PHD-Department of Educational Foundations

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The harmony between ethnic and national feelings as a philosophical foundation for unity in education
(Kenyatta University, 1987-09) Mburu, James Ndungu
There has been in Kenya a continued call to enhance national spirit, namely, that feeling which override2 all tribal loyalties. This call entails a paradox in that every Kenyan is a member of a nation and, at the same time f a member of a tribe. He has two polar identities and two subsequent feelings, one towards the nation and the other towards the tribe. This thesis is meant to offer a solution to this paradox. I have started by portraying the ethnic feeling. To this effect, I have identified and examined four cardinal virtues that characterize this feeling. These are concern, courage, respect, and gratitude. The four virtues are identified and examined as practised by the four ethnic communities: concern as practised by the Kikuyu; courage, by the Nandi i respect, by the Samburu and gratitude, by the Giriama. , The four communities have been chosen due to these two reasons. First, they portray a wide coverage in that they are located at different parts of Kenya: at the central, at the west, at the north, and at the south. They thus give a more representative and detailed picture of Kenya. Second, they portray a cultural variety in that each of them uses a different language; observes different customs; and exhibits a different world-view. This variety contributes to a deeper understanding of the ethnic feeling. I have then come to portray the national feeling. Out of the four phenomena of the tribal feeling, I have come to establish a common element. This element is that of a will, namely, an orientation to a world that; is more concerned, more courageous, more respectful, and more grateful. After portraying the tW0 feelings, I have come to establish their relation. I have proved that there exists a dialectic relation, that is, a dialogue between them. The will, previously established, forms the principle of this dialogue. First, the will distinguishes the two feelings by making them separate and specific. Second, the will harmonizes the two feelings by making them united and complementary. Third, the will pervades the two feelings by making them alternate with each other. This metaphysical will as the principle of the dialogue is then utilized for the understanding of unity as an aim of education in Kenya. Unity as an aim of education in Kenya is fraught with contradictions and inconsistencies in that at one time nation is given as the ultimate principle and at another time tribe is given as the ultimate principle. It is the contention of the thesis that this principle has not yet been clarified, justified, and established. I have taken it my duty to clarify, justify, and establish it. I have done this in two areas. The first in that of unity in its aspect of national unity and the second is that of unity in its aspect of personal unity. As regards the first, I have taken one of the educational policy documents, namely, the Ominde Report (1964-65). I have identified the principle for unity in education as given in this document. This principle is that of 'the psychological basis of nationhood'. I have gone to clarify, justify, and establish this basis against the background of the metaphysical will. As regards the second area, I have taken another educational policy document, namely, the Gacathi Report (1976). I have identified the principle for the unity in education as given in this document. This principle is that of 'return to the tradition'. I have gone to clarify, justify, and establish this basis against the background of the metaphysical will. 'The thesis then concludes by .identifying a relation between the nation and various ethnic communities in the country. This relation rejects absolutism which extols national feeling at the expense of the ethnic feeling. This relation also rejects sectionalism which extols the ethnic feeling at the expense of the national feeling. Nationa1 unity, consists in the unity, namely, harmony' of these two feelings.
A Philosophical Examination of Epistemological and Moral Bases of African Indigenous Education with Particular Reference to the Luo of Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 1993) Ogeno, Jackton Ojwan'g; Gerard A.F.J. Bennaars; James E. Otiende
This study is an effort to examine the philosophical foundations of African Indigenous Education with particular reference to the Luo of Kenya. This is an area assumed by many scholars while others acknowledge its debatability. Basic conceptual issues that have been problematic to the understanding of education have been elucidated. The study is presented in six chapters, viz: Introduction, Co~ceptual Scheme, African Epistemological Assumptions, African Moral Assumptions, Philosophy and Education (African perspective), Recapitulation and Conclusion. One cannot legislate feelings or emotions but ~ in this study, thinking and feeling were the two prerequisites to the discussions of the philosophical problems. The sagacious views which formed the raw philosophical texts are appended to the study. These views were garnered through dialogical encounters with the sages from the Luo of Kenya. Terminologies included in this study were solely for the establishment of a common basis of communication between those using them. However, these are explained in the glossary. KENYATTA UN'VE~t~T~liBRARY ..x The study of Philosophy of Education in Africa is diverse. This diversity demands an adoption of a combination of philosophical approaches. In our adoption of the foregoing, we were able to focus directly on the complex nature of Philosophy of Education in the African context. In this study, it is assumed that most traditional settings do ~isualise the task of philosophy of educatio~ as a body of thought that entails ethical principles for justifying educational goals; a metaphysics on which the psychological and sociological aspects of education are based, and an epistemology that justifies certain methods of teach~ng, learning and human ability to know the truth of educational thought. Hence, the assumption that a meaningful education cannot do without a human con- " cern to justify educational efforts..Thus, an educationwithout justifiablea:imsmistbe a confused form of education. The search for and an examination of a philOsophical justification of education in this study is directed more on the African epistemological and moral a$sumptions together with certain metaphysical notions, in so far as they are assumed to affect the theory and practice of African Indigenous Education. Thus, Chapter Five discusses issues that try to link the disciplines of philosophy and of education. Again, the issues raised in Chapters Three and Four are examined in Cbapter Five in order to demonstrate their plausible connection with education. However, such issues are found to ultimately rest on certain metaphysical notions, thereby leaving the problem of the "philosophical bases" open-ended. To arrive at a better understanding, the expression "philosophical bases" assumes an existence of principles that are not only basic but unquestionable assumptions, that serve as the bases for reasoning and ultimately act as guides for action. In this study, metaphysical principles are regarded as more fundamental than social principles and may therefore, require no proof either because they are self-evident truth or analytical truth. However, the mode of conceptualization in which fundamental social principles are regarded as unque- . stionable is seen to amounting to "ethnophilosophy", a term used to refer to "philosophy" implicitly. Owing to our concern for an explicit philosophy of education, we find the analytical and phenomenological interpretation of Dholuo, sagacious views, and the work of scholars like H. Oruka, A-B-C Ocholla-Ayayo and P. Erny quite relevant alternative approach to the understanding of African systems of thought. Thus, the conclusion that the child who is xii at the central nerve of education in the African context, cannot be fully explained simply in terms of the interplay of social super-imposition and the biological cycle, since it transcends both. Therefore, we have arrived at the understanding that visualises the child as somebody possessing a supplementary dimension, born with ready made personality, an intelligemce and will that education is ~ supposed to improve upon. As it is pointed out, the child is more than a tabula rasa since it has certain form of potentiality to be actualized. ~ Unfortunately, the above view of the child is not well-catered for in certain educational , theories and activities. While the explicit philosophy of education does recognise the child as an individual, a personality and authentic being, the practice of certain education accentuates social activities that later plung the child into the sea of the society. Accordingly, this study raises concern for lack of harmony between the philosophical and prac- ~ tical aspects of education in Africa. In this light, we assert that though the bases of African Indigenous education find plausible expIanations in the African epistemological and moral assumptions, its ultimate basis rests not only on certain metaxiii physical notions,but ~ on a philosophical anthropology, a philosophy that understands "man" both in empirical and metaphysical terms. It is this sort of philosophy that ought to provide guiding principles to the practice of education in Africa.
Processes influencing gender differences in access to post secondary institutions in Uganda
(Kenyatta University, 1996) Kasente, Deborah Hope
This study was conducted in Uganda, among a sample of 40 (21F/19M) primary school Teacher Trainees, 30 (22F/8M) School of Nursing trainees, 98 (40F/58M) Secondary School students, 98 (52F/46M) University undergraduates and 11 parents of some of the informants. The major concerns of the study were to identify factors responsible for maintenance of gender disparity in higher education and to describe the processes through which such factors operate. Research Methods: The following research methods were used: (i) Interview schedules (ii) A structured questionnaire and (iii) A Classroom observation checklist adopted from Flanders (1987) interaction analysis categories. Types of data collected: 1. Qualitative data consisting of taped (i) intensive interviews of life histories of 11 informants sampled from each category of students (ii) intensive interviews of parents/ guardians of the 11 informants. 2. Quantitative data collected by questionnaire with 87 items to determine current perceptions of factors and processes responsible for keeping some students in the education system and getting others out prematurely. 3. Classroom interaction data collected to ascertain the nature of social processes that take place during the teaching/learning processes and any gender concerns arising. Data Analysis: 1. Qualitative data and classroom interaction data were transcribed into narrative and analyzed using ETHNOGRAPH, a computer program that facilitated in reducing the data to series of categories. 2. Quantitative data was processed with SPSS/PC+ to give percentages and absolute scores. 3. Data from all three data sources was triangulated and condensed into three types of influences, in line with the conceptual framework, namely: societal factors; school factors and individual factors. Results: The following factors were indicated as having an influence in the creation and perpetuation of disparity between females' and males' access to post secondary institutions: Macro level factors: societal level 1. Mother's support: mothers' financial capacity to meet educational requirements and their being available to offer effective guidance are reflected by results from respondent's life histories as contributing factors towards females continuing with education. 2. Stereo-typed views of women's role: the views held by most females and males indicated that the women's place is still generally seen as being in the houses, although some women thought that this is unfair 89.4 percent of the respondents indicated that females in their homes performed in-door chores like child-minding, cooking and cleaning while males mainly performed out out-door chores. 3. Number of children: Coming from large families (9 children and above appeared to reduce chances of both males and females for higher education, mainly through parents' failure to afford educational costs for all children. 4. Position in sibling hierarchy: being high in the sibling hierarchy was reflected to enhance chances for continuing with education. Having other highly educated siblings enhanced chances of higher education for both females and males. 5. Household income: Lack of schools fees was a limiting factor to both females and males, especially those from polygamous homes with many children. Many parents complained that their household income was no longer adequate to support their children's education beyond primary school. Macro level factors: the school environment. 1. Classroom dialogue: evidence from classroom observation indicated that males received more academic attention than females, while both female and make teachers criticized both female and male students more than they offered encouragement. 1. Subtle sexual harassment of female students: use of provocative language and body language by some male teachers disadvantaged female students by making them uncomfortable in class. Females' vulnerability to sexual harassment; both within and outside school, was also pointed out by most parents as contributing greatly to their dropping out of school (see Tables 7 for parents' detailed responses). One female parent analysed the girls' problem as follows: "for a girl once she gets breast, she has an extra burden always. Either she spends a lot of her time in relations with males or she spends time fighting them away - education is an agenda she adds to this one". 3. Hostility between teachers and students: subtle hostility between female students and female teachers was reflected through authoritarian behavior and nasty comments, on part of the teachers while the pupils protested through refusal to participate in classroom dialogue and rude conduct. This was evident in classroom observation and casual comments over heard in school premises. Micro level: individual gender factors. 1. Moral support and confidence from family members: content analysis of in-depth interviews revealed that females depended more on family members' moral support to stay in school than males. Females were likely to stay in school not to disappoint parents and older siblings who had "pushed, loved and encouraged" them. 2. Perceptions of the purpose of education: Interview results indicated that males perceived the purpose of higher education as an assurance for their future well being while for many females, higher education was seen as leading mostly to their being recognised as important. Many females also indicated that they were likely to remain in higher education to gain skills for employment and avoid negative experiences resulting from dependency on males. 3. Role models: The role models of females who did not continue to post secondary education are other unsuccessful females with qualities such as kindness, conforming behavior and command of respect. Role models of females in post-secondary institutions are professional males with qualities such as hard working, ambition, courage, professionalism, popularity and commitment to work. There is a similar pattern of role models among males who continued to university and whose who did not. They all look up to successful, professional men or national and international male leaders. 4. Self esteem: Comparing school dropouts and students in post secondary education; all females displayed low self-esteem and depended on others, especially family members for encouragement and confidence. Males of all categories, however, had a positive self image and valued financial rather than emotional support from their family members.
Comparative assessment of syllabi and implementation of physical education and sports programmes in primary and secondary schools in Kenya and Uganda
(2011-07-26) Akiiki, B.K. Michael
The purpose of the study was to compare the Physical Education syllabi, and the implementation of Physical Education and sports programmes in primary and secondary schools in Kenya and Uganda. Content of the syllabi, statutory in allocation, time tabling, teaching organization, teaching of Physical Education, mobilization and utilization of resources, funding, organization of sports programmes and school competitions, and challenges facing teaching formed the core of the investigation. Teachers and head teachers from 384 schools selected from 23 districts: in Kenya and 25 districts in Uganda provided the data. Data were obtained using structured questionnaires administered in the field supported by documentary analysis of current Physical Education syllabuses in schools in the two countries. Four null-hypotheses about differences and similarities in Physical Education syllabuses and implementation of physical Education and sports programmes at primary and secondary schools levels, were tested using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) Version; 11 and Pearson's Chi-Square Test Analysis at p=0.05 level of statistical significance. The results showed that the Physical Education and Sports syllabuses used in schools in Kenya and Uganda are different but the structure of Physical Education programmes, tune in allocation, content and objectives are closely similar. In both countries Physical Education is timetabled, taught, but more emphasized in Kenya than in Uganda. However the methods of implementation of Physical Education, sports and games programmes in Kenya and Uganda are identical and inherited from the British high school system. Co-curricular sports and games competitions, especially in ball games and athletics, ire emphasized in schools in both countries. Such games are competed for from school to national championship levels. Inadequate space, lack of equipments, low quality of teaching, inadequate dress policies and inadequately trained teachers, are some of the key challenges facing teaching of Physical Education and sports in schools in Kenya and Uganda. Areas of good practice include: sportsmanship, graded inn and inter-school competitions from school to international levels. The study recommends among others, the harmonization of school Physical Education and Sports system in East Africa through sharing of information, joint research, curriculum development, coordination of teaching, competitions, sharing educational resources, regular consultations and joint regional action through government intervention as a way forward for Physical Education and Sports in schools in East Africa.
Efficacy of school-based HIV and AIDS education in achieving behaviour change in Kenya: towards a contextual model
(2011-08-03) Lengewa, Mesianto Catherine
In an effort to address the problems generated by HIV and AIDS and to avert further new infections among adolescents, a school-based intervention strategy has been widely recommended and implemented in many countries including Kenya. Nonetheless, a number of issues have been raised regarding the effectiveness of this approach. These issues revolve around the content of the HIV and AIDS education, its mode of delivery including the approaches, and the needs of HIV and AIDS educators. Critics are concerned that the technical components of the program are not supportive of the intended outcome. Very little systematic evaluation of the school-based HIV and AIDS intervention strategy is linked to the expected outcome of behaviour change. This study therefore sought to establish the effectiveness of the school-based HIV and Aids intervention strategy in relation to the translation of knowledge into behaviour change. The study also sought to provide recommendations on a school-based HIV and AIDS contextual model with a broader focus in addressing both the individual level phenomenon and a multi faceted range of influences that promote, reinforce and maintain the adolescent's protective behaviour towards HIV and AIDS. The study employed cross-sectional study design, where both qualitative and quantitative data was generated to address the study objectives. Stratified random sampling was used to arrive at the eight selected public schools. Similarly, proportional and simple random sampling was used to select the 400 respondents. Five focus group discussions for adolescents, key in-depth interviews and structured observations for teachers were held. The population of study consisted of form one to four students in public secondary schools aged 15-19 years in Thika district. Quantitative data was analysed using SPPS and simple descriptive analysis used for qualitative data. The main findings indicate that school-going adolescents have high levels of HIV and AIDS knowledge. Only 10 percent displayed moderate level knowledge while 90% indicated high level. Although the knowledge level was high, they still engaged in risky sexual practices. It was noted that 74% of the sexually-active respondents reported not using condoms during their first sexual intercourse, while 45% of the sexually-active adolescents reported having been sexually-involved with two or more partners within the twelve months prior to the study. Majority of adolescents and teachers considered the school-based HIV and AIDS education content ineffective in changing adolescents' sexual behaviour. Similarly, the teachers of HIV and AIDS considered themselves not adequately trained to handle the subject. The result also indicated a clear dissonance between the education sector AIDS policy, the curriculum content and actual school-based HIV and AIDS education implementation. Based on these findings, there was among school-going adolescents an apparent gap between HIV and AIDS knowledge on the one hand and practice on the other. The study identified three broad factors that may be linked in an effort to address the problems generated by HIV and AIDS and to avert further new infections among adolescents; a school-based intervention strategy has been widely recommended and implemented in many countries including Kenya. Nonetheless, a number of issues have been raised regarding the effectiveness of this approach. These issues revolve around the content of the HIV and AIDS education, its mode of delivery including the approaches, and the needs of HIV and AIDS educators. Critics are concerned that the technical components of the program are not supportive of the intended outcome. Very little systematic evaluation of the school-based HIV and AIDS interventions strategy in relation to the translation of knowledge into behaviour change. The study also sought to provide recommendations on a school based HIV and AIDS contextual model with a broader focus in addressing both the individual level phenomenon and a multi faceted range of influences that promote, reinforce and maintain the adolescent's protective behaviour towards HIV and AIDS. The study employed cross-sectional study design, where both qualitative and quantitative data was generated to address the study objectives. Stratified random sampling was used to arrive at the eight selected public schools. Similarly proportional and simple random sampling was used to selected public schools. Similarly, proportional and simple random sampling was used to select the 400 respondents. Five focus group discussions for adolescents, key in-depth interviews and structured observations for teachers were held. The population of study consisted of form one to four students in public secondary schools aged 15-19 years in Thika district. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS and simple descriptive analysis used for qualitative data. The main findings indicate that school-going adolescents have high levels of HIV and AIDS knowledge. Only 10 percent displayed moderate levels knowledge while 90% indicated high level. Although the knowledge level was high, they still engaged in risky sexual practices. It was noted that 74% of the sexually-active respondents reported not using condoms during their first sexual intercourse, while 45% of the sexually-active adolescents reported having been sexually-involved with two or more partners within the twelve months prior of the study. Majority of adolescents and teachers considered the school-based HIV and AIDS education content ineffective in changing adolescents' behaviour. Similarly, and teachers of HIV and AIDS considered themselves not adequately trained to handle the subject. The results also indicated a clear dissonance between the education sector AIDS policy, the curriculum content and actual school-based HIV and AIDS education implementation. Based on these findings, there was among school-going adolescence an apparent gap between HIV and AIDS knowledge on the one hand and practice on the other. The study identified three broad factors that may be linked to this gap and that play a role in influencing the HIV and AIDS behaviour change among school-going adolescents. These are policy and institutional framework, community participation and capacity building for both students and teachers. The study attempts to use these features to propose a school-based HIV and AIDS contextual model that takes into account both individual level phenomenon and environmental dynamics that influence the adolescents' sexual behaviour. The study recommends strengthening of the HIV and AIDS education policy implementation to bridge the gap between policy and practice. It also proposes a revision of the HIV and AIDS curriculum based on the proposed contextual model.
The role of Kenyatta University in promoting good reading habits among undergraduate students
(2011-08-15) Ndethiu, Sophia M.
The problem behind this study was the indication of poor reading habits among undergraduate students. The broad objective of the study was to establish the factors that either facilitated or constrained the promotion of good reading habits in Kenyatta University. The investigation used a survey design to collect data from Kenyatta University in order to find out the role played by administrators, lecturers, students, resources and services in promoting the reading habits of undergraduate students. Three nonprobability techniques namely quota, convenience and purposive sampling were used to determine samples for students, lecturers and administrators at Kenyatta University. Data was gathered using questionnaires, interview schedules, Focus Group Discussion and observation schedule. The subjects included 209 students, 194 lecturers, 13 administrators, 9 library staff and 7 attendants from various university resource centres. Both qualitative and quantitative data was generated. The Statistical Packages for the Social Scientist (SPSS) was used to process the data using frequency tables, charts, graphs and percentages. The conceptual framework upon which the study was based strongly asserts the need to define reading within an interactive view. This view is based on the interactive theory of reading in which good reading habits are seen to result from several interacting factors including the reader himself/herself, the text being read, as well as the total environment in which the reading is being performed. The study findings show that Kenyatta University had factors that both facilitated and constrained the promotion of good reading habits. Among factors that heavily constrained the promotion of students' reading habits were lecture methods and assessment modes that encouraged rotememorization of lecture notes. The study also established that learning support programmes-Communication Skills and Introduction to Creative and Critical Thinking were perceived as very significant avenues of promoting students' reading habits. The study recommends that assessment modes be re-examined in order to focus on approaches that encourage library research rather than rote-memorization of lecture notes. It also recommends that a Kenyatta University policy on promotion of students' reading habits be formulated. On further research, the study suggests that an investigation be carried out to establish how the promotion of good reading habits can be institutionalized and incorporated into teaching, learning and assessment of all subjects of the university curriculum
The experience of being an adult literacy education student in Kenya
(2011-08-16) Muiru, John Kiarie
In this hermeneutic phenomenological study, I examined the experience of being an adult literacy education student in Kenya. Ten adult literacy education students in three learning centers were interviewed between June and August, 2002. Participants were asked on broad open-ended question on their experience of being an adult literacy student. Subsequent questions were based on the participants' responses. The interviews were transcribed and translated from Kikuyu to English. I conducted a thematic analysis of the interview transcripts to uncover the common themes shared by participants. The themes that emerged from the study are: Be able to read, write, and compute; have a second chance to acquire education; acquire knowledge and skills with immediate application; integrate into the community; interact socially; ability to read, write, and compute; acquisition of other useful skills; recognition in their communities; poverty; lack of support; feeling of being too old; lack of motivation; under-qualified teachers; time constraints; gender bias; and knowledge gained not applicable. These themes were grouped into three broad categories: students' reasons for participating in the adult literacy program; effects of literacy in the daily lives of students; and challenges students encountered in their endeavor to become literate. Participants in this study wanted the adult literacy program to help them to master the basic literacy skills of reading, writing, and computation in addition to other things. They also reported that the adult literacy program helped them acquire several useful skills. However, the path to literacy is not straight and smooth as the study participants came to realize. Although the findings of this study cannot be generalized, providers and planners of adult education and adult literacy might find experiences of the study participants useful.
Factors that influence the quality and relevance of early childhood education in Kenya: multiple case studies of Nairobi and Machakos districts
(2011-10-27) Wawire, V. K.; Donald Kisilu Kombo
This thesis investigates the factors that influence the quality and relevance of Early Childhood Education (ECE) in Kenya. The research problem has a basis in the growing concern among Kenyan pre-school education practitioners that the current approach to ECE that emphasizes the academic component at the expense of other areas of development may be curtailing the provision of quality and relevant experiences to young children. The over emphasis on cognitive development observed goes against child development research findings that define quality and relevant ECE to be that which caters for the total development of the child and encompasses education, care, health and nutrition activities. Yet, no comprehensive study had been done in Kenya to establish the interrelationships that exist between factors that influence quality and relevance in ECE. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to isolate and interrelate factors that impacted on the quality and relevance of ECE, in Kenyan pre-schools in view of the fact that the experiences provided during early years are critical because they form a basis for future educational development. The study employed the deductive approach by not only first critically examining the factors identified by the Literature review but going further to isolate more related factors. To adequately achieve the objectives of the study, a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used. Specifically, the multiple case study method was used to purposively select 26 sample schools in Nairobi and Machakos Districts. The process of data collection and analysis was facilitated by the use of a variety of methods including key informant interviews; Focused group discussions, document analysis and classroom observations. The sample included a wide range of informants involved is the ECE sector. Information obtained from the emergent themes of the study was used to crystallize various interrelated factors that impacted on the quality and relevance of ECE provided in the sample schools. Critical among these was the inadequate government policy framework on ECE. This scenario was as a result of the exclusion of ECE from the Education Act thus, rendering it not official and thus not a priority area for government funding. This situation, apart from making it difficult for the government to reinforce the set standards it also encouraged alternative sponsors to the sector based on informal government policy of cost sharing and partnership. The study further established that quality and relevance of ECE was also mainly affected by parent expectations of pre-schools, the competitive examination oriented examination system and formal test based primary standard one admission practices. The study further observed that the quality and relevance of ECE was further affected by historical factors, inadequate state of state of equipment, learning materials and supervision, the care of under threes and children with special needs, poor terms and conditions of service and motivation of pre-school teachers and lack of co-ordination and linkage between ECE provision partners. However, the study also deciphered good pre-school practices including the use of friendly learning atmosphere and locally available materials that enhanced quality and relevance. To address the emergent issues on quality and relevance of ECE in Kenya, the study made suggestions that addressed the ECE stakeholders including policy makers, parents, teachers and officers. These recommendations, including those on areas for further research, center around improving the status of ECE both in terms of policy and funding and sensitizing parents on its specialized role.
An evaluation of integrated soil fertility management practices in Meru South District, Kenya
(2011-11-07) Mugwe, J. N.
Farmers in the central highlands of Kenya do face problems of low crop yields due to soil fertility decline. This is as a result of continuous cropping, nutrient losses through crop harvests, soil erosion and leaching coupled with inability to replenish the soil through use of external inputs. The situation is aggravated by poor adoption, among farmers, of improved soil fertility management options. This study investigated feasibility of using integrated soil fertility replenishment technologies (SFRT) involving organics in combination with inorganic fertilizer to improve soil fertility and consequently crop yields in Chuka, Meru south district. The organic materials evaluated comprised of two leguminous trees (Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena trichandra), two herbaceous legumes (Mucuna pruriens and Crotalaria ochroleuca), Tithonia diversifolia, a locally available tree shrub, and cattle manure. Effect of these organic materials (sole or combined with inorganic fertilizer) on maize yields and soil properties (pH, macronutrients, inorganic nitrogen) was assessed under both on-station and on-farm experiments. Farmer adoption surveys were carried out to assess adoption process that included technology preferences and farmers' experiences, as well as household and farm characteristics determining decision to adopt or not to adopt SFRT. All biophysical data were subjected to ANOVA and means separated using LSD at  = 0.05. Social data were subjected to descriptive statistics and summarised using means, frequencies and percentages. Factors influencing adoption were subjected to multivariate regression analysis. The on-station experiment showed that treatments that had sole application of the organic materials at 60 kg N ha-1, and organic materials (30 kg N ha -1) plus inorganic fertilizer (30 kg N ha-1) gave similar yields (p:50.05). However, these treatments recorded higher maize yields than that from sole inorganic fertilizer treatment. They maintained maize yields at 4 to 6 t ha"I and should therefore be recommended for use by farmers, who currently get 0.5 to 1.5 t ha' from their conventional farming systems. Herbaceous legumes gave the lowest yields among the organic resources, but performed better than the control treatment. At the onfarm trials, maize yields from researcher designed and farmer-managed trials were less variable than those from farmer designed and managed trials, which was attributed to differences in management practices among farmers. The organic materials had a positive contribution to soil pH, K, C and N while cattle manure showed superiority in terms of its contribution to soil properties. The amount of soil inorganic N within the plow layer and N-uptake by maize monitored during 2002 LR and 2004 LR seasons showed variation among the treatments, sampling periods, and between the seasons. There were high amounts of soil inorganic N at 0-15 cm soil depth at the beginning of the season, followed by a decline from around 4 to 8 weeks after planting. This trend was attributed to rapid mineralization of the incorporated organic materials and "Birch effect" that was followed by leaching, due to intense rainfall, coupled with uptake of N by the maize crop. Treatments that had tithonia, calliandra and leucaena applied had the highest soil inorganic N in most sampling periods and also the highest cumulative N uptake by maize. It was evident that the effect of external inputs on N uptake was dependent on climatic conditions (especially rainfall) prevailing throughout the growing.period. Poor rains during 2004 LR resulted in accumulation of soil inorganic N and restricted N uptake by the maize crop. There was high residual inorganic N at 100-150 cm soil depth that was probably due to greater N mineralization compared to plant uptake in the top-soil immediately after the onset of the rainy season and subsequent nitrate leaching. This inorganic N observed in the 100-150 cm depth is below the rooting zone of most maize plants and may not be available to the maize crop. The study established that first farmer preferences were SFRT involving manure and tithonia combined with fertilizer followed by fertilizer alone and was attributed to easy accessibility and probably low opportunity cost of practicing these technologies. Technologies that combined organic and inorganic fertilizer were more popular among farmers and farmers used them on significantly (p0.05) larger plots than with application of either sole organics or inorganic fertilizer. Farmers developed innovations that involved mixing of organic materials, which gave high yields possibly due to increased nutrients supply and other benefits associated with organic materials. The main benefits reported were increased crop yields and fodder (calliandra and leucaena) and this could have been a driving force to the adoption of the technologies. The major constraints were high labour demand and inadequate biomass and farmer tried to cope by preparing land early; applying materials without chopping and planting trees near the crop fields. Five factors were identified to significantly (p 0.1) influence adoption. Age of household head and number of mature cattle negatively influenced adoption. Farm management category, ability to hire labour and number of months in a year households bought food for the family positively influenced adoption. The odds in favour of adoption increase by a factor of 0.9 for households hiring labour, while households buying food for more than three months in a year have an adoption probability of 25%. The implication of these results is that adoption of improved SFRT could be enhanced through targeting of young families where both spouses work on farm fulltime, food insecure households and farmers who lack access to other sources of soil improvement such as those without enough cattle to produce manure. This study has filled an important gap by providing a recommendation on some appropriate technologies for replenishing soil fertility by smallholder farmers in Meru South District. The role of cattle manure in increasing soil fertility parameters was well demonstrated and due to its easy accessibility in the region, it is likely to remain one of the key resources for managing soil fertility. [t is therefore recommended that factors that seem to limit its performance especially on farms such as low quality be addressed. The study also showed how farmers test and manage new soil fertility management innovations to meet their livelihood objectives, and identified factors crucial for enhancing adoption of integrated SFRT. The government therefore needs to strengthen, expand and support long-term soil initiatives that aim at enhancing adoption of these technologies. Policies and institutional support should be focussed on enhancing willingness and ability of farm households to adopt the technologies while taking into consideration key factors that were identified to influence adoption in this study. Further research is recommended on the following areas: residual effects on soil of low and high quality organic resources, partitioning of N upon decomposition of these resources, tradeoffs of biomass banks on farms and their economic viability, diffusion and potential of up-scaling of integrated soil fertility management technologies in the area.
The impact of the school feeding programme on the school participation rates of primary pupils in Kajiado district, Kenya
(2012-01-20) Ngome, Charles Kibanani
The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that perpetuate under-participation in education among the Maasai children, assess the effect of the School Feeding Programme (SFP) on the pupil's participation in primary education, examine by use of anthropometric measurement, the nutritional status of the SFP beneficiaries and analyze problems related to the management of the feeding programme in Kajiado District. The study followed a conceptual framework that views provision of school meals as an effort to enhance learning through alleviation of hunger, which is a stressful state for school children. The conceptual framework also shows that provision of school meals is an incentive for enrolment and regular school attendance not only to parents in the form of an implicit subsidy but also to the children who enjoy the free meals. School meals are also offered to improve the nutritional status of pupils, particularly in deprived arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) districts like Kajiado where calorie deficiency is endemic. The point of departure with this conceptual framework was that the present study also focused on factors that engender and sustain under-participation in education by children of nomadic pastrolists in spite of interventions like the SFP. The study employed a descriptive analysis approach and used qualitative and quantitative techniques in data collection. The purpose of using these two research techniques was to gather as much information as possible on the variables that the study dealt with. The research design was comparative. It was based on two categories of schools: schools on WFP feeding programme and whose without this programme. As a prelude to the analysis of main research tasks, the study analyzed the development of education in Kajiado District in the colonial and post-colonial period before the launching of the school-feeding programme as background to the discussion of the impact of the school-feeding programme on the school participation rates of primary pupils in the district. The study established that the problem of under-participation in education among the Maasai children in Kajiado District has a historical dimension. From its inception, both religion and formal education were not adapted to the nomadic life of the Maasai. As in the colonial era, Kajiado District, as well as other ASAL districts in Kenya, has never been integrated into mainstream socio-nomadic development agenda. The massive neglect coupled with the nomadic nature of the Maasai appears to have sustained underdevelopment that has in turn affected the provision of education to the Maasai children but with extreme marginalisation of girls due to socio-cultural children but with extreme marginalisation of girls due to socio-cultural constraints. Several measures taken such as the introduction of low cost boarding schools have not met the desired objectives. The study showed that their SFP initiative has some incentive value for sending children to school in Kajiado District, particularly in the most arid parts inhabited by nomadic Maasai pastoralists where distances from homes (manattas) to schools are long and yet the incidence of famine is high. Although this study noted that the SFP has had some modest impact on the primary pupils’ school participation rates in the district, it also pointed out that the SFP alone cannot eliminate structural education problems in ASAL districts like Kajiado. These problems include rampant poverty, under-development, socio-cultural impediments and inappropriate teaching methods and inadequate facilities in schools. With respect to the logistics of food supply, it was found that schools in Kajiado District receive their food commodities irregularly due to secondary transportation problems from the National Cereals produce Board (NCPB) depots or the district headquarters to schools. This constraint is caused by inadequate allocation of funds by the MoEST for this exercise and limited financial imputes from the Parents and Teachers Associations of the beneficiary schools. By use of three indicators of nutritional status: low-weight-for-height (wasting), low--height-for-age (stunting) and low-weight-for-age (underweight) in combination with age, the study revealed that the nutritional status of pupils in SFP schools is relatively better than that of pupils in the non-SFP schools. This is mainly because the SFP provides a sizeable and significant nutritional supplement to its beneficiary children; most of whom are drawn from nutritionally deprived backgrounds. Knowledge of the interrelated barriers, that create and sustain the under participation of the Maasai children in education and factors that militate against the effectiveness of the SEP initiative, has implications for policy formulation that will seek to improve schooling among the Maasai children and enhance the efficient management of the SFP. To that end, the study made several recommendations including: • the need for the Government of Kenya (GoK) to increase its inland transport, storage and handling charges (ITSH) financial allocations so as to facilitate effective transportation of food from the National Cereals Produce Board (NCPB) depots at Kajiado and Oloitoktok towns to schools. • The need of recognizing the distinct nature of the Maasai culture in recommending educational policies of their children. This would allow the adaptation of curriculum to the Maasai culture and occupational needs so that lessons/classes are organized around their work rhythms. • The need to set up sensitization campaigns focusing on girls low enrolment and completion rates by the GoK, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), religious institutions and the Maasai themselves (those who have experienced the value of formal education). • The need to address the question of sustainability of the SFP programme when donor assistance ceases by urging the GoK to begin adopting some recommendations in "The Social Dimensions of Development in Kenya (1996)", a policy document which recommends provision of schools lunches and health services to children in primary schools with emphasis on community participation and • the need to improve the Maasai access to education by striving to incorporate them into the market economy and alleviation of their poverty as a basic building block for a range of development activities. This could entail improving the livestock sector of the Maasai, which is the mainstay of their economy from the points of view of production and marketing.
Community financing of primary schooling in Kenya and its implications on quality: case studies from Kajiado and South Kisii districts
(2012-01-20) Ogachi, Ibrahim Oanda
The major objective of this study was to analyze the implications that community financing of primary schools has had on their quality. The rationale for the study was that parents and communities were increasingly financing both the development and recurrent budgets of primary schooling, with the government paying only teachers' salaries. However, the implications of this responsibility on quality, especially in terms of securing teaching and learning materials, have not been explored. The study used a framework that conceptualized the quality of schooling to lie in the interaction of three sets of variables. These were, the degree and quality of relationship between the school and the community, the amount and quality of inputs provided to the school by the community, and the manner the inputs were used in school to improve pupils' learning environments. The positive interaction of these variables results to the realization of social capital in the development of quality primary schools. In this regard, quality of schooling was seen as a process that is attained when there is positive synergy among the three variables. A descriptive case study methodology was utilized in the collection, analysis and reporting of data. The study took the design of comparative and collective case studies, of primary schools in Kajiado and South Kisii Districts of Kenya. Hence, a group of case primary schools from the two districts were separately studied on the basis of the objectives of the study, then, comparative conclusions drawn. The choice of the two districts for the study was purposively done to reflect the basic concerns of the study, of exploring how community socio-economic factors determined the quality of primary schools. The sample for the study consisted 498 pupils, 8 headteachers, 26 class teachers, 46 PTA/school committee members, 16 education officers and 40 parents, from 8 primary schools in Kajiado and South Kisii Districts. To gather as much information as possible, the study triangulated various methods for data collection and reporting. The methods were; a questionnaire for pupils, structured interviews for teachers, parents and Education Officers, FGDs for PTA and school committee members, a content analysis of school documents, and school and classroom observation schedules. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used for data analysis and reporting. The study established that community financing of primary schooling had led to the deterioration in quality, of both the school physical facilities, and the learning process. This was due to various factors. First, socio-economic background of communities affected household demand and ability to pay the required schooling levies. The economic inability of communities to afford schooling levies was traced to historical circumstances, related to colonial and post-colonial policies in the development of the districts. The historical circumstances meant that in the study districts, the requisite social-economic developments, and positive attitudes had not been realized among the population. Consequently, the communities lacked not only the monetary outlays to support quality schooling, but also, the social attitudes to sustain demand for the same. Second, the negative implications that community economic inability had in the quality of schooling were demonstrated in the scarcity of teaching and learning materials, and desks in schools. The shortages were more in schools that had not received financial assistance outside of what parents provided. Third, reliance on parents and the community to finance school inspection had undermined the quality of teaching in schools. This was due to the fact that parents were not able to pay for this activity. Fourth besides financial demands, headteachers were not keen to involve communities more in the running of schools. This undermined the synergy that would have been realized between parents and the schools to improve the quality of learning. This synergy was further eroded by political, religious and clan based interests in the location and management of schools, thereby undermining the development of community social capital for the development for the development of quality schools. Last, the study established that the increased responsibility on the community to finance primary schools had led to a decrease in parental interest in schooling issues. This meant that the policy had not led to increased parental interest on the schooling of their children, in line with the aims of the cost-sharing policy. In the overall, this study concluded that community financing of primary schooling was undermining the role of primary education in national development. Besides, the findings of the study indicated that the quality of primary schools continued to be determined by the level of economic development of the different Districts of the country. To this end, the study recommends for the Kenya government to institute various affirmative strategies to ensure quality primary schooling for all the children in the country.
Factors influencing gender mobility to the top levels of educational management in Kenya
(2012-01-20) Wanyama, Leah Njambi
The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence gender mobility to the top levels of educational management in Kenya. The study hoped to offer explanations as to why women are under-represented at these levels. It hoped to illuminate and reveal gender-based concerns prevailing at the top levels as they affect the participation of women and men in educational management. This, it was assumed, would increase awareness of the critical need to have women adequately represented at these levels. The conceptual framework argues that the patriarchal ideology and the social mechanisms it puts in place such as socialization, gender-based division of labour, myths and stereotypes offers the main explanations to women's low participation at the top levels of educational management. The concern of women's status vis-ŕ-vis that of men was built on the realization that women remained and continue to be subordinate to men. This was attributed to patriarchal structures dominant in majority of cultures globally. The study endeavored to answer five questions including: What socio-cultural and structural factors promote/hinder women and men's mobility to the top levels of educational management? What practices at the top levels of educational management hinder or promote women and men's mobility to the top levels of educational management? What impact do the existing policies have on the participation of men and women in educational management? And lastly, how has the political environment influenced hiring of men and women at the top levels of educational management? The site of the study was the Ministry of Education Science and Technology headquarters. The study targeted male and female officers working at the top levels of educational management for in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. As the Ministry of Education headquarters had mostly male education managers, Nairobi Provincial Education Office, that was said to have high numbers of female educational managers, was purposively sampled for comparison. The case study methodology was used and focused on officers both male and female at the top and middle level management positions of the Ministry of Education Headquaters. It solicited their views, perceptions and experiences regarding the low participation of women at the top levels of educational management. Information was generated mainly through in-depth interviews, focus-group discussions and document analysis. Data obtained was analysed manually using thematic groupings guided by the research questions. The analysis presented here puts more emphasis on the responses of the officers holding senior and middle level management positions in the Ministry of Education both at the Ministry Headquarters (Jogoo House) and Nairobi Provincial Headquarters (Nyayo House). As the main purpose of the study was to document the experiences of the officers, other sources of information, for example, document analysis was used for confirmatory purposes. The main findings of the study were that the low participation of women in educational decision-making in the Ministry of Education may be explained by a complex set of interacting factors including the historical development of education in Kenya that relegated women and girls education to a less important position. This emanated from the societal perception of the role of boys and girls in society. The education of boys was given priority and was directed towards making them have stronger economic base. This was based on the societal ascribed role of boys as the heads of households and breadwinners that was strengthened by the colonial system. The education of girls was seen as of less value as girls were expected to get married and did not need a lot of education to be good housewives. This negatively impacted and continues to affect women's participation at various sectors of employment. Further, the institutional factors including structural and organizational ones, gender neutral hiring and promotion policies, stiff competition for few posts at the top, inadequate exposure to broader issues of management, lack of adherence to the set criteria in promotion and politics, all play a major role in determining who gets to the decision-making positions. Of particular importance were the informal structures of interaction in the professional world that affected advancement of officers to management. Important and critical decisions were said to be made in ''old boys networks'' only to be formalized in the officers. As women have no such networks, they tend to be left out. Further, the problems caused by traditions on the perceptions of the role of the role and place of women and men in society are of critical importance. There is subtle resistance to women's participation in spheres long held by men. At the same time a number of socio-cultural factors were found to be a major hindrance to the advancement of women to the top levels. These included; socialization, cultural expectations of what are suitable for women, gender division of labour and myths and stereotypes. The study recommended that gender inequalities be addressed at every level of education to enable women to participate in the education sector and attain higher education levels. This will create large reservoir of female officers necessary to gradually to advance into decision-making levels. Other recommendations include; affirmative action, management induction courses, gender sensitization programmes, personal empowerment courses, gender responsive employment policies and social and social transformation where the divisional of labour will be fairly distributed to men and women. Men and women should be encouraged to challenge cultural and traditional mechanisms that create situations of subordination of one gender.
The development of special education for physically handicapped children in Kenya:1945-2003
(2012-03-01) Musyoka-Kamere, I.
This study traced the development of Special Education (SE) for the physically handicapped, (PH) children in Kenya. It investigated the discharge, adequacy and relevance of the education. It further analyzed factors that influenced the provision and development of the education, identified specific privations of the PH, and gave suggestions for appropriate amendments and reforms. The study is based on the conceptual framework adopted from SIDA 2001 Human Rights Perspective on Education. This perspective sees education as an essential prerequisite to an individuals effective functioning in society. The study used a historical method of data collection, which provides insight into past events that impinge on the present, and provides a basis for the prediction of future trends. In addition, the investigation employed a collective case study approach that involved detailed studies on selected SE institutions. The data collection instruments used included questionnaires, structured interview schedules, and classroom observation schedules. Content analysis of school documents and correspondence was also carried out. The information collected from these data collection instruments was sorted, analyzed and presented qualitatively and quantitatively and also in form of percentage tables. The study established that the government's participation in the provision of SE is minimal. Most of the initiatives in the provision of SE are by non-governmental organizations. The government merely provides ancillary services such as provision of teachers the provision of learning materials, and financial assistance. The government also lays down the policies and guidelines that govern SE, and more recently, provide some learning equipment under the free primary school programme. This study concludes that SE in Kenya is wanting. Policies governing SE ignore the needs of the PH. The prevailing policy calls for their integration with the Non-disabled children (NDC), ostensibly to achieve inclusiveness. The study however found that this only aggravated the plight of the CWD. From the findings of this study, the following recommendations ensued: ¨ That SE institutions be made more disabled friendly ¨ The assessment modes and curriculum be adapted to the needs of the CWD ¨ More training and incentives need to be offered to staff working with the PH ¨ Vocational training is essential to prepare the PH for a future career ¨ Rehabilitation must be incorporated in the education of CWD That government policies must reflect the desires of CWD
The subjective foundations of scientific knowledge and their implications for teaching and learning of sciences in Kenya
(2012-04-04) Rutto, Sammy Kipkemboi
This study has a twin task. On the one hand, it seeks to reconcile the objectivist and the subjectivist theories as these maybe relate to conception of scientific experience. On the other, it endeavors to draw from this reconciliation useful implications for improving the processes of teaching and learning of sciences in Kenya educational institutions. The study begins this task from two basic premises. One is that the teaching and learning of science in Kenya is wanting: it requires improvement. The other is that objectivism as a basic epistemological theory within which scientific knowledge is conceived and practiced is inadequate. It tends to lead to the formation of an insufficient scientific experience. As a theory of knowledge, objectivism is revealed in the thesis as defining scientific knowledge solely in terms of the facts, principles, laws and theories of science. That is, the view contends that the contents of objective knowledge are the basic elements in terms of which scientific knowledge may be fully conceptualized and practiced. To teach learn science within this conception basically involves assimilating the facts, laws, principles and theories of science. It also means constructing one's mentality after the structural patterns dictated by the subject matter of science. The result is a scientific thinking and practice that tends to offer a passive slot to the learner. An Extreme version of this thinking, as we shall see in the study, in fact assigns a complete absence to the knower in any given scientific epistemological space. Kenya's science education is reminiscent of such a scenario. For instance, pedagogical practices are often skewed towards ' consumption' of scientific facts. During experiments, the learners often observe science from a distance instead of participating by doing science. Also, they show a general inability to demonstrate scientific initiative and creativity. They are generally afraid of science; presumably, because they do not see it as something they can also produce. The thesis contends that by representing science only in terms of objective contents, the objectivist theory fails to provide an adequate framework for the provision of a satisfactory scientific experience through science education. Here, science is experienced predominantly as abstract truth; it is visualized mainly in terms of validity characteristics. Its instrumental factors in lived experiences tend to be relegated to the background. Its effective power, as an attitude towards the world is also not fully grasped. Indeed, if intuition, initiate, creativity and similar abilities are to be recognized as belonging to the continuum of knowledge, then there is need to investigate the subjective foundations of human knowledge. That is, while talking about human experience in all its forms, there is need to locate the human subject in his or her rightful place in relation to objects. The study stresses, in this context, that it is not possible to put the knower or the learner on the sidelines in any conception of experience and still talk meaningfully about it. This is because experience in the first place is always a relation between the subject and the object. And that experience assumes its rightful qualities in a mutual interaction between the subject and the object. This is to say that both subjectivity and objectivity are intrinsic domains of human knowledge. They co-exist dialectically. So far, the subjective foundations of scientific knowledge have not been fully explored and explained. As such, they have not been utilized to formulate or design pedagogical practice in any explicit way. More often than not, educators have not used the learner’s subjective resources enough as a basis for designing and enhancing the process of scientific teaching and learning. Instead, they have tended to be predominantly guided by the objectively given structural demands of the subject matter together with factual requirements. This thesis, therefore seeks to explore the subjective foundations of scientific knowledge and establish their implications for the teaching and learning of the sciences in Kenya. The inquiry is a philosophical one and its methodological inputs include looking at subjectivity and objectivity in a dialectic relation. Also, conceptual analysis, critical questioning and phenomenological reflection have constantly characterized the general development of thought whose major object is to examine and interpret some relevant epistemological questions.
Correlates of student's deviant behaviour in selected secondary schools in Nairobi
(2012-04-16) Kombo, D. K.
This study investigated the correlates of students' deviant behaviour in selected secondary schools in Nairobi province. The study used a survey method with an application of ex post facto research design on eight sampled secondary schools. From the schools, 310 form IV students, 73 parents, 8 headteachers and 8 guidance and counseling teachers, who were randomly selected participated in the study. Three types of research instruments were used to elicit data. These were: Quesionnaire, interview and observation schedules. The obtained data were subjected to statistical analysis. The results were then used to determine the existence of relationships between independent and depended variables. To facilitate data analysis, chi-square and Gamma statistics were employed. The statistics were computated using SPSS programme. Each computated Chi-square statistical value was compared with the appropriate table (critical x ) value to establish its significance. In each case, the significance of a particular relationship was determined at 0.05 level of significance. A major justification for the study is that to date the problem of deviance rates has been largely concentrated more among the secondary school. Hence there is need to ascertain the correlates of deviance in our secondary school institutions and suggest possible solutions. The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter one starts with introduction, background to the problem, statement of the problem research questions assumptions of the study, significance of the study, limitations of the study, definition of terms and organization of the study. In chapter two, detailed and diverse literature on deviant behaviour has been examined to give the reader the actual picture of deviance in Kenyan schools. It is also in this chapter where conceptual framework was given. Chapter three discusses research methodology while chapter four presents data analysis and discussion of the findings. Chapter five concludes and summarizes the entire study. Here, policy recommendations are proposed and suggestions for further research are also made. The statistical analyses and interpretations of the findings suggested that a good, ideal and conducive atmosphere be created both at home and in the school to help the students to pursue their studies smoothly without damage to school property. The parent’s headteachers guidance and counseling teachers should work in collaboration to strive to inculcate moral education in the students. Second, they should provide and make maximum use of the school to enforce discipline and lastly to provide guidance and counseling curriculum development and instill motivation rather than demotivation which may lead to damage and wastage of school property. Based on the empirical analyses, the following variables correlated significantly: Relationship between the teachers' frequency of offering guidance and counseling services to students by their (students') frequency of being inattentive to teachers in class. Relationship between the headteachers style of handling disobedient students and their (students) frequency of being disobedient to school authority. Relationship between students' frequency of offering guidance in counseling services to their secondary school children and frequency of their (students') damage to school property. These significant relationships mean that the listed variables have important impacts on students' deviance. Consequently, the implications suggested by the finding of this study are that unless the recommended policies are implemented, students will continue to deviate in school. The result of such behavior would be a possible wastage of manpower.
Factors enhancing or inhibiting community participation in the development of schools and income generating projects in rural areas: a case study of Kiambu District, Kenya.
(2012-04-17) Kimani, Elishiba
There is a worldwide realization that people are important resources in the development process. Many countries in their development policies have stressed the need to encourage communities to participate in their development projects. The rationale for this lies in the acknowledgement that the society cannot prosper without full co-operation of its members. To achieve this, members of a society must be allowed to take initiative and deliberations so that they are able to exert effective control of their development. Enhancing community participation in development projects involves effective co-ordination of local activities to enable people to help themselves to achieve certain objectives to bring about development. The major task of the study was to investigate factors, which may enhance or inhibit community participation in the development of schools and income-generating projects in Kiambu District. It was both a case and exploratory study. The study sample comprised members of schools and income-generating projects in Kiambu district. The school projects studied were categorised into primary schools, district secondary schools/government assisted schools (Harambee secondary schools) and youth polytechnics. One project in each of the four categories was randomly selected in each of the seven divisions in the district. This gave a total of 28 projects. From each project , ten ordinary members were selected as respondents. This gave a total of 280 members, although only 275 members were successfully interviewed. Three project officials from each project were also interviewed, giving a total of 84. Also interviewed were 59 divisional local leaders/administrators. Instruments used to collect data were interview schedules for project members, officials and local leaders/administrators. There were also checklists for project observation and focus group discussions. Data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Science Programme (SPSS). Data presentation took the form of numerical percentage, frequencies and tables. From data analysis, it was found that some socio-economic factors such as marital status, household size, level and source of income impacted upon the community participation in the development of schools and income-generating projects in Kiambu district. Other factors also found to affect participation were safety and accountability of project funds, project-related skills and quality of leadership. There were some social, economic, political and educational benefits that members reaped from participating in the development of schools and income-generating projects. Such benefits include acquiring leadership skills and improved lifestyle. There were also problems found to be experienced by project members, officials and local leaders. Some of these problems were financial constraints, gender dynamics, political interference and lack of time and space. The study, however, highlights some strategies, which could enhance community participation and the existing government policies and guidelines to achieve these. From the findings, it was concluded that there is a need to enhance community participation in the development of schools and income-generating projects in Kiambu District. Thus, factors found to determine participation need to be nurtured in order to give people more empowerment and control over their own development affairs. On the strength of these conclusions, the study recommends that local people as actors and beneficiaries of participatory development should enlightened on the expectations of participatory development. While local leaders should be equipped with adequate participatory knowledge and skills, government officials should monitor activities of all development projects so as to check on their performances, costs and expenditure.
Determinants of female participation in primary education: a study of Kwale and Taita-Taveta districts, Kenya
(2012-04-30) Juma, Magdaline N
The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that determine female participation in primary education in Kwale and Taita-Taveta District of the Coast Province of Kenya. The study was based on a conceptual framework which centres on a gender structuring theory in which it is argued that culturally determined ways of defining women and men and their roles in a given society shape gender specific opportunities and constraints. It influences the manner in which the society orders its relations of production and the distribution of resources including education that result in gender differences. Seven research tasks guided the study. They included:(i) participation rate of girls in primary education in the two districts, (ii) participation rate as related to socio-economic factors, (iii) the influence of the educational level of family members, (iv) socio-cultural attitudes towards education, (v) the effect of household labour activities, (vi) school based factors and the perceptions on the importance of girl's primary education. The sample population of the study consisted of 120 household heads, 20 headteachers, 10 Islamic religious leaders, 2035 pupils from standard six, seven and eight of whom 1037 were girls. Data was collected through documentary review, in-depth interviews with household heads, headteachers and Islamic religious leaders, while primary school pupils completed a questionnaire. Participatory observation was also carried out in a small number of schools and households selected from within the main sample. Research findings established that there exist serious disparities which date back to the colonial period. Taita-Taveta which was fully integrated into the colonial economy and is relatively among the rich districts in the country has more educational resources than Kwale and girls’ participation rates in primary education are higher. Boys and girls ratios in this district are equal. Government intervention in through the abolition of the so called school fees benefited girls only marginally with a small rise in enrollment, but did not significantly alter the boy-girl ratio in Kwale. Girls' participation is not only affected by low enrolments, but also by promotion or progression rates. It was established that with the expansion of primary education after independence, dropout rates rose from about 20 to 40 per cent for Kwale, while in Taita-Taveta the range was from 11 to 20 per cent. Although dropout rates appeared high for both boys and girls in Kwale it affected the latter more seriously than the former. Dropout rates for girls are not only high throughout the classes, but become more pronounced in the upper classes. Taita-Taveta does not only register low dropout rates but also retains more girls in the primary school system through repetition. Research findings also established that in terms of socio-economic factors, a large proportion of the community is involved in productive a economic activity that enables them to meet the high cost of their children’s education as compared to Kwale. Closely related to the parental socio-economic background is the educational level of the family members. It is an important factor influencing the participation of girls in primary education, for parents who themselves are educated; impart a positive view of schooling among their children. Taita-Taveta has a high percentage of parents who attained basic education than Kwale. The study also concludes that although a vast majority of parents in both Kwale and Taita-Taveta, have positive attitudes of educating both boys and girls, they are generally less inclined to educate girls than boys and harbour some traditional values that discourage the former's active participation in primary education. Religion that constitutes part of the socio-cultural factors was found to have a strong impact on girl's education. In Kwale where the population is predominantly Muslim, religious leaders who hold a strong sway are not only opposed to schooling in general, but to girls’ education in particular. Western education is believed to have a disruptive effect on Islamic institutions. The socio-cultural attitudes that tend to discourage girl's schooling encourage them to participate more in domestic and farm work, thereby reducing their participation in education. With respect to school factors, although on the overall headteachers did not think that the school environment is discriminative against girls, it was established that the primary school teaching force is male dominated in the two districts and holds very negative views about girls schooling which adversely influence their participation. Finally the study concludes that the communities in both Kwale and Taita-Taveta hold positive views about the importance of providing basic education to girls. The provision of literacy, numeracy and cognitive skills in primary education enhances women's ability to perform the multitude functions that contribute to the social and economic development. A number of factors identified in the study are readily subject to alteration through policy intervention. It is therefore recommended that the literacy campaign that the government has been waging should be stepped up as well as public awareness strategy to change gender stereotypes about female education.
Gikuyu story-telling as a method of the communication of moral values
(2012-05-02) Gachiri, E. W.; Getao, F. N.; Kimokoti, A. C.; Mburu, J. N.
In this study, the function of communicating moral values in the traditional story telling activity of the Agikuyu is researched. Six variables integral to the functioning of a communication process are used to construct a framework for the study. These variables are the storyteller, the listener, the message, the activity of story telling the consequences of story telling and the feedback. The study uses the qualitative research method of cultural anthropology. This paradigm emphasizes a participatory approach to the study and attempts to produce contextual and descriptive in-depth data from observations and interviews. The research was carried out in two Gikuyu communities in the central province of Kenya. These are; Kiriko in Kiambu and Gikondi in Nyeri. This research work was prompted the realisation that the influx of new cultures and mentalities left many Kenyans frustrated with regard to what was an acceptable moral behavior. It was also motivated by many experiences of situations in which indigenous traditions still commanded loyalty and exerted psychological pressure on Kenyans. These together with the belief that aspects of traditional education such as the traditional education such as the traditional story telling of the Agikuyu, communicated the acceptable moral values to the youth in the society, culminated in the present undertaking. The study discovered in Gikuyu story-telling a method of communicating moral values that involved fully the effective faculties of the learner, the educator, the community and the environment. This method utilised in a deliberate manner the emotional participation of the listeners in the shaping of attitudes and moral behaviour. This aspect of the method came out in the present study, as the greatest strength of Gikuyu traditional story-telling activity. The study therefore proposes and recommends that this and other aspects of the traditional Gikuyu story-telling activity that are relevant to education be incorporated into the Kenyan system of education today. Among these aspects are those that concern the storyteller as educator. These include wholesome relationship towards self, towards the listener, towards the community and towards the environment. Present-day storytellers are challenged to create stories suitable to modern youth. They are urged to use all available means to promote story telling in schools, homes and institutions of higher learning. They are also challenged to evaluate and critique current stories to which young people are exposed in books, radio, and television and in other means of the media. As regards listeners, the study recommends that they be of mixed ages, mixed sexes and mixed abilities in order to create the atmosphere that can reap the benefits of traditional Gikuyu story-telling. Other aspects recommended for the audience include openness to leisurely learning, community spirit, healthy competitive attitudes and the freedom to accept, reject or modify the moral characteristics in Gikuyu stories. The moral values in the studied Gikuyu stories (self-control, wisdom, prudence and so on) are judged to have a universal appeal and so are commend to any community. The study also challenges each community to create stories with the moral values it considers worthwhile communicating to its youth. Two general characteristics of story-telling that the study considers especially important are (1) adequate preparation for and introduction to each session (Gikuyu traditional story-telling has nearly twenty variations of opening formulae), and (2) selection of the most appropriate times, locations and external atmosphere for the activity (it is important that the voice, images and fantasy, the non-verbal features, reward and punishment be carefully utilised in order to achieve maximum effectiveness). These features of Gikuyu traditional story-telling contributed immensely towards the involvement of the senses during the activity. The study concludes that traditional Gikuyu story-telling presents an activity that has relevance for contemporary educational methodologies. Its special strength is in its involvement of all the senses of the learner: for when the senses are engaged to attract the child to acceptable behaviour or to repel him or her from what is unacceptable, the individual is more easily moved and shaped by these moral values. The well developed method of story-telling found in the Gikuyu communities studied is recommended in this study as a worthwhile tool for educators especially in their attempt to communicate moral values to the youth. The data in this research is organized under the six headings above. These are the necessary components that qualify story-telling as an activity that communicates moral values to the youth. The six are treated in Chapter Four. Chapter Five, the conclusion to the study contains the summary and recommendations that the researcher deems appropriate for parents, educators, and the educational planners in Kenya. It is hoped that this study will make a helpful contribution to the science and art of education.
Processes influencing gender differencies in access to post secondary institutions in Uganda
(2012-05-03) Kasente, Deborah Hope
This study was conducted in Uganda, among a sample of 40 (21F/19M) primary school Teacher Trainees, 30 (22F/8M) School of Nursing trainees, 98 (40F/58M) Secondary School students, 98 (52F/46M) University undergraduates and 11 parents of some of the informants. The major concerns of the study were to identify factors responsible for maintenance of gender disparity in higher education and to describe the processes through which such factors operate. Research Methods: The following research methods were used: (i) Interview schedules (ii) A structured questionnaire and (iii) A Classroom observation checklist adopted from Flanders (1987) interaction analysis categories. Types of data collected: 1. Qualitative data consisting of taped (i) intensive interviews of life histories of 11 informants sampled from each category of students (ii) intensive interviews of parents/ guardians of the 11 informants. 2. Quantitative data collected by questionnaire with 87 items to determine current perceptions of factors and processes responsible for keeping some students in the education system and getting others out prematurely. 3. Classroom interaction data collected to ascertain the nature of social processes that take place during the teaching/learning processes and any gender concerns arising. Data Analysis: 1. Qualitative data and classroom interaction data were transcribed into narrative and analyzed using ETHNOGRAPH, a computer program that facilitated in reducing the data to series of categories. 2. Quantitative data was processed with SPSS/PC+ to give percentages and absolute scores. 3. Data from all three data sources was triangulated and condensed into three types of influences, in line with the conceptual framework, namely: societal factors; school factors and individual factors. Results: The following factors were indicated as having an influence in the creation and perpetuation of disparity between femeles' and males' access to post secondary institutions: Macro level factors: societal level 1. Mother's support: mothers' financial capacity to meet educational requirements and their being available to offer effective guidance are reflected by results from respondent's life histories as contributing factors towards females continuing with education. 2. Stereo-typed views of women's role: the views held by most females and males indicated that the women's place is still generally seen as being in the houses, although some women thought that this is unfair 89.4 percent of the respondents indicated that females in their homes performed in-door chores like child-minding, cooking and cleaning while males mainly performed out out-door chores. 3. Number of children: Coming from large families (9 children and above appeared to reduce chances of both males and females for higher education, mainly through parents' failure to afford educational costs for all children. 4. Position in sibling hierarchy: being high in the sibling hierarchy was reflected to enhance chances for continuing with education. Having other highly educated siblings enhanced chances of higher education for both females and males. 5. Household income: Lack of schools fees was a limiting factor to both females and males, especially those from polygamous homes with many children. Many parents complained that their household income was no longer adequate to support their children's education beyond primary school. Macro level factors: the school environment. 1. Classroom dialogue: evidence from classroom observation indicated that males received more academic attention than females, while both female and make teachers criticized both female and male students more than they offered encouragement. 1. Subtle sexual harassment of female students: use of provocative language and body language by some male teachers disadvantaged female students by making them uncomfortable in class. Females' vulnerability to sexual harassment; both within and outside school, was also pointed out by most parents as contributing greatly to their dropping out of school (see Tables 7 for parents' detailed responses). One female parent analysed the girls' problem as follows: "for a girl once she gets breast, she has an extra burden always. Either she spends a lot of her time in relations with males or she spends time fighting them away - education is an agenda she adds to this one". 3. Hostility between teachers and students: subtle hostility between female students and female teachers was reflected through authoritarian behavior and nasty comments, on part of the teachers while the pupils protested through refusal to participate in classroom dialogue and rude conduct. This was evident in classroom observation and casual comments over heard in school premises. Micro level: individual gender factors. 1. Moral support and confidence from family members: content analysis of in-depth interviews revealed that females depended more on family members' moral support to stay in school than males. Females were likely to stay in school not to disappoint parents and older siblings who had "pushed, loved and encouraged" them. 2. Perceptions of the purpose of education: Interview results indicated that males perceived the purpose of higher education as an assurance for their future well being while for many females, higher education was seen as leading mostly to their being recognised as important. Many females also indicated that they were likely to remain in higher education to gain skills for employment and avoid negative experiences resulting from dependency on males. 3. Role models: The role models of females who did not continue to post secondary education are other unsuccessful females with qualities such as kindness, conforming behavior and command of respect. Role models of females in post-secondary institutions are professional males with qualities such as hard working, ambition, courage, professionalism, popularity and commitment to work. There is a similar pattern of role models among males who continued to university and whose who did not. They all look up to successful, professional men or national and international male leaders. 4. Self esteem: Comparing school dropouts and students in post secondary education; all females displayed low self-esteem and depended on others, especially family members for encouragement and confidence. Males of all categories, however, had a positive self image and valued financial rather than emotional support from their family members.
Continuity and change in Adigo women's roles, status and education: an exploratory anthropological study
(2012-05-25) Wamahiu, Sheila Parvyn
The aim of the present study is two-fold. Firstly, it attempts to identify and describe the varied roles and educational experiences of Adigo women within the contexeds of precolonial societies. Secondly, it purports to explore the interface between the gender roles identified and education (broadly defined to include indigenous, Islamic and western types. The study examines the hypothesis that the relatively higher status of women in indigenous societies, particularly matrilineal ones, has been depressed by mainly non-indigenous educative influences as reflected in their current social-economic dependent status. Data for the study were collected over a period of one and a half years from the Kwale District of Coastal Kenya. It combined traditional anthropological field techniques such as participants-observations, survey questionnaires and ethnographic interviews with techniques developed by feminists anthropologist such as time allocations and daily expenditure study techniques. Additional data were collected from the archives and other documented sources, an exercise that particularly useful in the reconstruction of precolonial, colonial and post-colonial Adigo societies. An overall feminist approach to research was adopted throughout the study with a view to correct misconceptions of past Andocentric research. The emerging data on gender roles on relations suggests need for reexamination of existing literature on women's position and consequent redefinition of their status within matrilineal societies. Contrary to traditional anthropological perceptions of women's status in matrilineal societies, the present study indicates that Adigo women had the rights of inheritance to both property and public office in indigenous societies. They also had far more ritual, and therefore, political power that has been credited to them. This confirms the first part of the hypothesis enunciated earlier, that is, the status of Adigo women in indigenous societies was relatively high. Currently, this high status has greatly depreciated. Despite enjoying considerable marital and personal autonomy, the political, religious (ritual) and economic powers of Adigo women have been curtailed to a great extent. Islamic education, initially and subsequently colonial education, by denying easy access to females, ensured the non-participation of Adigo women in the newly introduced religious and economic activities. Though there is greater participation by Adigo women in both Islamic and postcolonial western type education dydtems today, the dominant patriarchal ideology being propagated through both these educational systems, is continuing to erode women's status in contemporary Adigo society.

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