MST-Department of Environmental Studies and Community Development

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An assessment of impact of charcoal making on distribution of some tree species in Kibwezi Division
(2002-05) Kariuki, Peris M.
This study was carried out in Kibwezi Division, Makueni District Kenya. The aim was to assess impact of charcoal making, abundance and distribution of some selected tree species. The selected species were: Acacia tortilis (Forrsk.) Hayne, Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth, Newtonia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Torre var. hildebrandtii, Haplocoelom foliolosum Hiern Bullock and Terminalia brownii Fresen. Stem sizes of standing trees and stumps were used to investigate the abundance and distribution of selected species and past harvesting patterns in Kibwezi Forest Reserve, DWA Estate Forest and Privately Owned Land, areas subject to different management regimes. Data such as dominant plant species, vegetation cover and kiln sizes were collected by direct field observation from 158 randomly located plots each measuring 20m by 20m. This data was supplemented by interviews and focus group discussions. Data gathered was analysed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics such as Analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results of data analysis showed significant (P<0.05) differences in distribution of A. tortilis, N. hildebrandtii and H. foliolosum in the three study sites while no significant (P<0.05) variation was observed in the occurrence of A. mellifera and T brownii . Results further indicate differences in the population structure of selected species. The highest percentage of stems for most species among them A. forti/is (29.8%), A. mellifera (44.1%) and T brownii (43.9%) were < 10cm in basal diameter. H. foliolosum had the highest percentage of stems (32.1%) between 20cm and 30cm while N hildebrandtii had most of the stems (34.4%) above 90crn. From this study it was observed that charcoal making was more prevalent in Kibwezi Forest Reserve. Results further showed that at least 32 different tree species are used for charcoal making using the earthmound kiln method. Preferred species such as N hildebrandtii, Balanites aegyptiaca, Berchemia discolor, Acacia senegal and Olea europea ssp africana wer e rarely VI encountered and as a result poor quality species such as Sterculia africana and Commimphora africana are progressively being used to make charcoal in the area. Stumps of over 30 different tree species were found in 55.6% of the plots sampled and there was a significant difference (P<0.05) between the mean of stumps in the three study sites. There were also significant differences in the number of stumps recorded between various stem size classes with the highest (41.1%) ranging from 10cm to 20cm. Over half (60.1%) of stumps were observed to be re-sprouting. A relatively high rate of regeneration was noted among certain species such as Combretum collionum (92.3%) and Euphorbia c,andelabrum (50.6%). Observed impact of charcoal making included loss of vegetation cover, change in population structure of harvested species and change in species composition. The study recommends that a policy on charcoal production and marketing should be formulated. Research on efficient charcoal kilns, alternative fuels and agro-forestry as means of minimizing some negative effects of charcoal making in the study area should be undertaken.
Private Investment in Urban Agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya
(2002-08) Mireri, C.
This paper is based on two key case studies: Kenchic Ltd and Farmer’s Choice Ltd. These two private companies are important players in the Kenyan poultry and pig industries, respectively. They support successful agriculture in Nairobi city. Discussions were held with Dr Yamo (Kenchic veterinarian) and Mr Kairu (Farmer’s Choice pig procurement manager).
Smallholder Farmers' Marketing Channels for on-Farm Timber in Kenya: A Case of Embu District
(2003) Mwangi, E.W.
In response to the shrinking government-based natural and plantation forests, and the increasing population growth, smallholder farmers have turned to planting trees on their farms for commercial and domestic use. They need the cash to meet their immediate pressing needs. Improved marketing could significantly enhance tree-planting activities by smallholder farmers. Good marketing connection, therefore, is essential as a strategy to reduce poverty while simultaneously promoting conservation of the rapidly shrinking forests. The necessary marketing information to enable them to identify suitable markets for their timber trees is, however, lacking. The main purpose of the study was, therefore, to try to understand the functioning of smallholder farmers' marketing channels for on-farm timber in Embu District. This study was conducted in Embu District, which is located in the Eastern Province of Kenya, in the period between November 2001 and May 2002. The wood industries established within the district have turned to farmers for their timber supply as a result of the government's ban on logging of natural forests, particularly Mt. Kenya, which constitutes a portion of the district. In addition, the district's population is increasing at an annual growth rate of 3.08%, increasing the demand for timber. A market channel analysis was carried out which involved following the timber products from the farmers, to the fixed saw millers, and finally to the timber yard merchants. Various and several techniques of Participatory Rural Appraisal were widely used to collect timber marketing information. Linear regression, tables, charts, and other descriptive methods were used for data analysis using the MS Excel, Genstat, and SPSS computer programmes. A volume model that can assist farmers in selling their trees was derived from this study. The major problems in the existing marketing channels include low prices for timber trees at farm level, lack of ready timber markets, poor tree and timber quality, limited variety of timber tree species, and poor infrastructure. In order to improve the returns that the farmers get from their timber trees, this study recommends that they be equipped with the appropriate practical tree management and marketing skills, such as, application of obtained knowledge of estimating the volumes of their trees as well as negotiating the appropriate prices for these trees, and further research to clarify the pending issues to guide future planning and management for improved performance.
Use of Calliandra Calothyrsus and Leucaena Tricandra Tree Species for Soil Nutrient Enhancement in Chuka Division, Central Highlands of Kenya
(2004-09) Mutegi, J.K.
The central highlands of Kenya are characterized by high soil and nutrient losses through soil erosion and leaching. Research has reported positive results from the use of appropriate vegetative contour hedges since they are able to hold topsoil while simultaneously capturing and pumping up leached nutrients. It has also been shown that farmers' adoption of new technologies is dependent on their perception of those technologies. Against this background, an on farm trial involving use of Calliandra, Leucaena and napier contour hedges was started in farmers fields of Chuka Division to evaluate the feasibility of these technologies in the control of soil and nutrient losses. The trial farmers were recruited on the basis of gender and slope after a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). The slopes were categorized as 5-10, 10-20, 20-30 and> 30% slope. Treatments were laid down on these slope categories along the contours in a zig-zag manner with an inter-row spacing of 0.25 m, intra-row spacing of 0.5 m and a variable inter-hedge spacing depending on the slope. Soils were sampled at the start and 20 months after establishment of the trials at 0-30, 30-90 and 90-150 em depths. Soils from 0-30 ern depth were analysed for pH, Ca, Mg, K, C, N, P, and inorganic N, while soils from 30-90 and 90-150 em depth were analysed for inorganic N only. Farmers' perceptions of these technologies were determined by use of questionnaires. Treatments that had trees either as sole or combination hedges registered a significant (P<0.05) increment in pH, Ca, Mg, P and K as compared to those that were either under sole napier hedge or control after 20 months of experimentation. During the first sampling, all the plots had more mineral-N beyond 0-30 em depth. During the second sampling inorganic N in the 0-30 em depth was significantly higher for Leucaena than the control and napier. Leucaena plots also had higher concentration (P<0.05) of inorganic-N than sole napier plots. The other treatments did not show any significant difference at this depth. Inorganic N at 30-90 em depth was lower (P<0.05) in Calliandra, Leucaena and Leucaena + napier than the control plot. On the other hand at 90-150 em depth, Leucaena, Leucaena + napier and Calliandra significantly reduced (P<0.05) inorganic-N accumulation in comparison with the control and napier. The first season registered higher soil losses than second season for treatments with hedges and vice versa for the control. Soil losses during the first season and second season were lower (P<0.05) in hedge plots for 10-20, 20-30 and >30% slope categories in comparison to the control. However, soil loss on 10-20% slope category during the second season was significantly lower (P<0.05) for napier hedges than for all the other treatments. Calliandra + napier and Leucaena + napier plots lost significantly lower (P<0.05) amount of soil than Calliandra, Leucaena and control at this slope category. Farmers perceptions of appropriate hedgerow species showed that farmers would favor species that would provide quality and quantity fodder, improve crop production, enhance soil fertility, control soil erosion and provide cash income on sale of their products.
Soil Organic Matter Status under Different Agroforestry Management Practices in Three Selected Sites in Kenya
(2005-04) Waswa, B.S.
Soil organic matter (SOM) plays an important role in ensuring a healthy soil status. This study was designed to evaluate the influence of organic resource management on SOM-related soil properties in the Kabetc, Maseno and the Embu experiments in Kenya. The choice of these experiments was based on the different organic resources applied, their lifespan as wel1 as their unique ecological locations that characterize most smallholder fanning areas in Kenya. Soil samples were collected from these experiments before the long rains season of 2002 and prepared for analyses. Soils were analyzed for inorganic nitrogen, total carbon, nitrogen, carbon mineralization, bulk density and soil moisture retention. In addition, SOM aggregate and size fractionation, potassium permanganate oxidation and the carbon isotope labeling techniques were used to determine the quality of the various SOM fractions formed. All the data collected was subjected to analyses of variance (ANOV A) and the means separated at P :s 0.05. Mineral N was significantly different (P :s 0.05) across the treatments in HI Ernbu and PM I Maseno experiments and tended to be higher in organic treatments as compared to the control and the fertilizer treatments. N I Kabete experiment had the lowest C~ N and DC values pointing to the young age of this experiment as well as the low quantity of the organic residues applied. On the other hand, HI Embu experiment had high soil C values of over 2.0% indicating a positive effect of continued application of organic residues. Potassium pennanganate oxidizable carbon was significantly different for N I Kabete and PM I Maseno experiments and tended to vary according to the differences in organic resource management regimes in these experiments. The bulk density was not significantly affected by organic residue management regimes at any of the sites. Soil moisture retention trends were more defined in the older PM I Maseno as compared to the younger N I Kabete and HI Ernbu experiments. Aggregate mineral fraction (MF) size distribution were dominated by macroaggregates (250-500 urn and >500 urn) 11l the three experiments. HI Embu experiment had higher aggregate light fraction (LF) proportions as compared to N I Kabete and PM I Maseno experiments indicating the beneficial effects of continued organic residue application. Similarly, higher proportions of aggregate LF C and N were observed in macroaggregate fractions for the three experiments with organic treatments having higher proportions of both aggregate MF and LF C and N. The Ouc signatures of the macroaggregates (>250 urn) LF were more negative as compared to the 0 DC values in the microaggregate (53-250 ~1I11) LF. This pointed to C contribution to the most recently incorporated organic matter from C3 organic resources being applied. The results thus indicated that studies on soil physical properties require prolonged experimentation for the effects among the treatments to be isolated. Application of organic residues tended to improve SOM and related soil chemical properties thus justifying the need for continued application of organics to improve soil status.
Shifting Irrigation and its Effects on Community Livelihood and Environmental Quality in The Lower Ewaso Nyiro Basin, Isiolo District
(Kenyatta University, 2008) Nzombe, N. N.
This study set out to investigate the effects of shifting irrigation system on community livelihood and environmental quality along the Ewaso Nyiro river basin. The land area under irrigation schemes in Kenya is estimated at 103,233 hectares. 20% of this hectarage is under smallholder irrigation schemes some of which are in the lower Ewaso Nyiro Basin. These schemes have special features in that they are not permanent. The objectives of this study are to asses the current status of irrigation schemes in the lower Ewaso Nyiro basin, evaluate their effect on community livelihoods and evaluate their impact on environmental quality. The overall approach to the study was both qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data was collected through participatory research techniques, case studies, observation, and key informant interviews. Questionnaire survey was the main quantitative research technique used. Data from questionnaire survey was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Qualitative data analysis was mainly descriptive. Narrative log was used to analyse data from case studies. Qualitative information proved useful in explaining some of the quantitative information. By the time of the study, the lower Ewaso Nyiro had nine operational irrigation schemes and 791 households practising irrigation farming. Though the schemes have a management unit, most of them are not formally recognised. There was a positive correlation between the number of years in crop production and the number of times a scheme shifted its sites(r=O.456) at 0.001 significant level. The irrigation schemes do not have permanent structures and use surface irrigation methods.• Maize is the major crop grown in the irrigation scheme and crop diversification is low. Irrigation has diversified the means of livelihood of the people. 100% of the household heads reported that irrigation was an important means of livelihood. Out of these, 35% reported that trade in agricultural produce was important means of livelihood. 3.8% said agricultural casual labour was important means of livelihood. The stakeholders agreed that irrigation was an important source of food in the lower Ewaso Nyiro basin(x2=5.12; df=3; p=0.163). Both the household heads and other stakeholders concurred that irrigation had negative effects on the environment (x2 =5.785; df=2; p=O.055). Types of environmental degradation reported in the schemes by household heads were soil erosion by 91.2%, deforestation by 72.5%, salinity by 31% and water logging by 20% of the households. Low usage of biocide and chemical fertilizers was reported with the highest usage being on insecticides by 46% of the household heads. Environmental conservation practices are rarely used in the irrigation schemes with the highest conservation practice reported on •the usage of farm yard manure by 56.2% of the household heads. The stakeholders agreed there was limitation of technical know how and lack of input in environmental conservation at chi square values (x2=7.672; df=3; p=0.053) and (x2=2.671; df=3; p=O.445). In the short term, the study recommends portable means of lifting water from the river, organized marketing in the irrigation schemes and environmental conservation at the household level and at the scheme level. The long term recommendations are flood control at the catchment level and an investigation into the feasibility of setting up permanent irrigation schemes in the study area.
Assessment of the Opportunities and Challenges of Infrastructure Development and Service Delivery in Kianda Kibera Slums, Nairobi
(Kenyatta University, 2008) Elijah, Lillian Mwikali
Despite the increasing slum population, the problem of infrastructure and service delivery remains largely unresolved in Kianda village, Kibera shims. This has led to increased human and environmental health risks. This research therefore sought to assess the opportunities and challenges of infrastructure development, basic service delivery and aesthetic enhancement in Kianda, focussing on several variables namely: housing, education, energy, playgrounds and roads, water, sanitation and waste management and health care facilities. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected using questionnaires, Interview schedules, Focused Group Discussions, field checklists and content analysis of secondary data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Pearson correlation coefficient was used in determining the emerging relationships between selected key variables. Results obtained showed that while households desired improved infrastructural development and service provision, they had poor housing structures, inadequate health care, education and water facilities, poor communication networks, low quality energy sources and inappropriate waste management systems. As a result, there were low levels of education attainment and high rates of school dropouts, water, air and soil pollution and consequently the impact of water borne diseases. Barriers to improved service delivery included poverty and lack of negotiating skills, poor slum policies and absentee landlords, corruption and unresponsive governing authorities. Households were noted to engage in survival mechanisms hazardous to human health such as disposing wastewater directly outside their houses (83%) and use of flying toilets (8%). Household practises hazardous to the environment included among others use of firewood and charcoal for cooking (81%), disposing wastewater in channels draining into Mutoine River (83%), and use of flying toilets (8%). Educated households engaged less in hazardous practises than in uneducated households. Likewise, higher income households engaged more in less hazardous practises than lower income households particularly the use of own latrines and ablution blocks, Both local and international organizations were providing several services in Kianda in the absence of the City Council, though none was involved in road network provision. There were few health care facilities in Kianda mostly private clinics. This, compounded with risk factors like unsafe water, poor sanitation and hygiene had contributed to the burden of water borne diseases. Reported cases of ill health included Malaria (39%), Typhoid (26%) and diarrhoea (35%). There fore, for service provision to improve in Kianda, awareness on the dangers of the households' survival mechanisms must be created. This had greatly been caused by the high poverty levels in the slum, which urgently calls for more focused urban poverty reduction policies. There is also the undisputed need to actualise tenure rights in the slum so as to give the households an incentive to negotiate for services from concerned urban authorities. A participatory slum-upgrading programme should also be emphasized, given the inclination of the global world towards participatory development.
Utilization of soil fertility management knowledge among smallholder farmers in Chakol division, Kenya
(2011-08-09) Murua, Elizabeth
This study investigated soil fertility knowledge land how it influenced the selection land effective use of various soil fertility technologies among smallholder farmers in Chakol Division of Teso District in western Kenya. Chakol Division has a high population density of approximately 427 persons per km z while absolute poverty levels for the district stand at 56%. Poverty levels have been worsened by poor agricultural production while continuous cropping of land with little restoration of soil nutrients through application of organic manures land mineral fertilisers have contributed to the increase of soil degradation over time. The need to improve agricultural productivity through better soil fertility management is therefore paramount considering that T eso District mainly relies on agriculture with 65% of the population being involved in agricultural activities. In order to address this problem, a call for a holistic approach that is socially acceptable hence easily adaptable land fit for purpose is necessary land therefore the conception of the Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) strategy. This ISFM strategy at TSBFCIAT aims to maximise on nutrient recycling on farms, replenish soil nutrient pools, reduce soil nutrients losses to the environment land improve the efficiency of external inputs. It was applied through the Folk Ecology Initiative (FI l) approach which attempted to strengthen farmers' understanding of soil fertility management through community-based interactive learning. This current study grew out of the FEI approach land it involved both quantitative land qualitative data collection techniques using questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions land in-depth interviewing. A total of ninety smallholder farmers land five key informants were interviewed while six FGDs involving thirty six farmers were carried out. SPSS was used to analyse the data collected through questionnaires land a narrative log used for the case studies. Study findings showed that farmers in Chakol had knowledge on the preparation, benefits land drawbacks of soil fertility technologies but the decisions they made towards the selection land application of technologies such as compost, natural fallows, cereallegume rotation, biomass transfer land fertilizer were mostly affected by capital, land, labour land other social constraints. Preference was given to technologies such as farmyard manure land crop residue incorporation since they were socially convenient in terms of labour land time demands; were comparatively less complicated to apply, cheaper land easier to get. However, less accessible technologies such as mineral fertilizers, no matter how important, were least preferred or selected. It is therefore concluded that soil fertility knowledge is necessary for meaningful decision making. It played a vital role in the selection land application of soil fertility technologies. However, poverty played a major constraining role. It is therefore recommended that strategies to boost farmers' incomes should be strengthened. For instance, through encouraging farmers to form marketing groups land linking them to markets to generate incomes that can then be ploughed back in the recap utilization of the local degraded soils. Alternative livelihood sources to cultivation such as bee-keeping should also be encouraged. Such enterprises as bee-keeping require lesser labour and capital land can therefore be profitably carried out in spite of the decreasing land sizes.
Bird species richness in three fragmented coastal forests, Kwale District-Kenya
(2011-08-09) Musila, Nganda Simon; Manohar, Shyam; Mango, Nelson
This research work was conducted in between October 2007-August 2008 in Kaya Gandini Important Bird Area, Kaya Mtswakara and Mwache Forest Reserve, mainly to investigate bird species richness in the three adjacent coastal forests. Three ringing sites harked 200-500m from each other, each with two net lines (60111 (18m x 2, 12m x 2) and (54m (18m x 3) placed at 60111 from one another were used to survey understorey birds in each forest. Canopy birds were surveyed using 22 Timed Species Counts (TSCs) in each forest. Vegetation data was collected within l0m2 plots marked at intervals of 50m from one another and located at 10m perpendicularly away from the footpaths around the ringing sites and TSCs survey routes. 141 bird species were recorded in all sites, with 93, 88 and 91 species respectively recorded in Gandini, Mtswakara and Mwache. 41 bird species types (29% out of 141) were common in each of the three fragments, which represented 44%. 47% and 45% of all species recorded in Gandini, Mwache and Mtswakara respectively. A total of 38 forest birds were recorded in all forests (17 recorded common/overlapping in all sites). with 34 in Gandini and 2 5 in both Mtswakara and Mwache. Four globally threatened birds and 14 East African Coastal Biome Bird Species (EACBs) were recorded in all forests. There was no bird species observed dispersed from one forest to another even though the three sites were connected to each other. 'The habitat structure of three sites was similar even though Gandini and Mtswakara were more similar. Firewood collection, extraction of building poles (5-10cm DBH) for domestic and commercial use in all three forests and quarrying activities in Mwache threatened the survival of birds. Compared to other two forests, Kaya Gandini was the most important site for avifauna conservation because it Was richer in Forest Specialist (FF), Forest Generalist (F), under-storey, globally threatened birds and EACBs species. The three forests were very important sites for avifauna conservation. and due to proximity to each and high number of overlapping forest birds and globally threatened bird species, they should be protected or managed as a single Forest block, because habitat destruction in one fragment will affect bird species richness in the other neighboring forests.
An evaluation of organic and inorganic inputs for soil nutrient replenishment in Mukuuni and Murugi Central Kenya
(2011-08-18) Muriuki, Justin Pascal
Declining land productivity due to declining soil fertility has led to decrease in the contribution of agricultural sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of nations in subSaharan Africa. Due to the high costs and poor supplies, most farmers are not able to afford sufficient amounts of mineral fertilizers to replenish soil fertility. Cost effective soil nutrient replenishment technologies involving organic and inorganic inputs have been developed and tested. However, few studies have been carried out to evaluate these inputs under farmer management. This study, designed to evaluate the performance of these inputs under farmer management, was carried out in two sites, Mukuuni and Murugi in Meru south district of central Kenya. The two sites were selected because research managed trial sites had been set up in the study area in 2003 by scientists from Kenyatta University, KARI and KEFRI with the various combinations of organic and inorganic inputs for soil fertility improvement. Farmers were exposed to the technologies through field days and village training workshops before the commencement of the study. The study involved 132 farmers, 73 in Mukuuni and 59 in Murugi. Farmers tested pure organic inputs (tithonia, manure and calliandra), mineral fertilizers, and combinations of organic and inorganic inputs. Costs and benefits from the selected technologies were evaluated for two seasons; short rains (SR) 2005 and long rains (LR) 2006. Net benefits, benefit cost ratio and returns to labor were used as the main economic tools in data analysis. Comparison of farmers' perception and choices of technologies with economic costs and benefits was done through correlation analysis. All biophysical data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separated at p < 0.05 while significance in correlation was done using spearman's correlation coefficient at p < 0.05. Labor costs comprised over 60% of the total variable costs when organic inputs were used solely or in combination with mineral fertilizers. Tithonia plus manure plus mineral fertilizer had the highest mean total variable costs of KSh. 24,819 ha' and KSh. 26,631 ha"' in Mukuuni and Murugi, respectively, over the two seasons. Returns to labor were highest for mineral fertilizer in both study sites (5.1 and 4.1 in Mukuuni and Murugi, respectively). Tithonia plus manure plus mineral fertilizer had the lowest mean return to labor of 2.9 and 2.8 in Mukuuni and Murugi, respectively. Tithonia plus mineral fertilizer had the highest mean net benefits of KSh 29,464 ha"' in Mukuuni and KSh 23,650 ha' in Murugi. Males differed with females significantly in their perception of some input combinations on perceived costs and benefits. These differences were attributed to differences in access and control of resources at the household level. A positive relationship was found between farmers ranking of technologies based on perceived costs and benefits and ranking based on the calculated costs and benefits. This indicates that economic costs and benefits is a tool that can be used to predict how farmers are likely to rate technologies introduced to them. It also implies that farmers ranking can be used to set priorities in the promotion of these technologies to other farmers. Similarly, ranks of farmers' choices of technologies for further trial had a positive relationship with ranks of technologies based on calculated economic returns. This implies that economic returns can be used to predict technologies that are more likely to be preferred by farmers. Majority of the farmers (71% in Mukuuni and 54.1% in Murugi) chose technologies combining organic and inorganic inputs for further trial. Manure and tithonia were the preferred organic inputs mainly due to local availability and multiple benefits perceived, though labor requirements were high.
The impact of culture on wetland conservation in Nyando district Kenya
(2011-08-18) Osula, Maureen. A; Kung'u, J.B.; Otor, S.C.J.
The Lake Victoria wetlands serve many different purposes for the different communities living around them. They are valuable ecosystems and are of significance particularly to the biota and water quality of the lakes where they are thus situated. However, human settlements in and around Lake Victoria, coupled with rapid population growth, inappropriate land use policies and over-exploitation of natural resources has resulted in severe environmental degradation including loss of plant and animal species. Due to their ecological significance and importance to the livelihood of the local people, the wetlands of Lake Victoria need to be conserved and managed in a sustainable manner. Yet the daily lives and attitudes of the communities living around the wetlands are influenced to a certain extent by their culture. This study aimed at reviewing and documenting the existing cultural knowledge and belief systems that govern the exploitation of the Nyando wetlands by the surrounding communities and how the accompanying attitudes affect wetland conservation. Primary data collection was through the use of interviews and informal discussions with community members and conservation based organisations. Secondary data sources included documentation and computerised data that was relevant to the study. Observation walks to record the way of life of the local community also formed part of the study. Results revealed that there were a number of existing cultural beliefs among the Nyando communities. These however were rarely observed mainly due to the effects of modernisation. Some of these beliefs were not necessarily positive as concerns conservation and may even be considered prohibitive. Some of these prohibitive beliefs concern women's rights to land ownership and tree planting. In summary some of the factors that would facilitate management of water as a resource and consequently conservation of its sources are assistance from external agencies to initiate water projects and leadership roles whereas ambiguous property rights, ownership and scale of water resources, poverty levels, gender relations and clan dynamics inhibit communities to undertake water management. It was noted that floods form an integral part of life in the Nyando wetlands. Inaddition to environmental degradation, floods create a potentially hazardous health situation leads to loss of life hence loss of human labour. This indirectly aggravates the poverty situation giving rise to an attitude where people are more focused on survival than on environmental conservation In spite of this, the local communities in the Nyando wetlands are engaged in some conservation activities. This has been facilitated by the presence of environmentally based non-governmental organisations in the region. A general perspective among the communities is that the government has previously simply thrust policies on the local communities to participate in natural resource management. It is the recommendation of the author that region specific environmental policy and agroforestry solutions be formulated by the government in consultation with scientists for the Nyando area. It is recommended that implementation of these solutions actively engage the participation of the local community based on their socio-cultural beliefs where such beliefs are favourable to conservation. Given that different Kenyan communities hold different cultural beliefs and views on the relationship between humans and nature, it becomes imperative to take into account the views and attitudes of the local communities around the Nyando wetlands in the formulation of conservation measures and policies
Linkages between intergrated soil fertility management technologies and marketing of small holder produce in Meru South and Mbeere Districts Kenya
(2011-08-18) Cheroben, Chemtai Sarah
Land degradation and declining soil fertility are increasingly being viewed as critical problems affecting agricultural productivity and human welfare in tropical Africa. It is then imperative that improving soil fertility is key entry point for achieving food security, reducing poverty and preserving the environment for smallholder farms in Africa. However, due to high costs of inorganic fertilizers, tackling soil fertility issues thus requires a holistic approach that integrates biological and social elements. Linking farmers to markets and adding value to raw products have great potential for improving the incomes of smallholder farmers. This study was conducted in Meru South and Mbeere districts of Kenya which are located in the central highlands of Kenya from May to November 2008. The study involved a survey of 150 farmers who had access to Integrated Soil Fertility Management technologies (ISFM). Purposive sampling method was employed. Simple random sampling was used in selecting the farmers from the four catchment areas of Murugi, Mukuuni, Kirege locations in Meru South district and Machang'a location in Mbeere district. A total of 150 farmers were interviewed during the survey. Self administered questionnaires were used to collect data from the sampled farmers. Information on the type of agricultural crops cultivated, area under cultivation and inputs applied were gathered. Information on marketing dynamics among smallholder farmers in the study area was also collected. An analysis of the ISFM technologies introduced and the ones currently in use by farmers was done. Market analysis of smallholder produce was conducted with a focus on market types, marketing channels and identification of constraints to crop marketing. The data were correlated in a bid to establish whether a relationship exists between crop production using ISFM technologies and marketing of smallholder produce. Tables, figures and other descriptive methods were used in data analysis such as the Chi-Square and correlation analysis. The results revealed that sampled farmers were aware of the benefits accrued from application of the ISFM technologies and other extension services. However, these technologies were not continuously being practiced among smallholder farmers due to their inability to obtain good returns from crops. They indicated that the main problem facing the wide practice of ISFM innovations was poor market returns for their produce caused by low prices offered especially by brokers. This is despite the fact that 66% of the farmers in both study sites obtained their main income from sale of crops. In order to improve the returns that the farmers get from their application of ISFM technologies, this study recommends that project developers and policy makers on soil fertility should recognize the need to equip smallholder farmers with not only practical soil fertility replenishing skills but also on marketing skills. Farmers should be assisted in identifying suitable agro-enterprises and in formation of marketing groups. This will not only give them advantage of economies of scale but also boost their bargaining power while selling their produce. The study recommends further research to be conducted among small, medium and large scale farmers to provide a basis for comparisons on the aspects of natural resource management and marketing
challenges and opportunities in collective action for manging communal natural resources: study of Shompole Wetland, Kajiado district, Kenya
(2011-08-18) Kuloba, John Damascene Mabala; Nelson Mango; Deborah Nightingale
This research set out to investigate challenges and opportunities to collective action in managing communal natural resources derived from Shompole wetland in Magadi division, Kajiado district. Magadi division is classified as a semi-arid area with annual average rainfall being less than 500mm. Hence the wetland is a critical dry grazing resource to the pastoralists in the area whose livelihood depends, fundamentally, on livestock. The swamp has traditionally provided a seasonal grazing area for Shompole group ranch when other pasture areas are in seasonal decline. Further, the swamp is a wildlife haven for grazing and watering during the dry season. However, as the population increases, coupled with changes and diversification of income in the area and changes in the whole Ewaso Ngiro ecosystem, and continuous breakdown of community institutions, the swamp is now used non-discriminately all year round. This is because the swamp is available to everyone in common; each person has the incentive to use as much of the swamp as they want, even though the collective result has been the destruction of the swamp, making it increasingly unable to sustain the large number of livestock taken there during the dry season. The problem is further compounded by abstraction of water up-stream Ewaso Ngiro River for irrigation and the lack of agreeable community management structures that can advance controlling the misuse of the swamp. This research therefore set out to identify resources the community and its environs draw from the swamp; investigated community rights to the use of Shompole swamp, social relations of resource users, resource extraction values and norms, procedures for monitoring and countering opportunism through social sanctions and conflict management; and challenges and opportunities for sustainable use of the swamp. The study employed both primary and secondary data. The latter was collected from different sources such as books, journals, and seminar presentations while the former was achieved through key informants' interviews, Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) methods using focussed group discussions, and questionnaire surveys. These methods generated both qualitative and quantitative data that was analysed using statistical packages such as chi-square tests, correlation, frequency analysis, and exploratory data analysis including histogram and radar/rose plots. Key findings on the challenges to resource management in the study area include: cultural conservatism against modernity examplified by traditional animal husbandry pracitices that are in conflict with modern modes of production, usurpation of emerging and alternative economic activities by outsiders, conflict of private against public resource tenure systems, and low levels of education, among others. Opportunities for improved livelihoods and resource management in the study area include: a vibrant market economy supported by toursim within reach, availability of abundant natural resources for exploitation, for example, wildlife, minerals, water resources, and agricultural potential in the study area. The study recommended a monitoring strategy to map grazing system and movement of livestock in the swamp, wetlands policy that focuses on comanagement to enhance output and sustainability and collaborative initiative to support tradidtional grazing patterns since the group ranch concept has not been very successful
Water Resource use Conflicts and Implications for Sustainable Livelihoods in the Ngare Ndare Catchment, North-Central Kenya
(2011-08-18) Kariuki, Paul Njoroge; Kennedy K. Mutundu; Nelson Mango
Ngare Ndare sub-catchment is located in the Ewaso Ngiro North Basin. The sub-catchment was purposively selected since it is hardest hit by conflicts that have persisted for a long period between diverse water users. The trans-boundary nature of water resource also necessitated the catchment approach as opposed to administrative units. The objectives of this study were to (i) Establish the causes, nature and magnitude of water resource use conflicts in Ngare Ndare sub-catchment, (ii) Establish the impact of these conflicts on community livelihoods, (iii) Assess the effectiveness of the existing mechanisms of resolving water resource use conflicts within the sub-catchment, (iv) Identify and recommend ways of managing water resources sustainably in the sub-catchment. The subcatchment was divided into upstream, middle stream and downstream zones based on the altitude, agro ecological zones and location on the Ngare Ndare drainage sub-basin. The household was used as the sampling unit and each of these three zones produced a sample of 40 households to make a total sample of 120 households. Key informant interviews were also used. The research employed both qualitative and quantitative research methods as well Geographic Information System (GIS) for spatial analysis using ArcGIS. It also relied on both secondary and primary data sources. Tools used to gather primary data included questionnaire, Key Informant Interviews, Focus Group Discussions, Transect walks and Direct Field Observation (DFO). Results emanating from the study indicates that the enormous demand for the scarce water resource in this multi-stakeholder society is the major cause of conflicts. The conflicts are more intense during the prolonged dry spells and droughts, a situation that has now been exacerbated by the climate change phenomenon. The study also found out that conflicts occur primarily between different categories of stakeholders including the local/project level conflicts, between down and upstream users, between water users and the authorities, and also between humans and wildlife. The most commonly experienced conflicts occur between different water projects as well as between downstream and upstream users. The conflicts magnitude ranges from mere quarrels, tension to full scale armed conflicts that result in the loss of lives and property. The conflicts have had varied impact on local livelihoods. The most common effects of these conflicts according to the residents has been a decline in disposable income, decline in crop production, decline in livestock production and poor physical health in that order. These primary effects normally lead to other undesirable secondary effects, including social and family disintegration, psychological stress and high crime rates including cattle rustling and banditry. To reverse this trend, the study recommends the following remedial measures: (i) Strengthening Ngare Ndare River Water Users Association (RWUA), (ii) capacity building Water Users Associations (WUAs) such as community water projects, (iii) promoting rain water harvesting, (iv) promoting water efficient technologies (v) planting drought tolerant and early maturing crops and (vi) rehabilitating degraded catchment areas and forests
Positive deviance in the adoption of agroforestry technologies within lower Nyando basin, Kenya
(2011-08-18) Odhiambo, Ken K'Oyooh; Nelson A.R. Mango; Kung'u, J.B.
This study was set to examine positive deviance in the adoption of agroforestry technologies by some farmers in Kadibo Division, lower Nyando river basin in Western Kenya. The study was necessitated on understanding that despite widespread effort by extension agents to diffuse agroforestry practices in Kadibo Division, only a few farmers have been able to acquire and sustain the practices. Given this background, the study sought to assess approaches to successful adoption of agroforestry technologies by low resource farmers who are constrained by environmental factors, which traditionally has impeded uptake of the practices within the division. A stratified sample of 92 agroforestry practicing farmers was interviewed at household level besides an interview of 9 key informants. In the study, a mixture of quantitative and qualitative research approaches was used. The quantitative information was mainly obtained using a semi structured questionnaire and an observation checklist, whilst formal interviews, focused group discussions and extended case studies were used to obtain the qualitative information. The quantitative data was subjected to descriptive analysis such as percentages, frequencies and mean on one hand, and linear logistic regression analysis. Whilst narrative-log was mainly used in analysis of the complementary qualitative data. Findings from this study reveal that at least 9 typical agroforestry technologies have been disseminated to local farmers by governmental and non-governmental actors within Kadibo Division. The common technologies observed include: woodlots and shade tree, which was adopted by 22% and 20% of the farmers, respectively. It was further revealed that nongovernmental organizations and lead farmers are crucial players in influencing 43% and 32% of farmers' decision to acquire the various agroforestry technologies, respectively. The findings further revealed that some of the assessed farmers do engage in both short-term agroforestry crop production and long-term crop production practices in a complementary way as a strategy to minimize the high initial cost needed to acquire and sustain the practices. In this arrangement, the resource poor farmers demonstrated how income earned from short-term maturing crops is continuously invested into long-term agroforestry ventures. On the other hand, at 5% significant level, a linear logistic regression revealed that ability to sell agroforestry produce, p=0.018; increased number of marketable farm produce, p=0.028; and increased quality and variety of produce, p=0.007 and p=0.003, respectively are key driving factors to adoption of agroforestry technologies. The study results have showcased the success stories of farmers who have prevailed upon socio-economic and biophysical constraints to engage in the right thing. The key recommendations for out scaling of agroforestry practices in the study area and beyond include: intensification of flood water management strategies to enhance survival of agroforestry trees in adverse times; improve co-ordination and consultations by key institutions at local level to boost farmers' adoption of agroforestry trees; and intensification of farmers information sharing
Indoor carbon monoxide emmission and particulates produced from combustion of carbon based fuels and their health implications on rural households of Manyatta Division, Embu District Kenya
(2011-08-18) Njeru, Linus Kariuki; Stephen O. Anyango; Jones F. Agwata
Over eighty percent of rural households in developing countries use biomass fuels (wood, dung and crop residues) for cooking and heating. This is done in open fires or simple stoves, mostly indoors, and rarely with adequate ventilation or chimneys. The study examined the fuel and stove types used by the households; ventilation conditions of the cooking areas; some indoor air pollutants emitted from smoke namely carbon monoxide and total suspended particulates and awareness on the associated health implications in the rural households of Manyatta Division of Embu District. Household and health facilities questionnaires were used to answer research questions on the stove and fuel types used and the level of awareness on the health implication of the indoor smoke. Carbon monoxide load was determined quantitatively through volumetric methods and total suspended particulates by use of filter paper traps. Percentages, averages, analysis of variance within and between groups and significance testing were done to test the differences in the groups. Results from the study show that, seventy percent of the households use wood fuel for their cooking either inform of charcoal or fire wood of which eighty six percent of these household use firewood which is not dried. These are burnt in inefficient stoves in the form of earthen or metal jikos in kitchens which are poorly ventilated. The pollutant load from the households using alternative fuels (biogas or kerosene) was lower compared to those using wood fuel (firewood or charcoal). The total Suspended particulates and carbon monoxide load in mg/m3 was low for the well ventilated households as compared to poorly ventilated households. e.g. Total suspended particulates load in well ventilated conditions from households using firewood, charcoal, kerosene and biogas was 0.11,0.04, 0.04 and 0.002 mg/m3 respectively as compared to 0.14, 0.12, 0.05 and 0.02 mg/m3 from poorly ventilated condition. Children under the age of five, the aged (>60 years) and women especially expectant mothers were found to be the most vulnerable to health risks associated with indoor smoke at thirty seven percent , eighteen percent and fourteen percent respectively. Seventy three percent of the households sampled were not aware of the health hazards associated with exposure to indoor air pollutants resulting from smoke. The study findings call for greater action oriented research, policy attention and commitment to provide effective indoor air pollution mitigation strategies to the rural households
Genetic coefficients and agroecolgical potential of dual purpose soybean varieties for up scaling in Kenya
(2011-08-18) Nyambane, Nyang'au Alfred
Soybean (Glycine max) is one of the popular pulses in the world. Despite its importance as a source of edible oils, cheap proteins and vitamins, as well as its contribution in the animal feed industry, its cultivation by farmers in Kenya is below the demand, which is however fulfilled through imports. Soybean production fluctuates in response to agro-environmental conditions. It is in this light that it is important to understand the reasons behind the lack of uptake of soybean in Kenya and identify measures that are required to reverse this trend. Although reasons for lack of uptake are likely more of socio-economics or infrastructural than of a biophysical nature, virtually no agronomic studies have been carried out with dual purpose soybean varieties to evaluate whether they retain their dual purpose nature under Kenyan conditions. This study therefore aimed at determining the genetic coefficients of these dual purpose soybean varieties using Inverse Modeling Method. These coefficients representing various varieties were then used in the simulation of selected agro-ecological zones to gauge their performance. The simulation of their growth and productivity under different environments in Kenya was done using CROPGRO model, a component of Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) model. Areas in Kenya with highest potential for cultivation of particular varieties were identified, hence shedding light on the uptake bottlenecks at the biophysical level and consequently aiding in identification of agro-ecological zones where these varieties can do best. The high potential areas were found to be the most productive for soybean varieties. The dual purpose varieties studied were the TGX varieties developed in West Africa whose names were coded to SB for simplification. SB 8, SB 3 and SB 20 were the most stable across sites. However, the early maturing varieties such as SB 9 and SB 19 also did well in areas with a short growing season compared to the local variety- SB 23 (Nyala). Differences among varieties for phenological coefficients were rather small, with the Coefficient of Variation (CV) among varieties for individual characters ranging from 4.19 to15.24%. Varieties should be selected appropriately depending on the length of the growing period or can be grown back to back to take advantage of the short rains in order to maximize production. The results clearly demonstrate that CROPGRO model simulated phenology and yields quite well for most of the varieties across contrasting sites
Assessment of the effects of habitat transformation on the Nairobi National Park and Kitengela ecosystem
(2011-10-31) Kuria, Anne Wanja; Mireri, C.; Waswa, F.
Nairobi National Park's wildlife migratory and dispersal area (Kitengela) has over the last three decades undergone numerous changes from an open, communally owned wet season grazing area to heavily fragmented private property. New immigrants have introduced land uses that are incompatible with wildlife management. These include urban residential, industrial and commercial premises; and agricultural land uses. This research aimed at evaluating the drivers, trends and effects of habitat transformation on the Nairobi National Park and Kitengela ecosystem. The ultimate aim was to isolate policy and action entry points towards the ecosystem's effective management (use, care and improvement) for the common good. The research was based on the assumption that if the current trend of habitat transformation in Kitengela continues; Nairobi National Park will be reduced to an ecological island and will eventually "collapse". The park will thus lose its value as a major tourist destination. Although various interventions are being employed in the area, the problem still persists. Primary data were collected using seasonal calendars, historical timelines, maps, direct observations, photography, questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews. Secondary data sources included journals, books, and other published reports. Stratified random sampling and Purposive sampling was used for sample selection. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods were used. More specifically, descriptive statistics were used to summarise and interpret findings. Pearson Correlation Coefficient was applied to assess the relationship between selected variables under study. The study findings indicate that approximately 68% of Kitengela wildlife habitat has been transformed from communally to individually owned land. The main causes of habitat transformation were the rapid increase in human population in Kitengela, estimated to be growing at a rate of 3.8% per annum. There were also high rates of industrialization in the area. This has resulted to loss of Nairobi National Park's wildlife dispersal and migratory habitat and restricted movement of wildlife. This is because as human population increases in Kitengela, the land sizes have become smaller (r=-0.81, n=127, p=0.01). Decline in wildlife numbers was strongly related to decline in tourist visitation in Nairobi National Park from 1996 to 2006 (r=0.86, n=11, p=0.01). As a result, there were reduced national and community benefits accruing from wildlife tourism. About 60% of the entire Kitengela population felt that they had received some benefits accruing from Nairobi National Park's management, This study therefore recommends that wildlife conservation within the NNP and Kitengela ecosystem should be guided by a national land policy that designates zoned land use activities and recognizes biodiversity conservation as critical in sustainable environmental management and development. The success of this approach would require among others changes in institutional and environmental governance frameworks, promoting the use of economics and incentives, dealing with social and behavioural responses, and integrating indigenous systems into conventional scientific knowledge systems.
Evaluation of growth performance of eucalyptus tree hybrids planted in various agroclimatic areas in Kenya
(2011-10-31) Kahunyo, Stephen wambugu; Kung'u, J.B.; Otor, S.C.J.
The unprecedented rate of deforestation and forest degradation in Kenya has resulted in acute wood shortage. To address this problem, eucalyptus tree hybrids clones were donated to Tree Biotechnology Project in Karura, Kenya by Mondi Forest of South Africa. To evaluate the best planting eucalyptus germplasm, five long-term trials consisting of both eucalyptus hybrid clones and the local progeny in Karura, Machakos, Kabage, Embu and Gede were studied. The study sought to establish the height and diameter growth, stem formation, self-pruning ability, straightness, branching and crown formation of the introduced eucalyptus hybrid clones and the non-hybrid eucalyptus germplasm in different sites. In each trial, 20% of the trees in each plot were selected randomly and height and diameter measurements were taken by use of a sunto and diameter tape respectively. Observations were made on stem form, crown size, branching, self-pruning and survival rate. Analysis was carried out by use of descriptive and inferential statistics. The Genstat Statistical Package was used to carry out both the ANOVA and LSD tests on both DBH and height in all eucalyptus varieties under study. In Karura site there was significant mean height growth variation between the introduced eucalyptus clones and the non-hybrid E. tereticornis and E. saligna, with the clones exhibiting, high survival rates and high level of straightness (95% and 65% respectively). E. grandis exhibited similar growth to clones but with low survival rate. In Embu, the eucalyptus hybrid GCs 642 and 15 achieved significantly high mean height than the non-hybrid varieties. Similarly, the eucalyptus hybrid clones achieved high survival rates (above 95%) compared to E. grandis, E. saligna and E. camaldulensis. In Machakos, E. grandis achieved similar mean height to eucalyptus hybrids apart from eucalyptus hybrid GC 10. Survival rate for all the eucalyptus germplasms in this site apart from E. saligna was over 85%. E. grandis attained relatively high level of straightness (90%) with eucalyptus hybrids GCs 642, 14, 15 and 581. In Kabage, Nyeri, there were no significant difference for both mean height and mean DBH (LSD 1.3 and LSD 1.67) between the non-hybrid E. grandis and hybrid GUs. The high survival rate and straightness of E. grandis was comparable to that of GU 7 (89%), GU 8 (96%) and TAG 5 (pure grandis) respectively. In Gede, significant variation in mean height was observed between progenies. However, eucalyptus hybrids GCs 785, 581, 167 and 584 achieved a significantly high mean height compared to the rest of eucalyptus germplasms. For the mean DBH, eucalyptus hybrid GCs 785, 581, 167 and 584 compared favourably with non-hybrid E. camaldulensis, hybrid GU 21 and hybrid GC 540. The survival rate was high (over 85%) for all the progenies apart from hybrid GC 796 which failed. Crown diameter for the non-hybrid progenies were small compared to those of GUs and GCs, and apart from the hybrids GC 785 and GC 167, all others achieved high branching (over 60%). From the results, the GCs performed well in height, DBH and survival rate than local land races in Karura and Embu, the E grandis exhibited exceptional performance among the local land races in all sites it was planted and GCs are the suitable progeny for a number of agro climatic zones across the country as E tereticornis comes out as the least suitable among the local land races. The study recommends aggressive extension strategy for the suitable hybrids, monitoring of their health as well as continued research and silvicultural studies to find more on their effect on hydrology and soils as well as market reliance.
Assessment of occupational and environmental safety concerns on pestcide use among small-scale farmers in Sagana, Nyeri District, Kenya
(2011-10-31) Kariuki, Peter Mureithi
The purpose of this study was to examine whether farmers' perceptions, attitudes and behaviour with respect to handling pesticides in Sagana Nyeri district Kenya predisposed them and their environment to pesticide-related hazards. The objectives of the study were: a) to determine the farmer's attitudes, perceptions and behaviour towards pesticides at Sagana, b) to assess the potential occupational safety hazards associated with such attitudes, perceptions and behaviour, and c) to determine the potential hazards to the environment resulting from observed farmer-pesticide interactions at farm level. The study adopted a Life Cycle Approach where hazards to human health and the environment were evaluated at all stages of pesticide handling including purchasing phase, transportation, storage, mixture preparation, application and disposal. Data were both qualitative and quantitative in nature and were collected using questionnaire surveys, interview schedules, participatory rural appraisals, field observations and content analysis for secondary data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Person's correlation coefficient was particularly useful in determining the relationships between selected key variables. Results showed that farmers had high levels of perceived vulnerability, perceived severity and perceived benefits of taking action to mitigate pesticide hazards. However, barriers to taking safety measures included perceived high cost of personnel protection gear, apathy and resignation to fate, and low levels of training in pesticide management. Most farmers engaged in activities hazardous to human health such as spraying in windy weather (96%), storing pesticides in the main houses (96%) thus exposing particularly children to danger, not changing clothes after work (84%) and eating or smoking while handling pesticides (83%). Farmer activities hazardous to the environment included failure to calibrate pesticide application equipments (89%), spraying during windy weather (97%), lack of appropriate pesticide measuring equipment (84%) and disposing empty containers and excess mixes to the environment. Trained farmers engaged less in hazardous pesticide handling activities than untrained farmers. Further, contrary to conventional thinking, formal education did not play a significant role towards adoption of safety behaviour. Highly hazardous products banned in many developed countries like DDT were still in use. Over 69% of farmers took no action to protect themselves from pesticide hazards resulting in potentially risky operator exposure. There was evidence that significant poisoning was occurring as 79% reported signs of ill health associated with pesticide exposure. These included breathing problems (25%) skin problems (18%) and chest pains (14%). Therefore, for pesticide safety to be raised and inculcated among low-income farmers, extension, training and education must urgently address issues predisposing farmers to pesticide hazards along the pesticide-handling life cycle as described above. Changes in perceptions and attitudes and hence behaviour when dealing with pesticides are the most important policy and action challenges. Policy interventions should also encourage collective responsibility among all stakeholders in the pesticide life cycle in minimising the hazards. Investment in alternative technologies should also be emphasised, given the growing importance of biotechnology and eco-products in the global market.

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