to the thermal temperature differences between rural and urban areas. The factor that has been attributed to this phenomenon is urbanization, where natural land cover is replaced by concrete and other man-made impervious surfaces. Causes and effects of heat islands and urban climates are varied. The urbanization process dislocates the natural solar and hydrologic balances by transforming the radiative, thermal, moisture and aerodynamic characteristics of a region. Lack of indicators and frameworks on three dimensional development in urban environment possess a challenge to urban authorities when formulating policies on thermal comfort, pollution, assessing health-related risks such as heat stress, respiratory diseases and vector-borne diseases. Therefore, this study aims at modelling the relationship between built-up morphology and topographical features with land surface temperatures using time series data in Upper Hill, Nairobi. Upper Hill, Nairobi, Kenya has rapidly developed over the years, transforming to commercial, office blocks and high-rise flats from low density residential area. Changes in zoning regulations is informed by businesses choosing to locate their offices away from the Central Business District because of traffic jams, inadequate parking space and high costs of renting office space. The research uses case study and correlational research design. Random sampling is used to collect ground control points and verify analysed data. Land surface temperature, land cover, NDVI and albedo is analysed for the years 1986, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2011 and 2017. Road and building information is extracted from stereo-aerial photographs for the period 1978, 1998 and 2017, which is utilized to obtain building height, ground coverage ratio and built-up volume density index. The spatial relationship of land surface temperature with built-up morphology is modelled using geographically weighted regression and ordinary linear regression. Findings show that land surface temperature is influenced by type of land cover and albedo; with sparse grassland having an albedo of 0.18 and mean surface temperature of 28 0C while water has an albedo of 0.09 and mean surface temperature of 25 0C during the day. At night, water and sparse grassland have mean surface temperatures of 18.62 0C and 18 0C respectively. Contribution index of built-up and forest areas has reduced with increased impervious surfaces. Mean built-up volume density and ground coverage ratio in Upper Hill in 1978, 1998 and 2017 is low density while mean building heights are low-rise. Geographically weighted regression model findings indicate that building height in 1978 has an r2 of 70% and built-up volume density in 1998 and 2017 have r2 of 72% therefore having a great relationship with land surface temperature. Combined modelling tools capture the physical dynamics and interaction built-up forms have with land surface temperature. Built-up volume densities should be integrated in the development control frameworks, with building heights being an important variable in urban development. It further recommends that green design strategies be made an integral part of urban development with percentage vegetation cover specified in the zoning policy as surface urban heat islands is a spatial temporal phenomena.
Motivation and Its Impact on Workers’ Productivity in Construction Firms in Lagos, Nigeria
(Kenyatta University, 2016-10) Afuye, Funso
Motivation is considered as an important tool for enhancing worker’ productivity. Construction sector is not an exception. It has been empirically established that motivation has positive impact on construction worker’s productivity. Moreover, empirical studies have shown that productivity in the sector has been decreasing globally. This study therefore aims at examining the relationship between motivation, resistance and productivity and develops a model of this relationship as a way of addressing this challenge. Quantitative research design was employed with same questionnaire to the population covered. Productivity level was measured by work study with the use of five minutes field rating. Stratified and random sampling techniques were used to administer questionnaire to the supervisors, craftsmen and contractors sampled from a selected number of medium and large size firms in Lagos, Nigeria. Stratified sampling was used to divide supervisors into strata of builder, architect and engineer. Purposive sampling was used to administer questionnaires to various supervisors and craftsmen. 174 questionnaires were administered to supervisors collectively and 105 was filled and returned which constitute 60% success rate. 295 questionnaires were administered to craftsmen, 150 were filled and returned which constitute 50.85% success rate. 16 questionnaires were administered to contractors which makes up the firms surveyed, 12 were filled and returned which constitute 75% success rate. Questionnaire was designed in Likert scale of 1-5. Analysis was done by statistical packages for social sciences version 17. Descriptive statistics which include frequency, percentage and tables were used to present the data. One Way Analysis of Variance was used to determine whether there is variation in motivating factors influence on categories of professionals considered in the study. Linear correlation was used to test the hypothesis designed for the study. Factor analysis was used to group factors in order of potency and to also eliminate variables with low variance. This enables variables that cluster to be used to develop a model of the relationship between motivation, resistance and productivity. Multiple linear regressions were used to develop the model. It was established that: the major motivating factor of supervisors and craftsmen is financial related reward. Contractors do not relate motivation application to workers needs; there is a high positive linear relationship between motivation and productivity; the association between motivation and resistance is a weak negative relationship. The regression equation of the model of relationship between motivation, resistance and productivity is Y = -1.694 + (-907)b1+ (-425)b 2. The findings also reveal that the influence of resistance among workers is not sufficient to impair on the level of productivity in construction firms in Lagos, Nigeria. The study concludes that productivity decrease being experienced in Nigeria construction industry may continue if motivation strategy is not re-designed to meet workers need.
Nexus between Infrastructure Public Policy Planning, Land Speculation and Development in (Greater) Eastern Bypass, Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kinuthia, Hannah Wanjiru; Sammy Latema; Christine Majale
Accessibility to land, government programmes and efficiency of land market shapes urban growth. Land speculation accompanies public policy planning in infrastructure development in peri-urban areas and results into increase in land subdivision, which leads to conversion of marginal agricultural land into residential and urban use. Though viewed as part of natural urban growth; land speculation has been widely criticized as leading to leapfrog development, uncontrolled and mixed land uses in peri-urban areas. Land speculative strategies are becoming widespread in Kenya with transport corridors being hotspots. The government has initiated numerous transport infrastructure developments around the country as means to spur economic growth. However, little is known on the impact of public policy planning on land speculation and the effect of speculation on land development and prices in peri-urban areas of Kenya. This study therefore examines peri-urban land speculation and its implication on land development in (Greater) Eastern Bypass area. The study uses case study design in which (Greater) Eastern Bypass area, located in the peri-urban of Nairobi and comprising one developed and two planned roads, was selected to illuminate the phenomenon of land speculation. Data on land subdivisions, transfers and enterprises between 2005 and 2018 for (Greater) Eastern Bypass area was collected along with information on planning of the bypasses. Analysis in trend of subdivisions, transfers and enterprises before, during and after public policy planning is used to measure the extent of land speculation. Key informants’ interviews were used to obtain information on planning of (Greater) Eastern Bypass while 35 questionnaires were administered to land enterprises to obtain data on land prices and role of enterprises in peri-urban land speculation. Satellite images and shape files are used to conduct land use/cover, leapfrog measure and development patterns analysis as indicators of land development. The data is statistically analysed, discussed and findings displayed in tables and figures. Findings reveal that the number of land subdivisions, transfers and enterprises increased tremendously slightly before and after public notification of (Greater) Eastern Bypass. This implies that there is significant influence of public policy planning on peri-urban land speculation along (Greater) Eastern Bypass. The analysis of land use/cover reveals that grassland is the predominant land cover, suggesting that after subdivision land is no longer used for farming but is kept idle awaiting development. Speculative subdivisions cause leapfrog development characterized by cluster and dispersed development before public infrastructure are developed. Development of basic infrastructures triggers linear and continuous development along the abutting land. While planning of Greater Eastern Bypass and Link Road triggered increase in land prices, construction of Eastern Bypass caused 25% more increase in land prices. The study concludes that there are aspects of public policy planning that trigger land speculation; the period before and slightly after public notification is characterized by increased land subdivisions and transfers. Lack of prior land use planning and enforcement of land laws incentivises land speculation and irregular subdivision, which prompts leapfrog development. The study recommends that infrastructure planning should be accompanied by land use planning to control speculative subdivision and guide peri-urban land development.
Oil and Gas Exploration and Sustainable Environmental Management in Oil Block 13t South Lokichar Basin, Turkana County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020-03) Mugendi, Kariuki David
Commercial oil and gas was discovered in Kenya in 2012. Few academic studies have been done on the effects of the mentioned discovery to the environment.The oil and gas resources are expected to transform the economic wellbeing of the locals and the nation at large.However,land degradation, environmental pollution and socio-economic problems have always ensued oil and gas exporation ventures globally.This study aimed at determining the effects of oil and gas exploration on biophysical and socio-economic environments in Oil Block 13T South Lokichar Basin,Turkana South-subcounty and come up with sustainable environmental management strategies in the oil fields.The specific objectives were to review,constitutional,policy,legal and institutional framework governing environmental management in the backdrop of oil and gas exploration in Kenya and determination of oil and gas exploration effects on biophysical and socio-economic environments in the study area.The study adopted an exploratory mixed method research design.Purposive non-probability sampling was applied in determining the study area,sampling the boreholes,sampling the drill cutting samples and sampling the key informants.Probability sampling was used in identifying the manyattas,households and the villages for conducting focused group discussions.Questionnaires,documents review, photography,observation,landsat satellite imageries acquisition and analysis,laboratory analysis using XRF and AAS machines, for drill cuttings and water samples respectively to determine the levels of physicochemical properties were the data collection methods used.The questionnaires were coded into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 20.0 software and Excel 10.0.Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in data analysis.The study identified several gaps in the existing environmental policy and legal framework in relation to the oil fields environmental management coupled with poor enforcement of the laws by the relevant agencies.In addition, the study observed a decline in NDVI from 1 to 0.4329 for the rainy season and 0.4107 to 0.1217 jfor the dry season between 2006 and 2017 with a p-value of 0.0091< 0.05 on paired T-test implying a significant change on vegetation cover.The area under forest, shrubland and grassland had significantly reduced at 90% confidence interval with a,value of,0.0718,0.0738 and 0.0609.The drill cuttings whose levels of detected heavy metals concetration for Manganese(Mn),Copper(Cu),Nickel(Ni),Iron(Fe),Calcium(Ca),Lead(Pb),were;1.58,0.21,0.05,70.4,62.57,4.58 respectively were incorrectly being managed onsite.Mn, Feand Pb concentration levels in the drill cuttings were above the WHO and USEPA recommended standards for the reserve pit.The levels of Fe,Ni,Turbidity and Total Dissolved Solids of the sampled water from the study area,were all above the prescribed WHO standards.The study noted improved socio-economic characteristics, physical and social infrastructures in the study area.70% of the respondents felt that water provision, health facilities, education facilities, employment opportunities had improved since oil and gas exploration began with a Cohen kappa coefficient of agreement of 0.608.However,challenges such as population influx,land displacement,lack of adequate engagement of the locals, gender inequalities with a Cronbach’s Alpha of reliability of 0.735, health challenges of the locals and increased number of conflicts cases since 2012 with a statistical p-value of 0.005< 0.05 were noted.The study recommends enforcement of the existing environmental legislations and development of oil specific environmental laws,adoption of advanced oil drilling and drill waste management technologies, as well as participatory environmental management approach in the oil fields.
Peri-Urban Agrosystems Dynamics and their Implications on Land Suitability for Vegetable Farming in Nairobi Machakos Counties Interface, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Arcadius, Ahogle Agassin Martinien
Peri-urban agriculture is increasingly becoming important to cities of developing countries for food security, household livelihoods and income generation. However, peri-urban agriculture is often associated with heavy metals, trace elements and bacterial pathogens contamination, which poses serious human and environmental health risks. This study, therefore, assesses the dynamics of peri-urban agrosystems and their implications on land suitability for vegetable farming in Nairobi-Machakos counties interface. The objectives of the study in Nairobi-Machakos counties interface are to 1) to explore the diversity of peri-urban agrosystems and their determinants, 2) to assess irrigation water suitability and the contamination of peri-urban agrosystems, 3) determine the ecological and health risks of peri-urban agro-systems contamination, and 4) model land suitability for vegetable farming. The study used a descriptive correlational research design. Very High Resolution Google Earth imagery analysis and semi-structured questionnaire administered randomly to 130 farming units was used to characterise peri-urban agrosystems. A stratified random sampling method was used to collect irrigation water, soil and vegetable samples in ten vegetable production zones. The samples were processed following standard protocol and tested for water quality parameters, heavy metals and trace elements, and bacterial. Ecological risks were estimated using Hakanson Ecological Index and health risks were estimated using the USEPA framework for human exposure. Land suitability analysis was based on land use, irrigation water quality and accessibility, soil suitability, health risk, landform, and market accessibility considering a current situation (2022) and a future scenario (2030). The findings show that peri-urban farming in Nairobi-Machakos counties interface takes various forms and configurations characterised by different farming scales and diversified resource endowment as influenced by the type of actors, land tenure, irrigation water sources, and market orientations. Irrigation water across the site exhibits high concentrations of dissolved materials and bacterial load, making water quality degraded and thus of marginal suitability for vegetable irrigation. Soil and vegetables show above permissible threshold concentrations of heavy metals and trace elements, with arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead exhibiting the highest ecological risks. The potential health risks related to vegetable consumption indicate significant carcinogenic risks. Heavy metals and trace elements contamination in peri-urban farmlands correlate with irrigation water sources and farmland location across the peri-urban interface. Land suitability analysis shows that land use, irrigation water accessibility and quality, and soil suitability are key factors determining land suitability for vegetable farming in the interface. Land suitability modelling show that the current (2022) suitable to highly suitable lands account for 38.3% in dry season and 45.3% in wet season and is expected to drop to 25.2% and 26% in dry season and wet season in the 2030 scenario. The findings imply that there is a non-negligible potential for production of healthy and safe vegetable in Nairobi-Machakos counties interface. However, this potential is undermined by current land development, in which the situation of land use for 2022 has already overruled the expected situation in 2030 for some areas. Considering high peri-urban contamination and increasing reliance on urban hydrological flows for irrigation, there is an urgent need for rational zoning of peri-urban agricultural lands based on land use, water accessibility and quality, and soil suitability, coupled with regular monitoring of public and environmental risks and regulatory enforcement in urban and peri-urban landscapes. Furthermore, the sensitization of the different actors including farmers, urban population, leaders, and experts is important for efficient alleviation of ecological and public health risks.
Potential Adsorption of Chromium (VI) Ion from Steel Industry Wastewater by Macadamia Nutshell in Ruiru Municipality, Kiambu County
(Kenyatta University, 2024-01) Tinega, N. Joseph
In recent years, increased steel production has resulted into increased release of Cr (VI) effluent raising global concern. Due to this a number of conventional Cr (VI) removal technologies that is membrane filtration, nanofiltration, ion exchange, electrochemical and chemical precipitation have been developed. Chemical precipitation is the commonly applied low-cost technology but has proven to be unsustainable due to sludge which creates secondary pollution. This research study established chemical precipitation as the main Cr (VI) treatment technology at the Devki Steel Factory, Ruiru municipality, Kiambu County. The Cr (VI) effluent discharge at the factory was not compliant with WHO, World Bank, EU, USEPA, China and Kenya effluent discharge standard limits. The data obtained necessitated the need to evaluate the potential of macadamia nutshell in Cr (VI) removal from steel industry wastewater as an alternative and eco-friendly technology. Raw macadamia nutshell (RMN) and carbonized macadamia nutshell (CMN) were applied for potential Cr (VI) adsorption. BET, elemental, FTIR and SEM analysis results reveal that carbonization process modified the adsorbent surface properties by increasing the pore volume, surface area, pore size, carbon content and Cr (VI) removal rate from 40.21-380.64 m2 /g, 0.01-0.09 cc/g, 1.63- 8.78 Å, 47.01-57.2% and 71-97% respectively. The optimum Cr (VI) adsorption by the adsorbent was achieved at pH 4, contact time 2hrs, adsorbent mass 0.2g, metal concentration 50mg/l, and temperature 30℃. The adsorption process was exothermic. The equilibrium data was best described by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. Pseudo second order kinetics was in agreement with the experimental data. The maximum adsorption capacity and removal rate of 24.3 mg/g and 97.2% were obtained by CMN compared to RMN 17.95 mg/g and 71.6% respectively. The desorption experiment revealed that the spent adsorbent could be reused for a maximum of three adsorption cycles and metal recovery at maximum desorption efficiency of 98.8 % for CMN and 83.43% for RMN making the process eco-friendly. The two-tailed t test and paired t test reveal that successful Cr (VI) adsorption is obtained at p<0.05 in the order CMN>RMN. The study concludes that carbonized macadamia nutshell could potentially be applied as an alternative and eco-friendly technology in Cr (VI) removal from steel industry wastewater and compliant with Cr (VI) effluent discharge standard limits (0.05mg/l) at the local and international level. Thus, reducing human health and ecosystem impacts. The study recommends further study on improvement of metal adsorption efficiency of biomass-based adsorbents with diverse complex wastewater systems to increase their applicability.
The relationship between physical environment and academic achievement in public secondary schools in Nairobi city, Kenya
(2015-09) Aloyo, Paul
Does the settings where learning occurs matter? Research in North America and Western Europe shows that learning outcomes are hampered in physical environments where extreme climatic conditions are experienced.The settings and climatic conditions differ significantly in Sub-Saharan Africa as they are not as extreme. In fact leading rresearchers in Kenya offer mixed signals on the role of the school environment on achievement. This study sought to contribute to factors that explain learning achievement from the perspective of an architect planner rather than the predominant descriptive educationist viewpoint. The objectives of the study were to examine the quality of the physical school environment, establish academic achievement among form four students and explore the relationship between the school physical environment and student achievement. The study adopted the case study research design. Public secondary schools were stratified into boys, girls and mixed categories. These were further stratified along eight geopolitical divisions in Nairobi County. Schools were proportionally allocated to the divisions. Systematic and simple random sampling techniques were employed to select the 36 schools investigated by the study. A revised Commonwealth Association of Physical Environment questionnaire, an interview schedule and an observation schedule revealed that the overall average quality of mixed schools’ index of 126 was lower than that of boys’ and girls’ schools. The indices for boys’ and girls’ schools were both equal to 134. In the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education results of 2011, girls recorded the best performance with a mean grade score of 51.9, followed by boys’ and mixed schools with scores of 46.2 and 31.2 respectively. The extent to which the environment influenced the test scores, Pearson’s r, revealed a positive correlation between the school environment and student achievement; r = 0.370, n = 35, p = 0.029. Analysis of variance tests indicated that the impact of the internal environment and facilities on student achievement differed among boys’, girls’ and mixed schools; F (2, 7) = 4.178, p = 0.042. The correlation and multiple regressions computed identified the key predictor variables of achievement as size in acreage of the school, availability of a title deed, aesthetics, security, school grounds, type of lighting, paintwork to interior walls, graffiti occurrence, classroom furniture condition and noise from the neighbourhood. The study concluded that school physical environment contributes to student achievement. The task of improving school facilities from the foregoing results was noted. Focus is recommended on putting in place measures to upgrade old facilities, improve school grounds and control development around educational facilities.
Structural analysis of the drainage basin of Kenyan rift valley lakes within the aberdare detachment, using satellite data, GIS and field observations
(Nairobi University, 1997-03) Onywere, S. M.
In addressing the problem of lake-level changes in the drainage basin of the Kenyan Rift Valley lakes (Bogoria, Nakuru, Elmenteita, Naivasha) of the Aberdare Detachment System, a study of the watershed of the basin is made. The study deals with information extraction and representation using digital techniques based on ERDAS image analysis programs and Intergraph, Geographic Information System (GIS) based on Microstation software. A GIS database is designed, and through modelling, has provided the cartographic ability to address the questions posed by the present problem. Because of variation in data types and sources, raster-based GIS and vector-based GIS are used. At first approach, analysis is based on visual interpretation of photographic products. In designing raster-based GIS, satellite imagery is initially digitally enhanced and filtered. Analysis of Landsat-5 TM and SPOT imagery is made and used for interpretation and classification, facilitating analysis of land use and land cover characteristics and patterns. Good ground resolution, and characteristics of the data reveal significant details of the land use cover patterns and linear patterns of fault scarps, with the synoptic view suggesting NNE, NE and NW trending scarps and associated grabens. The spectral analysis has allowed for: (1) Image classification of Nakuru-Menengai area using supervised image classification programs and Principal Component Analyzed (PCA) image data. (2) Lineament analysis and drainage pattern analysis using peA and directionally filtered image data. (3) Generation of raster GIS data files that are integrated and modelled with vector GIS data files. III The image classification identifies 17 land cover types that show a marked increase in agricultural activity in the study area in the period July 1984 to present. Increased irrigation around lake Naivasha in this period has resulted in increased direct consumption of water from the lake. There is also increased land use in the catchment areas of the lakes, affecting the morphology of the delicate soil structure and the forest cover, and subsequently run-off into the lakes. The loss of vegetation cover on the soils has resulted in decreased infiltration and thus ground discharge into the lakes. This has affected the water levels in the lakes. For the vector GIS, information concerning five themes, namely structures (faults), lithology, drainage patterns, land use patterns, and topography, is extracted from topographic maps, geologic maps, and tables and reports of the study area. The various digitized elements are given attribute values through Look-up-Tables and referenced to the analyzed satellite data. In the referencing, the imagery products are draped on the vector data and incorporated into the database. The area is divided into three tectonic blocks on the basis of recognized trends of fault patterns. A detailed analysis of selected areas in the three divisions is made, basing the interpretation on a number of measurable and recognizable features in the images, ground truth data, and integration with digitized data sets. Stored GIS information allows for graphic presentation of the morphotectonic structures of the Aberdare Detachment. Comparison between vector data and raster data, reveal a strong structural control and tectonic involvement on the drainage patterns and the lake basins. There is also strong structural control into the geothermal reservoirs. Step-fault ramps channel water from the marginal escarpments and the platform areas into the rift floor, largely directing the waters away from the nearby lake basins into widely separated basins. Thus, the drainage into lakes Bogoria, Nakuru, Elmenteita and Naivasha cover small areas, poorly recharging these lakes.
Wetland Utilization and Community Perception on Payment for Ecosystem Services in Conservation of Nyando Wetland of the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Maithya, Joseph Kasua; Sammy Letema; Felix L.M. Ming’ate
People's livelihoods especially those living near wetlands in developing countries are often directly dependent on wetlands and watersheds through provision of food, water and biomass. The high rural population density within Lake Victoria is rapidly enhancing urbanization, land conversion to settlement, agriculture and industry. These activities have resulted to depletion of wetland resources and threaten the Lake wetland ecology and livelihoods of the local communities. The aim of this study was to examine the utilization and evaluate payment for ecosystem services within the Nyando wetland for enhanced environmental sustainability and community livelihoods. The objectives of the study were to investigate institutional arrangements governing conservation of Nyando wetland resources, examine the utilization of Nyando wetland ecosystem services, and examine the local community’s perception on payment for ecosystem services in Nyando wetland. The study uses two theories namely the social-ecological systems and the driving force state response framework. A case study survey design approach was employed for data collection. A stratified random sampling based on two administrative sub-counties namely Nyando and Nyakach was employed to collect data at household level using a structured questionnaire. A total of 394 households were sampled. In-depth interviews were undertaken with key informants from governmental and non-governmental organizations and members of the local community. The quantitative data was subjected to descriptive statistics, Chi-square test and correlation analysis which were performed in SPSS version 20. The data was presented in figures and tables. Content analysis was performed on qualitative data whereas land use/cover change analysis was performed for land use change detection. The results show that the local community mainly depend on the wetland for farming, harvesting of firewood and papyrus, and fishing for both domestic and commercial use. Human disturbance from vegetation clearing and burning for agriculture and settlement, climate change and variability, and inefficient resource governance has resulted to reduction in the size of the wetland by -2,933.1 Ha (-24.4%) between 1985-2020 which has consequently affected the availability of its ecosystem services. Both informal and formal institutions exist in the conservation of Nyando wetland with the former having evolved over time and were gaining little appreciation as a result of commercialization of farming activities, ethnic mix, modernization and influences from the western culture. Several conservation initiatives including tree planting activities, flood control, education and capacity building were taking place in the area being championed by either County governmental or Non-governmental organizations. Lack of resources (33.3%), high poverty and limited knowledge amongst the local community (28.6%) and policy conflicts and duplications resulting to poor organizational coordination (23.8%) are the main challenges to effective enforcement of conservation rules. Lack of awareness was cited as the reason for non-familiarity with the payment for ecosystem services concept. This study recommends Nyando wetland boundary delineation, co-management of the wetland resources, adoption of sustainable alternative livelihood activities and payment for ecosystem services, and harmonization of the different legislations contained in many pieces of government frameworks in-order to achieve coherence in sustainable management and conservation of wetlands.

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