PHD-Department of Environmental Education

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Adaptation and Coping Strategies to Climate Variability among Small-Scale Farmers in Arid and Semi-Arid Agro-Ecological Zones of Laikipia County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Ndichu, Gitau D.; Cecilia Gichuki; Richard Kerich
Climate variability as expressed by droughts, heavy rainfall, flooding, intense temperatures, hail storms and cyclones pose a major threat to small-scale crop farmers. Arid and semi-arid regions are known to have hot and dry climate with low and erratic rainfall that varies widely both in spatial and temporal parameters. Unpredictable seasons have been exacerbating the perennial uncertainty of farmers in most parts of ASALs where subsistence farming is practiced. This study aimed at delineating the adaptation and mitigation strategies applied by small-scale farmers in Laikipia County due to climate variability. The research sample population was drawn from the agro-ecological zones which are determined by the climatic parameter patterns. The sample size was determined systematically using probability proportion to size sampling method. Questionnaires were administered in randomly sampled households in five arid and semi-arid regions, namely; Salama, Rumuruti, Ol Moran, Mukogondo and Ngobit which experience frequent drought related challenges. An interview schedule was prepared and administered to local leaders. Rainfall and temperature data from the Kenya Meteorological department between 1970 -2018 were obtained to gather further information on climate variability in Laikipia County. The quantitative data collected were then analysed using descriptive statistic and presented in charts, tables and graphs. The qualitative data at household level were collected through focused group discussions, key informant interviews, and observations and were analysed thematically according to the set objectives of the study. More secondary data were derived from a review of existing literature and records from relevant institutions.These data were then analysed using statistical Package for social Sciences (SPSS Version 22.0) Computer programme to generate descriptive statistics like frequency, mean, percentage and standard deviation. The results showed that, over the years (1970 – 2018), there was a decline in the precipitation in Laikipia County with an R2 value of 0.76%. During the same period, the maximum temperature tended to increase with R2 value of 17.41% .The average minimum monthly temperature also increased, R2 value of 14.24%. Further, the perception of the farmers was sought using multivariate probit model (MVP). The results indicated that 92.3% had perceived changes in climate.Further,54.5% had noted that the rainfall was receding while 76.0% had noted an increase in temperature. The MVP model showed that crops production had declined and seasons changed. The study showed that the small scale farmers had varied adaptation strategies depending on; their locality, climate, topography and availability of resources for both on-farm and off-farm. Among the adaptation strategies employed by the farmers included use of drought resistant crops at 4.72%, irrigation along the riparian areas at 11.6%.Others provided labour to the green house farms at 23% and reducing their livestock at 8.6% . The study recommended that the small-scale farmers need to be supplied with water, certified seeds and technical assistance from Agricultural extension officers. Farmers reported several barriers in the implementation of adaptation strategies that included; accessibility to seed varieties, lack of skilled labor, advanced farm implements, climate change information, and capacity to learn and apply techniques in their daily practice. The information gathered from the study was intended to improve the social capacity of the small-scale crop farmers in addressing adaptation strategies and the policy/decision makers to formulate policies aimed at addressing the challenges faced in Laikipia and ASAL regions.
Climate Variability Risk Perception on Rainfed Agricultural Practices among Small-Scale Farmers in Embu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Adiel, Ruth Kangai; James Koske; Evelyn Chitechi Wemali
Agricultural productivity is a function of climate variability and its associated impact on farming practices and farmers’ adaptive capacity. Small-scale farmers in the study area have involuntarily engaged in climate variability adaptation mechanisms. This study was instigated to assess the extent of variation in temperature and rainfall, analyze the economic impact of climate variability on crop and livestock production, examine climate variability risk perceptions, adaptation mechanisms and how they influence rainfed agricultural practices, determine farmer and farm characteristics that influence climate variability perceptions and adaptation, and assess the effectiveness of institutions and information channels in facilitating climate variability adaptation mechanisms and risk perception. The research design involved a descriptive survey that allowed the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. The sampling procedure involved a multi-stage sampling procedure to obtain 411 respondents, purposive sampling for 10 key informants, and quota sampling techniques to select 5 focus groups. Data were analyzed by the use of descriptive statistics, the Mann Kendall test, Logit regression, chi-square, Likert scale analysis, and the use of variables produced through the Ricardian model and Heckman approach. Results show that there is climate variability and the rise in maximum temperature and rainfall variability are significant at P<0.002 with a 0.02ºC increase in temperatures and a 10.2mm decline in rainfall amount per year. Economic impact on crop and livestock production indicated that temperature rise affects crop net revenue negatively and that of mixed farming positively respectively at p≤0.05. Apart from climate variability, other factors were found to influence the net revenue of the three sectors such as distance to the market centers, size of land under cultivation, level of education, and soil fertility. The farmers perceived climate variability as real. The perception was expressed in terms of extreme changes in both rainfall and temperatures. The majority (85.4%) observed the outbreak of crop pests and diseases as a result of climate variability. Whereas 97.6% of the respondents perceived that training and extension services would minimize the negative impact of climate variability on agricultural practices. However, 86.4% attributed the failure to the adaptation of climate change to inadequate time. Perception and adaptation were influenced by gender, social networks, education, extension services, land size, and age. Both formal and informal institutions exist in the study area and among the formal institution cooperative societies were the most influential in the adaptation of climate variability while Departments of Agriculture and Livestock Development were more likely to influence small-scale farmers on climate variability risk perception. Access to credit and extension services were more likely to attract farmers to membership in informal institutions. However, only formal institutions were significant (P≤0.05) in improving farmers' perception and adaptation to climatic variability. Five information channels namely, farmer to farmer, agro Vets, radio, lifetime experience, and school knowledge were more likely to influence farmers’ perception and adaptation mechanisms. This study concludes that there is climate variability which leads to an economic impact on agricultural practices and adaptive capacity is influenced by climate change risk perceptions, institutions, and the dissemination of information. This study recommends that the Department of livestock and that of Agriculture continuously provide climate-related information for effective risk perception and adaptation to climate change by small-scale farmers.
Effect of Cuscuta Species (Dodder) on Urban Ornamental Plants in Mombasa County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Ngare, Innocent Osoro; James Koske; John Muriuki
Dodders are annual parasitic plants that reproduce by seeds and do not have leaves that parasitize different plant species across the globe. These holoparasites forage on a variety of plant hosts by sucking nutrients through vascular bundle interaction of haustorium activity. Dodders threaten the survival of plant hosts in Kenya, ranging from trees, shrubs and herbaceous that some are grown as ornamentals. This study was carried in Mombasa to assess the effects of dodder on urban ornamental plants in the coastal urban region. The following objectives guided the study: to identify dodder morphological and anatomical characteristics; to determine the effect of temperature and rainfall on dodder infestation; to assess the effects of dodder on urban ornamental plants and to examine the perceptions of urban household heads on the spread and control of dodder in Mombasa County. This study used a mixed-method research design where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. In the study, different sampling techniques were used; snowballing, purposive sampling, stratified sampling, and random in the study. A total of 382 respondents were sampled. Questionnaires were used to obtain primary data attaining Cronbach’s Alpha reliability index of 0.72%. Secondary data was obtained from the Kenya Metrological Department and relevant published peer-reviewed articles. Data analysis and interpretation was done by the Statistical Package of Social Sciences, analysis of variance, laboratory microscopic pictorial and micrograph observations, and thematic content analysis. Dodders are androgynous angiosperms with both pistil and stamen reproductive structures. Observational microscopic and anatomical dodder demonstrate numerous productions of seed capsules, each containing a single seed, with hairy stems that are environmentally sensitive to wind direction to identify the immediate host through the haustorium. Dodder undergoes three haustorium phases to establish host vascular bundle interaction – the adhesive, intrusive and conductive phase. When dodders intertwine, they parasitize their own stems, revealing an intraspecific trait. Mombasa (1989–2019) experienced climate variability, with a maximum temperature of t=-5.628, =23, P:0.000 and a minimum temperature of t=-5.401, df:23, P:0.000, and total rainfall of t= 2.025, df=23, P:0.275.The linear regression analysis shows rainfall variation y =-9.588x + 1217.1 and temperature variation y =0.0258x + 29.888 with an increase of +0.4°C. Dodder had ravaged ornamentals where 82.7% of respondents asserted it was attacking and foraging on trees, herbaceous and shrub 𝜒2: 40.73, P:0.000. Cuscuta was fast spreading and the majority (73%) of respondents preferred a mechanical method through cutting of stems 𝜒2 : 1.645, P: 0.026 to control dodder infestation. A majority of respondents (97.1%) knew about dodder across all constituencies, with a mean significant difference of F (5,361) =5, P: 0.000. This study discovered dodder, a generic weed parasite that is rapidly spreading and attacking a diverse community of ornamentals in Mombasa County. Dodder laurel (Cassytha filiformis) species are hemiparasites as they photosynthesize, unlike field dodder (Cuscuta campestris) species that are primary holoparasites. The study recommends fast mitigating measures to be undertaken through biotechnological control methods that are effective with limited environmental impacts.
Growth Performance of Tilapia in Different Culture Systems on Varying Input amounts and Aquaculture Technologies Adoption in Meru County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mbaabu, Patrick; Esther Lesan Kitur; Ezekiel Ndunda
Prior to 2010 aquaculture production in Kenya was low, 4895 MT annually and adoption. Information on effects of various inputs on growth performance of tilapia, the best culture system and aquaculture adoption in Meru County is scanty or missing. The purpose of this study was therefore to find out the effects of varying the amounts of fish feed pellets, fertilization and liming pond water under different physicochemical parameters on the performance of Oreochromis niloticus in different culture systems (ponds) in Meru County, Kenya over a period of three months, August 2015 to November 2015. The study also investigated determinants of adoption of fish farming technologies (liner, concrete and earthen culture) in the study area. Fourty Eight (48) fish ponds of size 2m x 1m x1m deep of each type were constructed in a randomized block design in the study area. Each pond was stocked with 8 Oreochromis niloticus monosex fingerlings each of approximately 20gm. Fish were fed daily at 10 am and 4 pm. Growth performance of the fish was measured after 30, 60 and 90 days under different treatments. The parameters which were measured were, weight gain of the fish, total production from the various ponds and adoption level of fish farming technologies. ANOVA was used to determine if there was any significant difference in the mean weight gain of the fish in the three culture systems under different treatments. On adoption, a questionnaire was used to collect information on the factors which influence adoption of fish farming technologies. Ninety (90) fish farmers and Ninety (90) non – fish farmers were interviewed through a structured questionnaire to determine the factors and level of adoption. Logit regression analysis was used to analyze primary data on adoption collected from the field. Results revealed that varying amounts of fish feed pellets (2, 4, and 6 gms) had no significant difference in the weight gain of fish in the three culture system. When pond water was fertilized at different fertilization rates, concrete culture system produced highest mean weight gain of 11.21 ± 3.27 gms, earthen 7.67 ± 1.36 gms and liner 6.41 ± 4.88 gms with 4 gms DAP showing a significance difference in mean weight gain (F = 20.07, df = 2, P = 0.002). Liming the pond water produced almost a similar trend with fish in concrete pond recording a mean fish weight gain of 8.87 ± 3.75 gms, liner 7.20 ± 1.89 gms and earthen 7.12 ± 1.91 gms with 4 gms lime showing a significance difference (F = 5.18, df = 2, P = 0.049). On combining all the inputs at various levels of (pellets, fertilizer and lime), there was no significant difference in mean weight gain of fish in the culture systems. Concrete culture system recorded the highest mean weight gain of 9.44 ± 2.05 gms and liner 7.35 ± 3.70 gms. On determinants of adoption, the study showed that, out of the eleven factors assessed, market access, extension services, credit access and annual farm income significantly (p<0.05) influences the adoption of fish farming technologies (liner, concrete and earthen) in Meru County. The study concluded that the use of different levels of aquaculture inputs affects the growth performance of Oreochromis niloticus in different culture systems. Planners and Fisheries managers of aquaculture projects and programmes are encouraged to prioritize market access, extension services, credit access and annual farm income in their administration and implementation of all fisheries projects for higher success rate leading to improved fish production and livelihoods of fish farmers. Policy makers to create provision in law for market access, extension services, credit access, farm income streams and linkages strengthening inorder to transform the aquaculture sector.
Influence of Agroforestry Adoption on Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods among Smallholder Farmers in Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Kinyili, Benjamin Mutuku; Ezekiel Ndunda; Esther Kitur
Agroforestry provides a number of ecosystem goods and services. Yet evidence of agroforestry supporting these perceived benefits in rural areas have increased over the last three decades. This study determined influence of agroforestry adoption on ecosystem services and livelihoods for smallholder farmers in Machakos County. The study was conducted using utilized concurrent transformative design where both the qualitative and quantitative data were collected at the same time. The study was based on sample size of 248 households’ selected using stratified, random sampling. Qualitative data were collected using questionnaires and interviews while soil data was collected following standard soil sampling techniques and analyzed in the laboratory for textural characteristics, pH, bulk density and micronutrients. Statistical data were done using chi-square (χ2), binary logistic Model (BLM), ANOVA, t-test and bivariate regression. Agroforestry was adopted by 82% of the respondents in the form of boundary tree planting (73.8%), hedgerow (69.4%), scattered trees in rangeland (51.2%) and alley cropping (37.1%). Age, level of education, household size and non-farm income were significant (P < 0.05). Socio-economic aspects affecting adoption of agroforestry were access to credit, training and inputs were significant (P < 0.05) institutional factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry. Ecosystem services obtained by majority of the households were supporting functions in the form of nutrient recycling and soil formation (81.5%) and regulatory functions in the form of soil erosion, water infiltration and micro-climate regulation (80.8%). Provisioning services was dominated by fuel wood (84%), fruit and nuts (75%), poles (74%) and timber (72%). Total income was higher among adopters of timber, fuel wood, posts/poles and fodder. Adopters also had more money to spend on food, clothing, education, medicine and basic needs. Thus the overall gross revenue was higher among adopters. There were higher net returns above Total Variable Cost (TVC) for the adopters (US$ 346.57) compared to the non-adopters (US$ 94.7), which resulted in positive net returns above Total Cost (TC) for the adopters (US$ 275.77) and positive operational costs above the fixed costs for the non-adopters (US$ 23.9) resulting in higher margins above TVC (%) for the agroforestry adopters (28%) than the non-adopters (12%). The soil physical attributes indicate that the proportion of sand particles was significantly (P < 0.05) higher among non-adopters while the proportion of silt and bulk density in the soil was higher among the adopters. The total nitrogen (TN), total organic carbon (TOC), Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn and C/N ratio were significantly improved (P < 0.05) in soils where agroforestry was being practiced. Overall physical and chemical attributes in the soil improved significantly with increasing age in years of agroforestry adoption. The study recommends adoption of agroforestry to maximize ecosystem benefits. However, more training is required for the farmers to enhance their ability and potential to optimize agroforestry practices and new innovations.
Socio-Ecological Factors Influencing Conservation of Rothschild’s Giraffe in Ruma National Park and Mwea National Reserve in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Gathuku, George Njagi; Cecilia Gichuki; Charles Warui
The Rothschild’s giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi), is among the listed vulnerable animal species globally. In this study, two wildlife protected areas were studied; Mwea National Reserve and Ruma National Park both in Kenya, where Rothschild’s giraffes inhabit. Human activities ranging from robust agricultural activities, and human settlement as well as snaring have led to loss of habitat for the giraffe and the giraffes themselves. A socio-ecological approach is given emphasis by the study to ascertain human wildlife conflict propelled towards Rothschild’s giraffe in these demarcated protected areas. The study objectives were: assess the population size, structure and distribution of Rothschild’s giraffe in the two Protected Areas; evaluate the effect of human activities on population distribution and abundance of Rothschild’s giraffes in Ruma National Park and Mwea National Reserve; assess the attitude of the local inhabitants towards their adjacent protected area and their knowledge on wildlife conservation and evaluate government policies on wildlife conservation and giraffe protection in Kenya. To calculate giraffe population abundance, purposive sampling method was used. Four roads transects in each of the site were set up using a GPS 10trex. High resolution images of the left side of the giraffes were taken using a Nikon Coolpix P900 camera and recorded for WildID. Human activities and indigenous knowledge data was collected using open ended and structured questionnaires which were administered to the sampled households within 5 kilometres radius of the two Protected Areas. Interview schedules were also administered to the community members and Kenya Wildlife Service officers. The field obtained sample was 356 respondents resulting in an 89.2% response rate. Secondary data from existing literature was reviewed and this included reports and records from relevant institutions. The quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS to apply descriptive, chi-square and ANOVA techniques, while content analysis was used to analyze qualitative data. The results showed that Ruma National Park had a large number of giraffes (N=314) compared to Mwea National Reserve (N=56). Regarding the population structure of the giraffes, the analysis showed that age distribution of the giraffes was statistically different in both sites χ2 (2, N=370) = 8.762, p=0.013. Ruma National Park was found to have significantly more females (57.6%) than males, whereas Mwea National reserve had significantly more males (57.1%) than females χ2 (2, N=370) = 4.205, p=0.04. The level of human-wildlife interaction was found to be significantly higher in Mwea compared to Ruma with more cases on farm invasions by giraffes χ2 (1, N=343) = 124.538, p = 0.000, and giraffe hunting activities χ2 (1, N=325) = 107.684, p=0.000. Also, findings revealed that the residents around Ruma National Park had a more positive attitude towards their park compared to those around Mwea National Reserve t (354) =2.637, p=0.0045 despite more residents in Mwea (90%) claiming to have an education on wildlife conservation. The study recommends proper fencing of the protected sites, involving the community in decision making and introduction of incentive for the communities living adjacent these protected areas.
Tree Cover Perspectives and Climate Change Resilience in the Drylands of Matungulu Sub-County, Machakos County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020-02) Mutuku, Heeran M.
Rapid population growth, increasing demand for land, over-exploitation and the degradation of local natural resources have led to serious socio-ecological challenges in Matungulu Sub-county. This situation, compounded by the effects of climate change, has impacted negatively on the livelihood resilience of the local people. The specific objectives of this study were to: analyze tree cover trends in Matungulu Sub-county between 1987 and 2017; examine major socio-economic factors that influence tree cover; assess farmers’ perceptions of the effects of climate change on tree cover; examine the role of tree cover in community resilience against poverty and effects of climate change; and identify specific constraints that have hampered improvement of tree cover in the Subcounty. Systematic random sampling was used to collect data from 412 farmers in the study area. A structured questionnaire, FDGs, key informants and direct observations were used to collect household socio-economic data. Landsat maps for historical analysis of land cover change and climate data in Matungulu Sub-county were used to study changes in tree cover and climate parameters over the three-decade period. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the data analysis. Results showed that forest cover reduced by 64% over the 30-year period (from 17,044 ha to 6,136 ha) while all other land uses increased (farming by 34%, shrubs by 9%, water by 245% and urban settlements by 600%) in the same period. A logistic regression model with R statistics was used to test for relationships between tree cover (dependent variable) and the socio-economic parameters. Socio-economic variables that significantly influenced tree management included gender (p= 0.011), house-hold size (p=0.030), and title deed ownership (p=0.023). Majority (84%) of respondents perceived climate change to have occurred over the 1987-2017 period. Farmer-perceived climatic patterns in the area over the same period were corroborated by data from the Kenya Meteorological Department. Farmers used trees to enhance their resilience against effects of climate change and poverty. Respondents had 58 different types of tree species, all for different roles and uses. Major tree species included Eucalyptus saligna, Grevillea robusta, Mangifera indica, Persea americana, Croton megalocarpus, and Terminalia brownie. Tree uses included firewood, timber, charcoal, poles, shade, utensils, fodder, food and medicine besides others. Environmental benefits of trees included soil erosion control (27%), mulch (15%), soil fertility (13%), aesthetics (10%) and pest control (3%). 79% of the respondents had experienced lack of information (24%), lack of capital (24%) and lack of water for seedlings (20%) as constraints to tree cover. The study concluded that there was overall tree cover loss over the three decades and recommends afforestation and reforestation programmes and incorporation of local participation and use of indigenous knowledge in climate change adaptation and mitigation interventions in Matungulu Sub-county

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