PHD-Department of Security and Correction Science
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Item African Union-Led State Reconstruction Initiatives in Somalia, 2007-2021(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Kandie, Dennis KiptooThe intents of military interventions across the globe on state reconstruction continue to elicit intellectual debates as scholars and policy experts weigh in on its viability and practicality. The study interrogated the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) on state reconstruction between 2007 and 2021 with the following specific objectives: to analyze initiatives employed by AMISOM on state reconstruction in Somalia; to assess the strategic partnerships between the AMISOM and UN Country Teams and other international governmental actors on state reconstruction in Somalia and; to assess challenges faced by the AMISOM in carrying out state reconstruction in Somalia. Literature reviewed was based on the themes in tandem with the study’s specific objectives. The study was anchored by state building, securitization and intervention theories. Methodologically, the study employed case study research design and targeted population entailed key informants across different strata with pertinent information. Interview schedule and observation schedule were employed as key primary data collection instruments while for the collection of secondary data, document analysis was utilized. The study established that AMISOM employed counter terrorism, civil-military co-ordination, protection of civilians, security, institutional capacity building, stabilization, gender-based, humanitarian initiatives, national reconciliation, disarmament, demobilization and re-integration as well as intelligence gathering and sharing and legitimization initiatives. The study established that strategic partnerships significantly contributed to AMISOM initiatives in form of legitimization, funding, resolutions, technical assistance, strategic air lift, coordination, logistics, humanitarian aid, capacity building, donations, liaison initiatives, counter piracy, air combat mission, training, surveillance and reconnaissance, international peace and reconstruction summits on Somalia. The study also concluded that legal and administrative obligations are vital in enhancing efficiency of strategic partnerships towards attaining state reconstruction. Further, state reconstruction should be prioritized in peace support operations. The study also established that encountered strategic, operational and tactical challenges AMISOM encountered in state reconstruction process in Somalia. The study concluded that military interventions in Somalia require adequate technical, financial, logistical, administrative, legitimate support to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in its operations. Adequate funding, conformity to the international humanitarian law and international human rights, proper training and adequate intelligence should be irreducible minimum for any mission sanctioned by UN, AU or and other legitimate actor before embarking on the interventionist agenda. Multisectoral approaches should be embraced in addressing challenges. The study further recommended that: United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in partnership within African Union Peace and Security Council (AUPSC), in the context of Africa PSOs, should come up with sustainable resolutions that corresponds with the objectives therefore ensuring state reconstruction is fully attained; the need for proper strategic partnerships that are scope-specific to state reconstruction initiatives; AU should marshal for resources that would sustain peace support operations and; AU should not entirely depend on donor community particularly from the collective westItem Border Management Through Diplomacy As A Counter- Terrorism Strategy Along Kenya And Somalia Frontier(Kenyatta University, 2025-03) Ating'a, ReubenThe terrorism issue along the Kenya-Somalia border poses a significant challenge to national security, regional stability, and bilateral relations. The persistence of these cross-border extremist threats has highlighted the limitations of conventional diplomatic approaches in effectively addressing terrorism. This study, therefore, explored the role of border diplomacy in managing terrorism along the Kenya-Somalia border, guided by four specific objectives. First, it examined the role of border diplomacy in mitigating cross-border terrorism between the two nations. Second, it explored the diplomatic methods employed by Kenya and Somalia to counter-terrorism and evaluated their effectiveness. Third, the study identified the challenges that hinder the success of border diplomacy in managing terrorism along this border. Lastly, the study offered recommendations for enhancing border diplomacy to address terrorism in this context better. Using a descriptive survey design, the research was framed within structural realism and border security theory. Respondents were selected from the study area, including residents, community leaders, government officials, border security personnel, immigration officers, traders, and businesspeople. A combination of purposive and simple random sampling methods was employed, resulting in a sample size of 300 household heads and 90 key informants. Data was collected through focus group discussions, questionnaires, and observations, while secondary data was sourced from relevant articles. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze quantitative data, with content analysis applied to qualitative data. The study found that border diplomacy, particularly through joint commissions and diplomatic meetings, positively influenced bilateral relations, though territorial disputes undermined its full effectiveness. It also revealed that the success of diplomatic approaches depended on how well Kenya and Somalia balanced security needs with regional power dynamics. Additionally, the study identified several challenges to border diplomacy, including porous borders, clan conflicts, human trafficking, and smuggling. To enhance border diplomacy, the study recommended improvements in intelligence sharing, joint patrols, establishing a Border Diplomacy Council, and creating regular diplomatic forums. Furthermore, it suggested investing in local development, engaging border communities in security efforts, and addressing the socio-economic vulnerabilities that extremists exploit. Finally, the study emphasized the importance of supporting governance improvements in Somalia to stabilize the border region and counter terrorism more effectively.Item Commercialized Security and National Security in Nairobi City County, Kenya.(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mutonyi, Gerald Peter; Merecia Ann Sirera; Wangari MwaiIn Kenya, the maintenance of security for the citizens had traditionally been the state‟s duty. However, non-state actors have come up to offer security to those who can afford to buy it. Despite this development, few studies have examined commercialized security and national security. Using Security Governance theory and Network Analysis theory, this study sought to examine commercialized security and national security. The study adopted a cross sectional survey design, and was carried out in Nairobi amongst the adult residents classified as either consumers or providers of commercial security industry (CSI). Clustering of the County into constituencies and wards was by purposive sampling. Purposive sampling was used to select those who purchase or manage CSI services for their organizations as well as management of the CSI firms. The general public and security guards were systematically sampled. A questionnaire, interview guide and structured observation were instruments of data collection. Quantitative data was analyzed by both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics mainly frequency distributions were used to summarize the results facilitating in analysis of the key findings as well as presentation of findings. Inferential statistics specifically multiple regression analysis was used to predict the contributions of specific CSI services on national security and in drawing conclusions of overall effects. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically. Qualitative and quantitative data were triangulated to provide robust illustrations of key findings. The findings of the study revealled that CSI makes a positive significant contribution to national security: F (4, 369) = 9.42, p ˂ .001, R2 = .093. The results of the regression indicated that the model explained 9.3% of the variance. As regards the specific services, the results demonstrate that (1) Manned guarding significantly contributes to the 26 % of outcome of the CSI B = .260, β = .135, P = .007; (2) Alarm and Electronics 22.9 %; B = .229, β = .224, P = .001; (3) CVIT security service contributes significantly and positively at 10.8 %; B = .108, β = .118, P = .018. While CSI investigative service 3.6 % (B = .036, β = .084, P < = .103 although it was not significant. From qualitative data the participants narrated that the manned guarding as a service of CSI increases the visible presence of security agents in the environment a factor that discourages criminal activities and provides feelings of safety, Alarms and electronics were said to detection of criminal and harmful activities hence intervening in stopping crime, intelligence on criminal activities through surveillance, and creating a culture of security and crime awareness all which contribute to enhancing national security. However, despite valuable contributions CSI was limited in several ways which could explain the relatively low but significant contribution to the national security. The limitations include; not being armed with firearms, poor working conditions of security personnel, lack of courtesy by guards, lack of trust by the state security agencies, lack of regulation and licensing and security personnel who are not adequately trained. In relation to best practices, the study found improved working conditions of the security personnel, adequate training and development for the security personnel, cooperation with the state security agencies, after sale service, and enforcement of regulations, could help improve the CSI services hence increase their contribution to the national security. The study concludes, that CSI though motivated by profit making plays, a significant role that enhances state capacity in provision of security as well as contributes to safety of citizens. Based on the findings, the study recommends effective regularization of CSI as well collaboration between with state security agents.Item Devolved Governance and National Security in the Context of Clannism in the North-Eastern Region, Kenya (2013–2022)(Kenyatta University, 2024-04) Rashid, Abdi ElmiDevolution emphasises and focuses on context-sensitive empowerment and interventions whose benefits have a domino effect on national security. In the North-Eastern region of Kenya, devolution was implemented amid a long history of clan rivalries. However, empirical knowledge on how clannism influenced devolved governance and its effect on national security is lacking. Using theories of decentralisation, institutionalism and an integrated model based on primordialist and instrumentalist theory, this study sought to analyse the impact of devolution on national security in the context of clannism in the North-Eastern region of Kenya from 2013 to 2022. The study was conducted using a mixed method approach anchored on a cross-sectional survey design. The target population were adult household members in the region. Snowball, simple random, and purposive sampling techniques were used to obtain a representative sample of 932 study participants from Wajir, Mandera, and Garissa counties. Data were collected using questionnaires, key informant interviews, and a review of relevant documents. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and presented in the form of graphs and tables. Qualitative data were analysed using critical discourse analysis and presented through narratives and verbatim quotes. The results indicated that while devolution had realised political and fiscal benefits that could enhance security, tensions created through clan-based discrimination, perceived inadequate participatory and exclusionary governance, clan-identity politics, poor resource management and corruption foreclosed the benefits with possible negative effects on security. However, the administrative aspects of devolution fostered inter-clan unity and consequently enhanced national security through infrastructure development, increased access to water, fairly effective disaster management, and the creation of a favourable business environment. Clannism was also found to have influenced the allocation of devolved power and resources, preventing those who were not close to the centre of power from reaping the benefits of devolution; thus, strained inter-clan relationships and increased the risk of insecurity in the region and the country. Additionally, evidence from the study suggests the potential capture of local governments by elites, with the monetization of politics and the entrenchment of clan-based politics, nepotism and cronyism playing a key role. Overall, clannism was found to be a central factor in the region that undermined the residents from optimally accessing the fruits of devolution, thus negating the anticipated security benefits. Moreover, elites use a hegemonic approach to whip clannism to their support to the detriment of security in the region. Based on the findings, this study recommends the implementation of frameworks that promote equity in political representation, diversity in employment, and meaningful public engagement in governance. Furthermore, it calls for more robust measures tailored to nurture inter-clan cohesion that would facilitate a common approach in addressing insecurity challenges in the North-Eastern region to enhance national security.Item Electoral Process and National Security in the Informal Settlements of Nairobi City County, Kenya from 2007-2022(Kenyatta University, 2025-12) Kilatya, Jairus MutindaOne tool that governments utilize to affect income distribution and enhance household wellbeing is public expenditure. The United Nations emphasized in 2005 that governments would need to increase public spending in the areas of agriculture, health, infrastructure, and education if the Millennium Development Goal targets were to be realized. This was stressed even more in 2015 under the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Between 2006 and 2022, public spending on health, infrastructure, agriculture, and education grew by almost 25 per cent of total national spending in Kenya. The Constitutional mandate that allocates 15 per cent of national revenue to county governments and one-half percent to marginalized areas has reinforced agenda. Income inequality has remained high at an average Gini coefficient of 0.386 since 2015/16. In 2021, the Gini coefficient was 0.389. Compared to the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal of eradicating poverty, the projected number of impoverished individuals in 2021 was 38.6 per cent, in the field of education, the enrollment rates for primary and secondary schools were 47.8 per cent and 88.4 per cent, respectively, in 2015, falling short of the Sustainable Development Goal objective of 100 per cent target. In the health sector despite the Sustainable Development Goals' aim of fewer than 25 deaths per 1,000 live births by 2030, the maternal mortality rate remained high in 2022, with 41 deaths per 1,000 live births. Kenya will not be able to meet the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030, which include poverty eradication, healthy living and equitable distribution of income within the nation, if these trends continue. An increase in public expenditure on health and education without corresponding effects on household welfare and income inequalities has raised concerns among policymakers. Thus, the goal of the study was to ascertain how public spending affects household welfare in Kenya, as well as how it varies depending on the region's economic bloc. It also aimed to assess the effect of public spending on income distribution in Kenya. The study used a non-experimental research approach using data from the Basic Report on Well-Being, which is an extract from the Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey for the 2015–16 year. Public expenditure data at the county levels covering all the 47 counties for the period 2014 to 2016 were used in the analysis, taking the county as the unit of study. The study used Ordinary Least Squares method in analyzing objectives one and three while Seemingly Unrelated Regression technique was used to estimate consumption expenditure share equations. The study estimated Ordinary Least Squares and found empirical support that a 1 per cent increase in government spending on agriculture would enhance household welfare by 0.1 per cent and 0.3 per cent, respectively, with regard to food and non-food household consumption. In addition, the study found that household welfare would improve by 0.18 per cent in terms of aggregate household consumption when the government increases public expenditure on agriculture by one percent. However, the study established that public spending on education had a positive impact on household welfare in terms of food and total household spending, whereas public spending on health per capita only had a positive impact on household spending on nonfood items. A 1 per cent rise in government expenditure on agriculture per capita lowers income inequality in the first and second quintiles by 0.7 and 0.5 percentage points, respectively, according to the study's estimation of the Seemingly Unrelated Regression model. This implies that governmental expenditure on agriculture per capita has a favorable effect on income distribution by aiding the impoverished. The study further found that income distribution in the lowest quintiles would improve by 0.2 percentage points with a 1 per cent increase in public spending on infrastructure per capita. On the other hand, the study did not find any empirical evidence that public expenditure on health per capita have an effect on income distribution in all the income groups. Regionally, according to the study, increased public funding for infrastructure, health care, and agriculture is necessary for the Coast, South Eastern Kenya, Frontier Counties Development Council, Mount Kenya, and Aberdare economic blocs to achieve better welfare status for their population. The study concluded that both the national and county governments should increase funding for infrastructure, education, and agriculture in order for the government to improve household welfare status and income distribution among Kenyan citizens, as these specific expenditures are necessary.Item Human Trafficking and National Security at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport and Moi International Airport, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2024-06) Karanja, Monicah WanjikuThis study endeavored to analyze the effects of Human Trafficking on National Security with a focus on Jomo Kenyatta and Moi International Airports in Kenya. The study embraced cross sectional survey design using both qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection and analysis. The target population was security agents, mainly officers from the Directorate of Criminal Investigation and the Kenya Airport Police Unit, as well as immigration officers stationed at Jomo Kenyatta and Moi international airports. Proportionate stratified random sampling and purposive sampling were adapted to identify the participants for the study. Data collection was through thematically structured questionnaires that were in line with the study objectives, and through an interview guide. Quantitative data was analyzed through descriptive statistics using frequency distributions while qualitative data was analyzed thematically. Findings from the quantitative data revealed a significant prevalence of human trafficking at airports, with a notable gender disparity among both victims and traffickers. The results also showed that human trafficking was sustained by weak laws, involvement of human trafficking cartels, involvement of airport employees, challenges in detecting victims of human trafficking due to work permits and weak systems as well as interference by the political class. Findings from qualitative data showed that the high rate of unemployment, poverty, and discriminatory labour laws obscured the dangers associated with human trafficking, making the victims fall in the trap of the traffickers. Among other things, kidnapping, terrorism, money laundering and banditry were the biggest security risks associated with human trafficking. The findings showed that money laundering affected financial institutions and stalled economic growth of the country. Moreover, the victims of abduction engaged in heinous crimes against the nation. In addition, the study showed that human trafficking threatens national security in various ways including; undermining international cooperation, weakening governance, supporting terrorist and armed groups, supporting abusive regimes, bankrolling criminal activities, undermining community and national stability as well as fueling conflict among others. Qualitative data also revealed that human trafficking raptured the social fabric, and denied individuals, especially children, opportunities for development. Overall, the study found human trafficking to have far-reaching negative effects on national security. Based on the findings, the study recommended promotion of comprehensive approaches that involve coordinating security in all airlines and law enforcement agencies to strengthen security at the airports, and address various undercurrents that make individuals vulnerable to the persuasions of human traffickers.Item Impact of Closed-Circuit Television on Police Operations in Nairobi City County, Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023-09) Kirui, Gideon KipngénoClosed-circuit television (CCTV) is a key strategy that police services worldwide are increasingly using to improve the outcomes of their operations. However, little is known about the use and impact of the police-operated CCTV system in Nairobi City County since its implementation in mid-2015, making it difficult to say whether it is achieving its intended goals or wasting public resources. Therefore, this study aimed to assess how the CCTV system has aided police operations. The study had five specific objectives: to assess the impacts of the use of CCTV in monitoring public spaces on the outcomes of police operations, to analyse the impact of the use of CCTV to coordinate incident responses on the outcomes of police operations, to evaluate the impact of the use of CCTV in investigating crimes on the outcomes of police operations, to determine the moderating effect of CCTV policies on the relationship between CCTV use and police operations outcomes, and to examine the challenges hindering the effective use of CCTV in police operations in Nairobi County. Rational Choice Theory and Routine Activity Theory informed the study. The study used a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, integrating a cross-sectional survey design and a phenomenological design. It involved 403 police officers from police stations in Nairobi City County and those operating CCTV sampled using purposive and cluster sampling. A questionnaire, a focus group discussion guide and an interview schedule were used to collect data. Quantitative data were analysed using frequencies, percentages and binary logistic regression, while thematic analysis was used to analyse qualitative data. The findings revealed that CCTV has significantly helped police conduct their operational tasks, reduced crimes, enhanced road safety, improved the safety of police officers and reduced the cost of police operations. However, it has not significantly quickened police response to incidents. The findings also showed that CCTV policies do not significantly moderate (b = -.001, 95% CI [-.410, .408], p = .996) the relationship between the use of CCTV and police operations outcomes. The study also found that insufficient funding was the most significant challenge hindering the effective use of the CCTV system, followed by criminals evading CCTV detection and unrealistic public expectations about CCTV. Other significant challenges included CCTV vandalism, limited CCTV coverage, inadequate CCTV operators, lack of interest among police officers in using CCTV, and unavailability of footage in some areas with CCTV cameras. The study concluded that CCTV has improved police operations in the county, but several challenges need to be addressed. The study recommends the expansion of CCTV coverage, installation of lighting in areas under CCTV surveillance, the establishment of quick response squads, the sensitisation of police officers on CCTV policies and the effective ways and benefits of using CCTV, periodic meetings between police officers operating CCTV and those in the field, publicity of successes in using CCTV, adequate funding and maintenance of the CCTV system, and publication and regular review of CCTV policies.Item Influence of Ethnic Polarization on Devolved Governance in Embu County, Kenya 1963-2023(Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Warurii,Fredrick KariukiThe study focused on how decentralized and devolved governance was influenced by ethnic polarization in Embu County. The pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial period applied decentralization until 2013. Devolution governance was applied from 2013. The objectives of the study were to: discuss the historical context of decentralization in Kenya and Embu County from pre-colonial period to 1963, assess the enhancement of ethnic polarization in the application of decentralization and devolution in Kenya and Embu County from 1963 to 2013 and analyze the interventions offered by devolved governance in order to mitigate ethnic polarization between the Aembu and the Ambeere in Embu County, Kenya between 2013 and 2023. The study was significant because devolution was an avenue for socio-economic development and constitutional democracy. The Hegemonic Exchange Theory by Rothchild (2016) and the Rising Expectations led to Rising Frustrations Theory by Huntington and Learner (1993), were used to interpret the findings of the study. Literature review adopted the funnel structure as guided by the research objectives. This chapter focused on the historical context of decentralization from pre-colonial period to 1963, application of decentralization and devolution from 1963 to 2013 and interventions of devolved governance to mitigate ethnic polarization from 2013 to 2023. The factors which emboldened ethnic polarization were placed under the economic, social and political categorization attached to the objective periodization. The two theoretical frameworks paid attention to relevance, divergence, research gaps and personal views. The conceptual framework provided a contrast in the structural and operational glimpse between decentralization and devolution. Descriptive research design was used in both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Data was gathered using both primary and secondary sources. The sample size was 130 respondents drawn from a target population of 608,599 (KPHC; 2019). Primary data was gathered through questionnaires, interviews, Kenya National Archives (KNA) documentations and Government reports. The sample size for random sampling totaled 70 respondents and that for purposive sampling to 60. Secondary data was sourced from books, theses, journals and articles in newspapers from public and university libraries. Online sources were used to factor in the most recent and relevant studies in governance and ethnic polarization. The study majorly relied on qualitative method of data analysis. Data presentation was portrayed using descriptive statistics such as frequency tables, verbatim captions, plates, pie-charts, bar-graphs and line-graphs where applicable for effective understanding of data analysis. The socio-economic and political architecture which was a product of historical and governance models emboldened inter-ethnic polarization for both the Aembu and the Ambeere. I contend that equitable distribution of socio-economic infrastructure and the adoption of negotiated democracy in the executive docket of the County Governor of Embu on rotational constitutional term limit arrangement was one of the robust options of ethnic communities’ parity; popularly engendered to bring about ethnic co-existence and sustainable peace in Embu County. The contribution of this research was to bring about inter-ethnic cohesion and improve the quality of legal, legitimate and accountable governance for efficient service delivery to residents of Embu County and other citizens of Kenya.Item Radicalization of prisoners on prison security management in maximum security prison facilities in Kenya(Kenyatta University, 2023) Cheboi, Peter Komen; Stephen Handa; Casper MasigaRadicalization is emerging as a big security threat and concern in all nations more so when it takes place in prison facilities. This raises serious concerns on the prison security management. This study therefore examined radicalization of prisoners on prison security management in Maximum Prison facilities in Kenya. The Specific objectives of the study were to establish causes of prisoners’ radicalization in prisons facilities, explore how radicalization is propagated in prisons facilities, examine the effects of prisoners’ radicalization on prison security management and determine the challenges associated with mitigating prisoners’ radicalization in prison security management in prison facilities in Kenya. The study was anchored on uncertaintyidentity theory, deterrence theory, and rehabilitation theory of punishment. The study employed descriptive survey and exploratory research designs. The study was carried out in Shimo la Tewa, Kamiti and Lang’ata Women Prisons which were selected because of their high security level to hold high and very high risk prisoners as a result of their offences. The target population was 7400 comprising of 6000 prisoners and 1400 prison officers from the three facilities were selected using both secondary data, purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Questionnaires and interview schedules were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data respectively. Quantitative data were analyzed statistically while thematic content analysis technique was applied to analyze qualitative data and presented appropriately using different methods. Key findings of this study revealed that radicalization occurred in prison facilities due to diverse factors including religious ideology, inadequate information sharing among key security agencies, social-economic factors, and laxity among the officers which pose serious threat to the prison security. Among the challenges encountered when mitigating radicalization were; lack of adequate inadequate information sharing, congestion, insufficient resources and ill-training of prison officers on handling radicalization of prisoners. The study recommends formulation of policy framework on multi-agency digitized information sharing system, improvement of infrastructure in prison facilities, improvement in general welfare of prison staff and enhanced vetting of staff to curb radicalization and enhance prison and national security management to address the various concerns raised in the study.