MST-School of Agriculture and Enterprise Development

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This collections contains bibliographic information and abstracts of Master theses and dissertation in the School of Agriculture And Enterprise Development held in Kenyatta University Library

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Adoption Intensity, Perception and Profitability of Organic Based Soil Fertility Management Technologies in Murang’a and Tharaka-Nithi Counties, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mwaura, George Gacheru; Erick K. Bett; Jayne N. Mugwe; Felix K. Ngetich
There have been major efforts to introduce and promote organic based technologies among the smallholder farmers to address low and declining soil fertility. Despite these efforts, adoption of these organic based technologies has been dismal. This study aimed to; (1) determine the socio-economic factors that influence adoption intensity of organic based technologies for soil fertility management, (2) determine perceived benefits by farmers of using organic based technologies, and (3) determine the profitability of using organic based technologies for managing soil fertility. The study was carried out in two subcounties; Meru-South and Gatanga where these organic based technologies have been introduced and promoted previously. The study adopted a survey research design. A sample of 150 households selected randomly from each study area were interviewed. Tobit regression model was used to analyse the adoption intensity of organic based technologies. Nine organic based technologies were adopted. Socio-economic factors that influenced the adoption intensity in Murang’a were gender of the household (+), age (-), level of education (+), household size (+), access to external labour (+), training (+), total livestock unit (+), total land under cultivation (+), title deed ownership (+), agricultural group membership (+), household access to credit (+). In Tharaka-Nithi, the following were determinants of adoption intensity gender of the household (+), education level (+), size of the household (+), access to external labour (+), years of experience (+), training (+), total livestock unit (+), land under cultivation (+), title deed ownership (+), agricultural group membership (+), access to credit (+). The study further examined farmer perception. The perceptions were based on four variables; potential to improve soil fertility, potential to improve yields, profitability and labour requirements of organic based inputs. To analyse farmers’ perceptions, an ordered logit regression model was fitted into the data. Farmers’ perception results showed that majority of the respondents in Murang’a (115, 76.7%) and Tharaka-Nithi (104, 69.3%) strongly agreed that organic based technologies can improve yields. Factors that influenced perception were gender (-), household size (+), external labour (+), total livestock unit (+), group membership (+), training (+), land under cultivation (-), and credit access (+). Financial analysis of the maize enterprise was carried out using the gross margin analysis. Manure and manure+fertilizer was considered, while sole inorganic fertilizer was included in the analysis for comparison purposes. Gross margins showed that in Murang’a manure+fertilizer yielded 1962 Kgha-1, manure yielded 1820Kgha-1, and inorganic fertilizer recorded 1483 Kgha-1. In Tharaka-Nithi, manure +fertilizer yielded 1940 Kgha-1, manure yielded 1723 Kgha-1, inorganic fertilizer 1689 Kgha-1. Manure reported higher gross margins (44074) in Murang’a while manure+fertilizer showed higher gross margins (45625) in Tharaka-Nithi. This study recommends using organic-based inputs because they have been perceived to have the potential to increase crop yields and improve soil fertility. Also, the gross margins of sole manure and manure+fertilizer were higher than the gross margins of sole fertilizer.
Analysis of Consumer Preference for Product Attributes:A Case Of Indigenous Chicken in Makueni And Nairobi Counties, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2019-03) Ndenga, Charles
Indigenous chickens (Gallus domesticus) are important source of livelihoods and food to majority of rural and urban households in Kenya. Consumers prefer indigenous chicken due to its nutritional and health benefits. Despite these benefits, productivity levels of Indigenous chicken are low resulting to shortages in supply. In the recent past, research has focused on increasing productivity levels of indigenous chicken resulting to improved indigenous chickens. However, acceptability and utilization of indigenous chickens is still higher compared to that of improved indigenous chickens. This can be attributed toa dearth in information on consumer preference attributes in indigenous chicken which are not available in improved indigenous and exotic chickens.This study aimed to fill this gap in knowledgeby analyzing preference attributes in indigenous chicken meat and eggs which influences their choice in Makueni and Nairobi counties. This was achieved through three specific objectives that aimed to; evaluate social economic factors influencing consumption frequency of indigenous chicken, assess indigenous chicken meat and eggs attributes that influences choice and analyze the influence of indigenous chicken meat and eggs attributes on price. Multistage sampling technique was used to select 200 respondents inNairobi and Makueni counties. Primary data was collected in a cross sectional survey design using semi structured questionnaires that were administered through interview schedules. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in data analysis with the aid of Microsoft Excel and STATA 11 version software. For the first objective, binary logistic regression model was employed, in the second objective principal component analysis was used while hedonic pricing model analyzedthe third objective. Results of the logit model indicated that age, education, gender, price and household size influenced consumption frequency. Principal component analysis results revealed that; Skin colour, size, tenderness, sex, freshness, skin texture and price influenced choiceof indigenous chicken in both counties. Consumers in Nairobi paid a premium price of 6% for cocks while in Makueni, chickens aged 8-20 weeks attracted price premium of 10% over those aged above 28 weeks. Chickens with black and white plumage colour received price discounts of 23% and 18% respectively. In indigenous chicken eggs, consumers in Makueni paid price premium of 10% for white shell coloureggs while those in Nairobi paid price premium of 9% for brown colour over white coloured eggs. The study recommended that farmers should adopt production methods that enhance incorporation of the preference attributes. Tradersshould adopt appropriate marketing mix based on attributes of preference and segment the chicken market based on the social economic characteristics of the consumers. Research institutions need toincorporate attributes of interest to consumers in their breeding programmes so as to enhance consumer acceptability and utilization.
Analysis of Consumer Preference in Product Attributes: A Case of Common Beans in Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2015) Gitonga, Hannah Wairimu
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important source of livelihood and food for approximately three million households in Kenya. Consumers appreciate common bean more due to its nutritional value and health benefits. Between 2005 and 2009, a total of 403,604 MT of bean with a value of US$ 199,743,000 was produced in Kenya. The Kenyan bean market has a deficit of 14,256 metric tons and is dominated by old improved bean varieties, an indication of consumer preference for those beans. This is despite new varieties being released into the market following intensive research and breeding work done by research institutions. Consumer preference assessment gives important information on acceptability of a commodity by consumers. The primary objective of this study, therefore, was to analyze consumer preference for common bean varieties by attribute sensory test and willingness to pay for preferred attributes. This study focused on bean consumers and traders in two districts, Thika East and Thika West of Kiambu County. The region was chosen as a test bed for this study due to high utilization of common beans in most of the diets among the residents. Additionally the two districts were selected because of their high population, diverse socioeconomic characteristics of residents, and their rural and urban living setups. Semi structured questionnaires were used to elicit information from 212 consumers and 67 traders who were randomly selected. Bean variety preference was assessed using a preference scale of 1-7 score. A pairwise analysis of eight bean attributes was done to assess preference of bean attributes. This was followed by assessment of attributes in seven bean varieties using likert scale of 1-5 rank. A hedonic price model was used to analyze effect of preferred attributes on price consumers were willing to pay. Data analysis was done using descriptive and inferential statistics in Excel and SPSS software programs. Results showed that beans were an important part of respondents diet with majority of respondents (86%) consuming beans more than once a week. Rural respondents consumed beans more frequently compared to urban respondents; difference in consumption was statistically significant (p-value =0.025). Beans were popular with women (83%) and were consumed by all age groups but there was more consumption in the 31-40 years age group (26.8%). GLP 585 was ranked l ", GLP 2 was ranked 2nd and KAT X56 was ranked 3rd in preference by 64.7%, 43% 39.8% respondents respectively. GLP varieties were popular among urban respondents while rural respondents consumed both GLP and KAT varieties. Consumers had preference for cooking quality, keeping quality, color, taste, low flatulence and grain size attributes associated with GLP 585, KAT X56, GLP 2 and KAT B1 varieties. Consumers were willing to pay a premium for taste, price, cooking time and discount for grain size of GLP 585. They also discounted grain size in KAT X56 and KAT B9. Other discounts were in color of KAT B9, taste of GLP 2 and flatulence of KAT X56 varieties. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that government supports breeding and improvement programs to ensure seeds with preferred attributes are available and affordable to producers. This would enhance acceptability and utilization of beans by consumers. It is further recommended evaluation of KAT Bl' s, low consumer preference, yet it has preferred attributes.
Analysis of Cooking Fuel Demand Patterns among Rural Farm Households in Kiambu County, Kenya
(kenyatta University, 2020) Kago, Elizabeth Wangui; Kago Elizabeth Wangui; Gabriel Mwenjeri
Cooking fuel energy is an important element in the daily livelihood of households where majority depend on fuel wood which’s readily available for energy sources. However, these natural resources experience degradation occasioned by the growing population causing an imbalance in the demand and supply. Therefore, it has decreased fuel wood availability and accessibility thus fuel scarcity making it expensive to acquire which has led households to use alternative sources of fuel. For this reason, there’s a dilemma between meeting the growing demand for fuel energy and the sustainable utilization of the limited stock of natural resources. Due to a significance disruption of bio-diversity, it has led to many households depending on the market (prices) as their main source of fuel. More so, there’s use of multiple fuel which is influenced by income and other factors. Price volatility as well as income vulnerability significantly affect household consumption patterns. Hence, this study aimed at investigating the influence of household characteristics on energy demand, determining the impact of income changes on household energy demand patterns and identifying the energy demand patterns for fuel used by households to address the persistent problem of fuel insecurity. Guided by neoclassical demand of consumer behavior, Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System (QUAIDS) was used for analysis. Data was collected from 200 respondents using systematic random sampling. Analysis was done using STATA version 13 to obtain descriptive statistics and the empirical results. The results indicated that firewood, charcoal and kerosene are necessary goods while LPG was a luxury. Expenditure elasticity for the fuels were positive implying that the fuels were normal goods and an increase in income will lead to higher consumption. The main determinants of energy demand were gender, education level and occupation of the household head as well as age and household size. It is recommended that government and other stakeholders formulate income oriented policies to augment household earnings which will increase their purchasing power. Furthermore, the government should enact policies to ensure LPG is affordable with a view to mitigate against environmental degradation. Additionally, capacity building by educating both the old and young by giving information on the negative impacts of using such fuel and the benefits derived when the public switch to modern fuels. Besides, strategies are needed to identify affordable, scalable and accessible efficient fuel-saving cooking practices to the local context.
Analysis of factors influencing farmers' participation in collective marketing initiatives in Maara, Meru south and Mbeere South Sub-Counties, Kenya
(2016) Mate, Harold M
This study was carried out in Meru South, Maara and Mbeere South sub-counties in the Republic of Kenya. The purpose of this study was to analysis the factors affecting farmers' participation in collective marketing initiatives. Marketing of agricultural commodities in Kenya is unsystematic coupled with high transport costs, low prices, exploitation by middle men and insufficient markets information among other factors that force farmers to sell when prices are lowest. Studies in the past have focused and examined the advantages of collective action, while little is known or documented on the dynamics of smallholder participation in collective action initiatives. The objective of this study were to evaluate the effects of farmer groups' characteristics and activities on participation in collective marketing of food crops; To examine the household and farm factors that influences the participation of farmers in collective marketing of food crops and to assess farmers' perception on the benefits of marketing food crops collectively. Simple random sampling was used to sample individual farmers while purposive sampling was used to sample farmer groups who participated in the study. Primary data were collected using semi - structured interview schedules administered to farmer groups (n=59) and individual farmers (n=273). Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, Logit regression and Principal Component Analysis in Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). Results indicate that the age of the group had significant effect on the participation of a group in collective marketing (p<0.05). The average age of groups not participating in collective marketing was 9.07 years while those participating had a mean age of 5.44 years (p<0.05). Group activities significantly affected the participation of groups in collective marketing initiatives (p<0.05). Training in collective action positively influenced the participation of farmer groups in collective marketing (p<0.05). Participation of farmers in collective marketing was influenced by group membership (p<0.05), land tenure (p<0.05), off farm income (p
Analysis of Household Milk Purchase and Intrahousehold Allocation to Children among Low Income Households in Periurban Area of Dagoretti, Nairobi
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Muunda, Emmanuel Mwau; Eric K.Bett; Nadhem Mtimet
Milk is one of the most important animal sourced foods for Kenyans. The Kenyan dairy sector contributes 8% to the country’s GDP and has grown tremendously in the last two decades. Despite the growth and contribution to the economy, the dairy sector is fragmented into formal and informal marketing channels, with the latter dominating over 80% of the market, selling unprocessed milk. The informal sector is preferred for offering cheaper milk and is comparatively more accessible among low-income households, hence contributing significantly to their food and nutritional security. Despite this, there are food safety concerns that elicit the regulatory authorities to introduce regulations banning the direct marketing of unprocessed milk. There is little evidence of the extent to which both dairy subsectors play in the nutritional requirements of low-income households, especially to children who rely on milk as key source of nutrients from livestock-derived foods. Consequently, this cross-sectional study aimed at characterizing the purchase and consumption behavior of low-income households and estimating what household factors influenced the behavior. It also aimed at assessing the potential effects such policy regulations would have on the milk allocation to children below 4years in such households. Using a questionnaire, primary data was obtained from 200 respondents in Nairobi County. Descriptive statistics and OLS regression were used to understand the purchase and consumption behavior of the households. A best-worst scaling approach was used to analyze the potential effects of banning the informal dairy sector. The results revealed that 98% of the households purchased raw milk at least once during the 7 days before the survey and only 17% purchased processed milk. Results from the OLS model suggests that quantity of raw milk purchased in positively and significantly associated with income, number of children below 4 years of age and budgetary allocation to ASF. The price of raw milk and amount of processed milk purchased negatively influenced quantities purchased from informal markets. The findings also indicated that, an increase in milk price, occasioned by elimination of the cheaper option would decrease allocation to children and lower income households would replace milk with fruits or porridge, foods that are not of equivalent nutritional value to milk. These results provided insights into the behaviour of low-income dairy consumers as well as information useful to policy shapers and industry players while filling the knowledge gap of role informal dairy plays to low-income households’ food basket. The clear association of income and milk intake calls for efforts from the government to support the dairy sector with policies that promote the availability and affordability of milk, especially for a sector that feeds low-income families, as it is the case with the informal dairy markets. This study recommends that food policy changes streamlining milk value chains should account for the effects on pricing, consumer responsiveness to the price adjustments and children’s nutrition. It also recommended that regulatory and other sector players should consider interventions that strengthen informal sector as an agent of supplying affordable and safe milk to households with constraint budgets.
An analysis of indigenous chicken marketing efficiency and market participation among producers in Makueni County- Kenya
(2014) Ayieko, David Michael Ochieng
The indigenous chicken Gallus domesticus production is an important agricultural activity in many households in Kenya. Despite its importance, little research has been carried to enhance its productivity unlike other farm enterprises. The producers from Makueni are constrained in their participation in the indigenous chicken high value markets .Therefore, the objective of this study was to analyze the marketing efficiency of the indigenous chicken marketing channels in Makueni, determine the profitability of indigenous chicken to producers in Makueni and to determine the factors that have an effect on participation of producers from Makueni in the high value markets. A random sampling was used to sample 130 households from Makueni County and 66 traders from indigenous chicken markets in Makueni County. The Data used in this study was collected by the use of semi structured questionnaires, with additional information from key informant interviews and focus group discussion. This data was then analysed using Stata11 and Excel software. The SCP (structure-conduct-performance) approach coupled with the shepherd index, Gross margin analysis and Heckman two stage models were used to analyze the marketing efficiency, determine the profitability of indigenous chicken to producers and identify factors that have an effect on the high value markets participation of producers respectively. The results showed that the indigenous chicken markets had a concentration ratio (CR4) of 41% and a Herfindahl Hirschman index (HHI) of 1087.The 8 marketing channels identified had an average marketing efficiency of 2.29. The main constraints included: price fluctuations, inadequate access to credit and information, inconsistent supply, theft and lack of storage facilities. The producers got a gross margin of Ksh.8455 per year. Apart from the age of the household head, which had a negative effect on the producer decision to participate in indigenous chicken high value markets, processing, education level of household head, the farmer group membership status, the flock size and region all had a positive and significant effect decision to participate in indigenous chicken high value markets. On the other hand, the family size, the type of indigenous chicken, experience in selling indigenous chicken and the flock size all had a significant and positive effect on the number of indigenous chicken sold. However the age of the household head had a negative effect on the number of indigenous chicken sold. Therefore it is recommended that contract models should be used to improve the marketing efficiency. Secondly, the producers should use collective marketing to enhance their profits. Finally to increase the participation of the producers in the high value markets, the Government policy framework must focus on improving indigenous production and marketing in Makueni County.
An Analysis of Sesame Crop Value Chain: A Case Study of Kordofan Region, Sudan
(2013-10-17) Ahmed, Shawgi Ali
There is an urgent need to improve production and marketing conditions of small holder farmers in Kordofan region of Sudan in order to alleviate poverty and enhance food security. This study was conducted to determine the profitability of the sesame value chain as one of the viable options that can address the challenges of small holder fanners. This study characterized the sesame value chain from producers to processors in terms of material and information flows as well as theinter-relationships between the actors. In addition, constraints and opportunities in the sesame production and processingwere determined and marketing costs, value added and profit margin distribution among actors in the chain evaluated. A sample size of 150 respondents (farmers) were randomly selected using multistage sampling procedures. Thirty other actors (assemblers, brokers, wholesalers and processors)were traced and interviewed subjectively using purposive sampling procedures. The study used functional analysis, flowcharts and mapping of the current sesame value chain as well as strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis and financial analysis to draw results, conclusions and recommendations. The findings revealed that sesame production is constrained by lack of extension services, civil war and conflicts between farmers and livestock keepers over natural resources and scarcityof farming equipment.Oil processors are constrained by high cost and insufficiency of inputs and oil imports. Sesame producers' opportunities in the region include production of good local varieties and favorable growing conditions.Oil processors have the potential to increase oil production and compete with other oils by improving quality and exporting the livestock cake directly to the world market instead of selling it to brokers who then export the product. Traditional oil processors appeared to have higher profits(1 ,297.1 SDG/ton)compared to the industry sesame oil and this was attributed to the high cost of oil that was processed traditionally due to increasing demand for organic products and healthy oils.The resultsalso showed 'thattahania processorswere the winners of the chain in terms of profits with the highest profit share of 2705.5 SDG inany ton of sesame that ,wasprocessed. The commendations includea call for government to intervene by establishing extension services and routes demarcation to reduce the conflicts between farmers and livestock keepers. Policy makers, agricultural banks and existing small scale programs could form partnerships with relevant organizations to provide financial and infrastructural support to expand the scope and effectiveness of the current initiatives to overcome reported obstacles of access to credit.
Analysis of socio-economic factors affecting the Yields of smallholder coffee farmers In Kirinyaga County, Kenya.
(Kenyatta University, 2014) Maina, James Minai
Coffee is one of the key agricultural export commodities in the Kenyan economy. Prior to 1998, coffee was Kenya's top foreign exchange earner and currently ranks fourth after tea, tourism and horticultural sub-sectors. Despite coffee prices displaying a stable trend increase since 2002, yields in Kirinyaga County have remained low. This has negatively impacted on the farmers earnings from the coffee enterprise thus affecting their economic wellbeing due to the loss of income. This study aimed at determining the socio-economic factors influencing yields as well as assessing the influence of coffee prices on re-investment and yields within the small holder sector of Kirinyaga County. A total of 251 farmers were selected from the study area using the stratified random technique and a semi- structured questionnaire used to collect the data. The selection of farmers was done by first dividing the entire population into several sub-populations referred to as stratums. The three agroecological zones that are suitable for coffee growing in Kirinyaga County represented the stratums. Due to logistical limitations, three co-operative societies cutting across the three zones were randomly selected and fourteen wet mills representing the various AEZs further selected to represent each stratum. Finally, farm households were randomly selected from each of the selected factories using the random number tables. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, regression (log - linear model) and correlation analysis using Stata (version11). The results indicated that the mean age of the respondents was 52.95 years. This suggests that the small holder coffee farming community is skewed towards the aging which could negatively affect productivity in the farms. Out of the 76.52% of the fanners who needed credit, only 36.8% had access to adequate credit. This lack of adequate credit limits productivity. The study revealed that only 35.4% of farmers were aware of the Coffee Development Fund despite the existence of institution since 2006. The multiple regression analysis showed an R2 of 0.5217 for all variables investigated which means that 52.17% of the variation in yields can be explained by these variables. The explanatory variables which were statistically significant were access to adequate credit, having some source of cash from other enterprises or employment and consulting extension agents. It was also found that there was a strong positive relationship between price and the level ofre-investment (Pearson's r =0.814). This indicates that higher prices encourage reinvestment in coffee. However, the correlation analysis between price and yields showed a Pearson's correlation coefficient of 0.154 which was statistically insignificant. This implies that although price influenced yields positively, it did not necessarily lead to significantly higher yields. Higher prices need to be supported by the three significant variables in order to increase yields significantly. Agricultural policy effort on small holder coffee farming should thus focus on ensuring farmers get access to adequate credit, diversification of farm income base, and training. ,.
Analysis of sorghum market chain in Isiolo County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023) Kalawa, Gitonga Gregory; Gabriel Mwenjeri; Lucy Ngare
The sorghum market in Kenya has grown significantly over the past few years, and it has continued to expand as a result of the commodity receiving considerable attention from a various interest groups. The absence of a planned and aggressive marketing strategy for raw sorghum and its value-added products, however, continues to be a significant barrier to the market's further expansion. This study analyzed the market chain of sorghum with reference to structure, conduct, and performance, and analyzed the causal factors of selling outlets preference and selection among sorghum farmers in Isiolo County. Data was collected from 203 producers and 85 traders using random and clustered sampling respectively. Structured questionnaires were used to acquire information from respondents. Analysis was done using STATA version 14 to obtain descriptive statistics and the empirical results using multiple linear and multinomial logistic regressions. The Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient were employed to assess the level of market concentration in the research area. The performance of the sorghum market in Isiolo county, Kenya, was evaluated using the marketing margin, marketing efficiency and gross margin. The study's findings revealed that the Gini coefficient for wholesalers and merchants was 0.612, an indication that the market was very concentrated thus consequent income disparity. Additionally, this research revealed that producers had the largest gross margins of Kenya shillings Ksh11 per Kilogram, followed by wholesalers and retailers with Ksh9 per kilogram and Ksh5 respectively. I used Multiple linear regression to predict the sorghum producer market supply. Factors such as gender, selling price, farm size under sorghum production, producers’ age, education level and membership to a cooperative were found to be positive and statistically significant. In addition, to predict the sorghum trader market supply, results indicated that experience, age, selling price were positive and statistically significant while buying price and trader type were negative but significant. To determine the market outlet used by the producer, multinomial logit regression was applied. Factors such as age, education level, farm size under sorghum production, access to information regarding the market were positive and significant while membership to a cooperative group, experience and distance to the market were negative but significant. In conclusion, it was discovered that sorghum trading and production in Isiolo are profitable but uncompetitive. Therefore, this study suggests that the national government together with county government should formulate regulations that strengthens sorghum production and marketing to make it more competitive and ensure all the actors are well protected from the hefty cost that reduces their efficiency hence low-profit margins. Secondly, since the profits from both producers and traders are still low, access to information should be accelerated through investment in telecommunication platforms such as the use of cell phones to aid reliable and timely sharing of market information to the users. Given the market's relative lack of competition, it was important to establish a clear market research and development strategy for sorghum in order to remove market obstacles and advance market efficiency through quality control, decreased price volatility, and a steady supply of the commodity. Furthermore, in order to lessen the likelihood of a closed and uncompetitive market, the government must put in place an institutional structure to control sorghum contracts and assist market participants in contractual arrangements. By putting these policies into place, the county's general sorghum market may become more effective and organized, ensuring fair returns for all participants.
Analysis of technical efficiency among smallholder rice Farmers in Eastern and Southern Provinces of Rwanda
(Kenyatta University, 2014) Ingabire, Chantal
Since 2004, rice is a priority crop for food security and poverty reduction in Rwanda. The crop was found capable of giving the highest yield in the marshlands compared to other crops and its consumption has been growing over the years, surpassing the domestic supply since the 1980s. In a bid to attain self-sufficiency, the country made remarkable efforts to develop the subsector. These were mainly directed towards the expansion of the area under rice, organisation of farmers' cooperatives and easy access to inputs. Despite these efforts, the country continues to rely on imports and the current productivity of.rice is still very low compared to the potential yield. The failure to reach the expected potential yield suggests a lack of technical efficiency in the production process. This study aimed, at assessing rice producers' technical efficiency as well as its determinants in Ntende and Cyili schemes respectively located in the Eastern and Southern provinces of Rwanda. It used a Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) with the Cobb-Douglas function on a random sample of 185 rice farmers. The results indicated that in Rwanda, the size of land, quantity of pesticides used and involvement of family labour in rice farming activities were the significant determinants of paddy production. The results also showed that the average yield in the sample was 4.81tons per hectare and the mean technical efficiency (TE) was 72% implying that rice farmers were operating below the production frontier. Results showed that if the average .farmer should produce at 100% of TE, hislher average yield should reach to 6.7 tons per hectare. Moreover, if the average farmer is compared to the one having the highest TE in the study sample, results indicates that the former would have reduced the inputs by 23% for the same current output. Regarding the determinants of TE, the age of rice farmers was found positively affecting technical inefficiency which indicated that as farmers become older, the inefficiency effects increase and TE decreases. On the other hand, trainings on rice farming practices and visits of extension agents were found to decrease inefficiency and significantly increase with TE. The implication of the study is that, there is an opportunity to increase paddy production through increased technical efficiency. To achieve this, the study recommends an increased number of extension officers' visits, training of farmers as well as a close follow-up to the older farmers.
Analysis of Technical Efficiency of Smallholder Sorghum Producers in Machakos and Makindu Districts in Kenya
(2014-02-24) Chepng’etich, Evaline; Bett, E.K.; Nyamwaro, Sospeter O.
Majority of the rural households in Kenya depend mainly on agriculture as a source of food and livelihoods. Agricultural productivity has been declining due to many factors including climate change. Declining agricultural productivity has in turn resulted in increased food insecurity in the country. Consequently, there is a renewed interest in promoting drought-tolerant crops such as sorghum, which are known to perform well in the arid and semi-arid lands of the developing world. Owing to its ability to thrive in drought prone and low input conditions, sorghum production has been widely promoted among smallholder farmers in the arid and semi-arid parts of Kenya. However, performance of sorghum production among the smallholder farmers has remained low. This study was carried out to determine the technical efficiency of sorghum production among smallholder farmers in Machakos and Makindu districts in Kenya. Multistage sampling technique was used to sample a total of 143 sorghum-farming households; 71 households in Makindu district and 72 in Machakos district as representative samples. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to collect data and information on farm inputs and outputs; and on farm and farmer characteristics. Data Envelopment Analysis technique was used to estimate efficiency scores, while a Tobit regression analysis model was used to determine the influence of farm and farmer characteristics on the technical efficiency. Result highlights showed that the average technical efficiency achieved overall in both districts was 41%. This implies that technical efficiency in sorghum production in Machakos and Makindu districts is low and could be improved by 59% through better use of available resources given the prevailing state of technology. Research findings suggest that technical efficiency was positively influenced by various farm and farmer characteristics such as land sizes planted with sorghum and use of manure; and formal education of the household head, household size, years of sorghum farming experience, membership to farmer associations, hired labour, and production advice given to farmers. It is recommended that in order to reduce technical inefficiency farmers should be trained appropriately to improve their agronomic knowledge on sorghum production . Farmers are also encouraged to form and be active members of farmer associations. Policies and programmes that promote extension services should be emphasized in order to improve performance of sorghum production enterprise in Machakos and Makindu districts, Kenya.
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Silicon Effects on Nutrient Uptake, Growth and Yield of Sorghum under Water Stress in Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Gacheri, Kaaria Kallen; Catherine W. Muui; Joseph Onyango Gweyi
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour L. Moench) is an important cereal crop ranked second after maize as a food security in Kenya. However, its production is threatened by low soil fertility and moisture content. Many studies on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have shown its importance in nutrient and water uptake, resulting in better yields of crops. In addition, silicon helps in plant resistance to both abiotic and biotic stresses. The study evaluated effects of AMF and silicon on nutrients uptake, growth and yield of two sorghum varieties under different water regimes. Two field experiments were carried out in Machakos County, Kenya. A Randomized Completely Block Design (RCBD) in a factorial arrangement was used to lay out the experiment. The factors tested included: Two levels of sorghum varieties (Seredo and Machakos local red), the other factor was water regimes in three levels (20, 40 and 60%) while the third level was silicon and Mychorriza (plus and minus). Sorghum varieties and leek were used as trap plants in a greenhouse experiment. Data collection was done on sorghum growth, yield and nutrient uptake, AMF colonization percentage and AMF diversity. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze data using R software and significant means se parated using Tukey’s test at 5% significance level. The results showed that Seredo variety had the highest shoot dry weight (107 g), longest roots (44.1 cm) and longest period to 50% flowering (76.4%) while Machakos local red had tallest plants (210.9 cm) and highest number of leaves (10.8). At 60% water regime, Si amendment and AMF inoculation enhanced sorghum growth better than other treatments. Seredo variety recorded the highest grain yield (4.4 tha-1). The variety also revealed various nutrient uptake as follows:- phosphorus (111.1 kg ha-1), nitrogen (34.7 kg ha-1), K (69.7 kg ha-1), calcium (3296 kg ha-1) and magnesium (172.1 kg ha-1) uptake. It has recorded the best AMF root colonization. Moreover, Seredo variety had the maximum harvest index of 0.39. At 40% water regime, Seredo variety amendment with Si and AMF produced the highest grain yields, nutrients uptake and AMF root colonization. A total of 4 AMF genera (Gigaspora, Scutellospora, Acuolospora and Glomus spp) from the family Gigasporaceae, Acaulosporacea and Glomeraceae were detected from both trap culture and experimental soil. The trap culture had the highest number of spore density 57.5 (leek), 32.8 (Seredo) and 23.5 (Machakos red local) compared to the experimental soil that had 15 spores per 100g of soil. Leek plants trapped more Glomus (23), Scutellospora (15.8) and Acaulospora (11.8) than both sorghum varieties but Seredo variety trapped most Gigaspora (15.3) per 100g of soil. This study demonstrated that Si amendment and AMF inoculants have potential of improving sorghum growth and yield under water stressed conditions as indicated by the high grain yield and nutrients uptake achieved at 40% water regime. Therefore, combined use of Silicon and AMF is recommended for improving sorghum productivity in water stress areas. Such strategies could enable food production in marginal areas characterized by low rainfall and high temperatures.
Assessed Line by Tester Analysis of Maize Inbreds for Northern Leaf Blight and Other Yield Components in Selected Counties, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Ndung’u, Ferista Wanjiku; Wilson M. Thagana; David K. Ndung’u
Northern Leaf Blight (NLB) also known as Turcicum Leaf Blight (TLB) is a foliar disease of maize caused by Exserohilum turcicum. It is a great challenge in many maize production regions worldwide. It has a growing season characteristic of high humidity and moderate temperatures ranging from 17-270C. The disease can result to great yield losses in maize ranging at 40-70% in the case where there is disease presence 2-3 weeks after the crop silks. The main aim of this study was to assess the combining ability of the maize lines to NLB and other yield related traits, to determine the heterotic orientation of the lines and to establish the yield potential of the crosses across different environments. The lines were introductions and the study was aimed to determine the performance of the lines prior to further development. Forty nine lines used in the study were obtained from a segregating population in the F4 were crossed to two CIMMYT testers Tester A (CML312/CML442) and Tester B (CML395/CML444). The 98 crosses were planted in 3 mid-altitude agro-ecological zones of Kenya (Kakamega, Muranga and Embu). The heterotic orientation was determined for the lines and that differed across the 3 sites. The 3 sites were treated as independent environments due to genotype x environment interactions. Data was analyzed using REML, META-R and AGD-R tools. The results indicated significant GCA and SCA of some of the lines to NLB and different yield related traits including AD (days to anthesis) and SD (days to silking). The lines expressing significant GCA and SCA for NLB tolerance and high yield, the lines are recommended for further testing and development of NLB tolerant and high yielding maize hybrids in the mid-altitude agro-ecological zones of Kenya. The lines will recommended for use in breeding following further segregation hence could be used to develop hybrids that could be further subjected to trialing to obtain hybrids that are resistant to NLB, early maturing and high yielding. For the lines that could not be classified to their heterotic groups using Tester A and Tester B, these could be subjected to further tests with different testers in order to determine their heterotic groups and the knowledge could later be used in development of crosses.
Assessing the Status of Crop Farming and Strategies Used to Scaleup Yields for Enhanced Food Security in Turkana County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020) Mutai, Philip
Despite being a culture-centred livelihood activity, pastoralism alone has not guaranteed food and nutrition security for households in Turkana, Kenya. The frequency of droughts and their negative impact on livestock production in the County translate into reduced purchasing power of the pastoral households; causing perennial food insecurity and consequent human indignity. As a growing response to this perennial situation, rain-fed crop production has been introduced in the County at subsistence level. Most pastoralists however still tend to shy away from crop farming largely due to cultural factors and not their technical feasibility. This study assessed the current status of crop farming and analyzed factors limiting diversification to crop farming. Further it appraised measures towards increased adoption of viable crop production systems within households in five locations purposively selected from two Sub-counties of Turkana Central and Loima. A cross-sectional descriptive survey design targeting 357 respondents was used in this study. In addition data was collected from a few key respondents from sub-County Agricultural Extension Offices. Primary data was collected using questionnaires and interview schedules. On farm experimentation on crop performance under different treatments (drip & bucket irrigation methods) was done in order to demonstrate the potential inherent in crop farming under appropriate crop and land husbandry practices. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Experimental data was subjected to analysis of variance. Results showed that an increasing number of pastoralists are now venturing into crop farming for survival purposes; of which seventy three percent (73%) of the respondents were agro-pastoralists. With a change in attitude away from cultural pastoralism, this percentage can increase with more deliberate and targeted extension service at the County level. Annual average yield of maize in Turkana County was twelve 90kg-bags per acre, while its annual cost of production was Ksh 12,600/acre and the annual revenue was Ksh 32,400/acre. The annual average yield of sorghum in the County was relatively the same as that of maize, and its annual cost of production was Ksh 6,800/acre, while the annual revenue was Ksh 43,200/acre. The study concluded that there is potential and opportunity to improve crop farming under proper land and crop husbandry practices including water use efficiency in Turkana County. Currently, there is a shift from pastoralism to agro-pastoralism. However, this shift is still slow and adoption levels low leading to poor crop yields. The main challenges that constrain crop farming include general lack of knowledge in crop farming and low adoption levels of modern agricultural practices such as use of manure and fertilizer. The study established that drip irrigation had good crop yields, though not used due to high initial costs. Where irrigation is being used, increasing salinity problem was noted. On farm trials with spinach (Spinacia oleracea) as the test crop demonstrated the superiority of water use efficiency under drip irrigation than under bucket method of irrigation. The use of inorganic fertilizers is not common in Turkana County because of the combined reasons of costs and knowledge on fertilizer use under water scarcity conditions. Some farmers use farmyard manure, which readily available from the large herds and flocks kept, but the level of use is low. The study recommended a more deliberate and targeted extension service to introduce improved crop agriculture which can be integrated with the cultural way of life of pastoralists which would ensure improved livelihoods and food security
Assessing the Suitability of Selected Areas in Kiambu, Kajiado and Machakos Counties for the Production of Capsicum (Capsicum Annuum L.)
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Otieno, Michelle Awuor; Benjamin O. Danga; Harun Gitari
Evaluation of land is a process by which land appropriateness is identified for its capabilities to grow a certain crop in any piece of land. This study aimed at assessing land in the peri-urban counties of Nairobi (Kiambu, Kajiado and Machakos) for growing capsicum (Capsicum annuum L.). Capsicum production in these counties has been doing well until 2014 when the production started to decline. The potential of land to produce capsicum is not known; farmers continue to grow capsicum without clear guidelines. It is for this reason that this study was carried out to determine areas best suited for capsicum production for improved production and to determine limitations that exist in crop production in these regions. To determine suitable areas for capsicum production in the three counties, Soil (pH, drainage, texture and electrical conductivity), climate (temperature and rainfall), and topography (slope and elevation) were the main criteria selected from the literature for the study. The AHP was used to determine the relevance of a criterion based on its cumulative weights as per the Saaty’s table. The cumulative weights were used to construct output maps using Quantum Geographic Information Software (QGIS). Crop suitability map was produced through overlaying of the different thematic maps and suitability levels were based on Food and Agriculture (FAO) land suitability classification. An extensive data set was utilized in the study, both primary and secondary data. The datasets were derived from climate data, soil data and satellite imagery themes. The study used a multi-criteria evaluation approach by applying the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). These are procedures utilized in the GIS environment to evaluate the suitability of land for a particular use. These methods involved a selection of various criteria used for analysis and categorized according to their usefulness concerning capsicum growth conditions/requirements. Soil samples were collected and analysed for both major and minor nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, iron, manganese, boron, copper and zinc), then the data was used to generate a soil fertility map for the three counties. Soil nutrients differed significantly across the counties. Nitrogen and organic carbon were deficient in both Kajiado and Machakos counties while phosphorus was in adequate amounts in the soil but not sufficient enough to meet the requirements of the crop. The results showed that about 50% of land in Kiambu County, 8% in Kajiado County and 12% in Machakos County is suitable for capsicum production. The remaining areas were reported unsuitable for the production of the capsicum due to the presence of some limitations such as texture, soil pH, drainage and climate. A fertilizer program for growing capsicum was produced to help farmers in their planning schedules. In the program, urea, manure and triple super phosphate (TSP) were recommended at different rates to address the low nitrogen, organic carbon and phosphorus in the soils. To improve on the suitability and production of capsicum, there is a need to address the limitations experienced in the counties.
Assessment of Agronomic Performance and Haploid Induction Rate of Tropically Adapted Inducer Maize Lines
(Kenyatta University, 2018) Nzamu, Janet Mwende
Hybrid maize varieties are developed using inbred lines. Conventionally, inbred lines are developed by self-pollination, which takes 6-8 generations. The technology of doubled haploid (DH) is new and the most efficient in the development of inbred lines since complete homozygosity is achieved in 2 crop seasons. Haploid inducers have been refereed variedly as genetic stock which through crossing to a diploid plant, result in a mix of haploid and diploid kernels. These progeny segregates to diploid (2n) and haploid (n) kernels due to anomalous fertilization. The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and Hohenheim University have developed several tropicalized inducer Lines (TAILs) that have not been tested for haploid HIR under the Kenya maize growing environment. A study was therefore set up in collaboration with CIMMYT at the DH facility located at Kiboko in Makueni County to test seven TAILs (first generation TAILs 7, 8, 9, Hybrid 9×7 and 9×8 and second generation TAILs 008 and 009) for HIR in Kenya. The objective was to improve the efficiency of hybrid maize development using haploid inducers with good agronomic performance and highest haploid induction rate. A split plot arrangement was used in the experiment in which the inducers were the main plots while the female populations were the sub plots. Randomized complete block design (RCBD) was adopted with three replications. Three female populations (ligule less tester and two normal populations) were crossed with the seven TAILS. The F1 were germinated and the seedlings used to determine HIR of the Tails using their morphological plant characters. Pollen was harvested randomly from 10 plants of each haploid inducer line three days after pollen shed. TTC (2, 3, 5- triphenlytetrazolium chloride) solution was used as the staining technique of pollen at different times of day to determine pollen viability. Data collected was subjected to ANOVA using R- software version 3.2.3. Means of HIR and agronomic characters of the inducers were separated using the least significance difference (LSD) at 5% level of significance. The results showed that Tail 009 had the best plant and ear height, while Tail 7 had the best number of tassel braches and large tassel size. Pollen viability was high in the morning hours to noon and started to reduce in the afternoon hours. Despite this, pollen viability was above 90% in all the inducers, with TAIL 7 having the highest viability (98.45%) and TAIL 009 the lowest viability (92.77%). The ligule less tester and normal population 2 showed the highest HIR of 7.62-8.49% respectively; hence they can be used for the determination of HIR of target haploid inducer lines. Tail 8 and 9 had the highest HIR hence they can be used for haploid induction in target germ plasm. Plant height and HIR on the ligule less tester showed a positive correlation. The study was fundamental in identifying haploid inducer lines with high HIR for commercial development of homozygous lines and the results could lead to more efficient haploid induction in elite maize germplasm
Assessment of Germination Potential and Population Status of Melia Volkensii Gürke in Kitui County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Njehu, Mukami Jane; Emily Wabuyele
Melia volkensii Gürke is a native tree species that grows in the arid and semi-arid areas of East Africa. There has been overutilization of this tree which may lead to risk of rapid decrease in its community and genetic diversity. Additionally, planning and implementing planting programmes and conservation plans of M. volkensii have been hindered by insufficient knowledge on its seed storage behavior. This study sought to develop optimal protocols for seed germination and assess population status of Melia volkensii to enhance conservation and supply chain management in Kitui County. Melia volkensii fruits were collected from Tiva Forest and the germination experiment was carried out in KEFRI Kitui within nursery conditions. Seed germination experiments were arranged in a completely randomized design with three factors – extraction state, storage container and storage temperature. For extraction, seeds were divided into two lots – extracted seeds and unextracted seed (nut). Two types of storage containers were used namely sealed and unsealed. The storage temperatures were room temperature (30oC) and cold storage (-20oC). Germination tests were done before storage, and later after 2, 4 and 6 months in storage from each of the storage conditions. A hundred seeds and nuts each were sown for each experimental unit. The rate of seedling sprouting was recorded for a duration of 10 days as a percentage of seeds sown. Variation in germination percentages “was tested using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95 % confidence interval and means separated using fisher’s protected least significant difference” in R and SAS statistical software. The highest percentage (89 %) was scored in nuts kept in unsealed containers at 30oC at 6 months and the lowest (14 %) in seeds stored in similar conditions for 2 months.The differences were significant. These results indicate that the germination rates of M. volkensii seeds increased with increase in period of storage. Additionally, plant population was determined in situ across seven transect lines measuring 1050 meters in length. Sampling was carried out in five plots measuring 50 x 50 m established at intervals of 200 meters. Transect 1 and 7 were laid in farmland while the transects between these two were laid in bushland. All tree species represented in each plot were counted. “Height and diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured for all M. volkensii trees within the plots. Melia volkensii seedlings and coppices were counted in 5 x 5 m nested plots within the larger plots. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95 % confidence interval was used to test for variance in parameters measured and means separated using Tukey’s HSD. There were significant differences in height and DBH” means of M. volkensii among transects. Transect 2 had the lowest mean height and DBH while the tallest trees were in transects 1, 3, 4, and 6. Transect 1 had highest mean DBH. Means of seedlings were not significantly different among transects. Coppicing was significantly highest in transects 1 and 4. Moreover, relative abundance, species richness and diversity of plant species observed were analyzed “using Simpson’s index of biodiversity and Shannon-Wiener species diversity index. Melia volkensii was the most frequently occurring species with 12.2% (n=67) followed by Acacia tortilis10.0 % (n=55). Calotropis strophela, Commiphora capensis, Maerua crassifolia were the least represented relative abundance of 0.18 %. Values of indices used varied among transects and did not follow the location of transect implying that diversity was not determined by land disturbance. In conclusion, nuts stored unsealed at room temperature have the highest longevity. Based on diversity and relative abundance of M. volkensii and associated tree species in the study area, tree exploitation in Kasaala Location does not cause
Assessment of levels of natural radioactivity in surface soils around titanium mines in Kenya
(2011-11-07) Masore, Kefa Osoro
All human beings are exposed to radiation from naturally occurring radionuclides in soil and other environmental materials. Some of these exposures are not amenable to control and they are usually referred to as background radiation. Some work activities such as conventional mining inadvertently produce large quantities of naturally occurring radionuclides, which can result in additional and/or elevated levels of radiation exposure of people in the areas around the mining sites. Such exposures - induced or enhanced by human activities - are subject to control by regulatory authorities. In some instances there may be contributions from the two types of exposures and they must be separated before applying regulatory control. In this study, natural radioactivity levels in surface soils around the proposed titanium mines in Kwale district were determined from measurements of 78 samples of surface soils randomly sampled from two villages within the proposed mining area by using a hyper pure germanium (HpGe) gamma-ray spectrometer. The values of radioactivity concentrations in the soils and the likely radiation doses from contact with these soils were determined and are reported in this thesis. The radiological implication of these levels is discussed with regards to the impending mining operations in the area. The ranges and mean of radioactivity concentrations (Bgkg-l) obtained are. 8.4±0.4-43.6±1.5 (_27.6±1.7) for 232Th; 7.4±0.6-40.6±1.4 .(20.9±1.5) for 226Ra and 31.9±1.3-114.1±1.4 (69.5±3.2) for 40K, respectively. The likely absorbed dose rates in air above these soils were calculated from these radioactivity concentrations and found to be 8.5±0.5-36.9±1.1 nGyh-1 with a mean of 25.2±1.4 nGyh-1. The corresponding effective dose rates are 21.0±1.2-90.8±2.6 mSvy--1 with a mean of 62.0±3.5 uSvy--1, which are lower than the global average of 0.46 mSvy 1 and therefore of little radiological risk to the environment of the study subject.
Assessment of Optimal Interactions of Water Levels and Nitrogen Fertilizer Rates for Greenhouse Lettuce Performance in Kalro Kabete, Nairobi
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Kaburu, Fabian; Benjamin O. Danga; Fuchaka Waswa
Achieving food security globally has been curtailed by several factors including water scarcity, nutrient mining, limiting land resource and climate change. Nevertheless, irrigation under greenhouse farming has been confirmed to have the potential to solve water scarcity and crop nutrition problems thus increasing food production in controlled environments. This study aimed at assessing the optimal interactions of water levels and nitrogen fertilizer rates for greenhouse lettuce performance in the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO) at Kabete, Nairobi. The specific objectives were to assess the optimal interactions of nitrogen fertilizer rates and water levels for highest performance of greenhouse lettuce, to determine the effect of N fertilizer dosage on water use efficiency in greenhouse lettuce yield and to investigate the effect of water levels and N-rates on water productivity index for the greenhouse lettuce yield in urban Nairobi. A survey was conducted using questionnaires to establish the amounts of water and N fertilizer rates green-house farmers within the study area were using for their vegetables production. The experiment conducted at the KALRO Kabete entailed use of a split plot randomized complete block design for two seasons between October 2017 and February 2018. The treatments included 3 levels of irrigation (W1-100% W2-70% (and W3-40% to FC) in main plots while 4 nitrogen levels (0, 65, 105, and 145 kgN/ha) were assigned to the subplots, resulting in 12 treatment combinations which were replicated three times. Soil moisture was determined using a neutron probe while water use efficiency (WUE) was calculated by dividing lettuce yield by AETc. A digital calorimeter was used to determine the leaf chlorophyll concentration. All data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat version 15. Separation of means was performed using Turkey’s test at 95% level of confidence. Findings showed significant variations existed due to interaction effect of nitrogen fertilizer rates and water levels on lettuce height and number of leaves at season two. Variations were however insignificant during season one. A significant effect was observed due to the interaction of nitrogen fertilizer rates and water levels on lettuce diameter at season one and season two with 0.004* and 0.008* respectively. There was significant effect (0.005* and 0.003* for S1 and S2) observed due to interaction of nitrogen fertilizer rates and water levels on percentage chlorophyll during both seasons. However, no significant variation was observed due to interaction effect of nitrogen fertilizer rates and water levels on fresh (0.966 and 0.212 for S1 and S2) and dry weight (0.301 and 0.130 for S1 and S2) of lettuce during season one and season two. Findings also showed no significant variation (0.088 and 0.404 for S1 and S2) due to the effect of nitrogen fertilizer application rates on water use efficiency during season one and season two. Findings indicated that water use efficiency was highest at treatment W3N1 with 230.06 kg/Ha/mm and 209.68kg/Ha/mm during season one and season two respectively. Additionally, water productivity index was significant during season one and insignificant during season two with findings indicating that treatment W3N1 was the most water productive treatment during both seasons with 66.29 kg/m3 and 50.46kg/m3 during season one and season two respectively. As such, farmers growing lettuce crop under greenhouse technology should use water applied at 40% field capacity that is 12 minutes and fertilizer rate of 65kg/ha since it showed efficient use of water and high productivity.