MST-Department of Geography

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    The location and structure of manufacturing industries in Thika.
    (1987-04) Kinyanjui, Mary Njeri
    The present study investigates the location and structure of manufacturing industries in Thika. Questionnaires and interviews were used to obtain information for the study. Location was investigated at two levels: first, the factors that motivate entrepreneurs to establish industries in Thika, and s~cond, the factors responsible for the spatial distr2bution or intra-urban location of industries. With respect to structure, the focus of the investigation was the spatial linkages of manufacturing industries. The analysis was carried out in three stages. Factor analysis was used t.o determine the factors that motivate entrepreneurs to establish industries, both in general and by scale of en~erprise, in Thika. Multiple regression analysis employing the stepwise selection technique was used to determine the areal association between manufacturing and the quantifiable independent variables. A limited input - output technique was used to examine the spatial linkage characteristics. The factor analysis revealed that the primary factors motivating entrepreneurs to establish industries in Thika are: (a) availability of land and access to business information, (b) accessibility to supplies of raw materials and (c) availability
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    Towards the Use of Integrated Approach in the Conservation of Nairobi River Basin
    (Kenyatta University, 2000) Kwena, Z. A.
    This study investigated the potential for integrated conservation in Nairobi River basin. Emphasis was on contributions and perception of stakeholders towards collaborative conservation of the basin's environment. Specifically, the objectives ofthe study were to: • establish level of natural resource use and environmental degradation awareness among residents of Nairobi River basin • identify various groups of stakeholders in the conservation of Nairobi River basin • establish the role and perception of stakeholders in the conservation of Nairobi River basin • determine the potential of integrated approach in the conservation of Nairobi River basin Data was collected by use of questionnaires, interview schedule and observation. The questionnaires contained both open-ended and structured questions, which targeted primary and secondary stakeholder. Primary data was analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, totals, percentages and cross-tabulations) before being subjected to chisquare test and factor analysis to test for independence between observations made and patterns of association, respectively. SWOT analysis (which is analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the conservation team) was performed to identify key critical areas to guide in strategic management of the entire river basin. This study revealed that stakeholders in the conservation of Nairobi River basin broadly include government agencies, non-governmental entities and individual members. Awareness on environmental degradation among stakeholders was high (93.7%) with 85.5% being aware of river/water pollution, air pollution (54.4%), uncollected solid wastes (80%) and soil erosion (50%). These stakeholders make use of various natural resources such as water, vegetation and geo-rnaterials, which often result in environmental degradation due to unsustainable use. The study further showed that conservation efforts by stakeholders are inadequate due to apathy caused by inadequate co-operation. Institutions involved in conservation of the river basin were reported neither to co-operate amongst themselves nor with the public. The study, however, revealed that there is unutilized high potential for integrated conservation of the river basin as expressed by the willingness of both primary and secondary stakeholders to co-operate. Statistical tests using the chi-square technique revealed that the differences observed in responses pertaining to 'aspects of environmental degradation known, natural resource use, conservation activities undertaken and rating of the current level of cooperation are significant at both 0.05 and 0.01 levels of signific~. Factor analysis showed that there is a pattern of association in the rating of factors that hinder implementation of conservation efforts. Supportive and enabling environment factors stand out as important determinant factors compared to policy and institutional arrangements. In conclusion, there is high awareness of environmental degradation among stakeholders in Nairobi River basin, although the efforts by various stakeholders to conserve their environment are inadequate as exemplified by state of apathy expressed by a good number of respondents. There is high potential for integrated conservation of the river basin although this potential has not been utilized. This study recommends that all stakeholders should be involved in the conservation of Nairobi River basin. This can be achieved with the formulation of an integrative, focused and unambiguous environmental policy pillared on deterrent and properly enforced legislative structures.
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    Demograpidc, socio-economic and cultural factors which influence implementation of family planning programme in Kenya: a study of the City of Nairobi and Kericho District
    (Kenyatta University, 2002) Githinji, Sophia Wanjiku
    Kenya has since 1967, been having one of the most well funded Family Planning Programmes in sub-Saharan Africa. Ninety seven percent (97%) of married women know of family planning methods but only 39% of them are using a method (Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, 1998). The large existing gap between knowledge and use is a clear indication that there are, some unknown forces that influence decisions on fertility and use of family planning services in Kenya. The major research hypothesis of this study is that the socio-economic and cultural factors that influence fertility are little known and therefore ignored in the design and implementation of the family planning programmes. This study examines the socio-economic and cultural factors that influence fertility and family planning in five ethnic groups in the city of Nairobi and Kericho District of Kenya. These groups are the Luo, Luhya, Kisii, Kalenjin and Kikuyu. These groups were selected to capture people from different cultural backgrounds. The city of Nairobi was chosen to represent the urban areas and Kericho District to represent the rural areas. The study also evaluates the Family Planning Programme of Kenya with a view to determining the extent to which it takes into consideration the socio-economic and cultural factors. Primary data were collected through the administration of a questionnaire designed to investigate the socio-economic and cultural factors that have a bearing on fertility. The questionnaire was administered to some two hundred women of childbearing age selected from the five ethnic groups in Nairobi and Kericho. Secondary data from demographic and health surveys, census reports and population research journals were reviewed and used to evaluate the Family Planning Programme of Kenya. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and stepwise regression analysis were applied to determine the factors, which had a greater explanatory power on fertility. The analysis showed that the influence of socio-economic and cultural factors on fertility was greater in Nairobi than in Kericho District. Age at first marriage, age at first birth and level of education were found to be considerably higher in Nairobi and consequently, their influence on fertility was stronger in the region. Forty six percent of women interviewed in Kericho District got married in the 15 to 19 year age group, compared to only 15 % in Nairobi. Fifty two percent of women interviewed in Nairobi had completed secondary education compared to 24 % in Kericho District. Forty five percent of women in Kericho District relied on their children to do house work. In Nairobi, forty one percent of the women had their children study after schoo1. These women valued the quality of education for their children and had smaller families in order to provide them with the desired education. Women in Kericho District, on the other hand, valued the work done by children and so they had larger families. Duration of breast-feeding, preference of male children and attitude towards methods of family planning were some of the cultural factors found to influence fertility in both Nairobi and Kericho District. Fifty two percent of women in Kericho breast-fed their children for more than eighteen months. Only thirty nine percent of women in Nairobi breast-fed for more than twelve months. Employment is a factor contributing to the short breast-feeding duration among the urban women. In all the five ethnic groups investigated, women who did not have male children were looked down upon. In Nairobi, fifty six percent of the women interviewed reported having experienced side effects as a result of using the modem methods of family planning. In Kericho, the proportion was seventy percent. Forty four percent of urban and thirty nine percent of rural women considered traditional methods still effective. The Family Planning Programme of Kenya was found to be supply oriented rather than demand driven. Contraceptives are provided for free in the public sector and at subsidized rates in the private sector. The programme has not taken into consideration the socio-economic and cultural factors that connect the well being of people to fertility limitation. The study recommends the review of the Family Planning Programme to accommodate these issues and help people to achieve their childbearing expectations.
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    Women and housing in Nairobi city: an investigation of constraints and opportunities in access to house ownership
    (Kenyatta University, 2004-08) OKaka, Okoth Fredrick
    This study investigated women and housing in the city of Nairobi. It especially targeted the constraints that impede women from accessing own house and opportunities that enhance access to house ownership. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to: '" Identify the modalities of acquiring own house by women in the city of Nairobi '" Investigate constraints inhibiting women's access to house ownership in the city of Nairobi. '" Investigate opportunities that can enhance women's access to house ownership in the city of Nairobi. To realize the purpose of the study, a survey design was adopted. Primary data was collected by use of questionnaires and interview schedules. The questionnaires contained both open ended and structured questions, which targeted women who were either tenants (45) or owner occupiers (45). Informal discussions were held where necessary to seek clarification and additional information from the respondents. The interview schedules were administered to the mortgage officers from the housing finance institutions. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data processing and analysis. The first stage of processing and analysis involved computation of frequencies, percentages and generation of tables and graphs. The second stage involved testing of hypotheses by use of chi-square and factor analysis to test for independence between observation made and patterns of association, respectively. The study revealed that there were three ways used by women in the city of Nairobi to acquire owner-occupied house. These included: loan or savings from co-operative society o! self-help groups; loan fro.n mortgage lending institutions or bank or employer; and inheritance. The most commonly used modality being through loan or savings from co-operative society or self-help group (68.8%). Statistical test using the chi-square technique revealed that the differences observed pertaining to modalities of acquiring own housing by women in the city of Nairobi were statistically significant at 0.05 level of significance. The study further showed that women in the city of Nairobi face a number of constraints in accessing house ownership. These constraints included: low income, lack of information on housing opportunities, bureaucratic housing loan procedures, high cost of houses, and lack of equal inheritance rights among others. By employing factor analysis, it was observed that there is a pattern of association in the rating of constraints that hinder women's access to house ownership. Four main factors (constraints), namely: institutional; financial; educational and occupational; and cultural were derived from the original 15 constraint variables. The study also revealed that there were various opportunities that could be explored by women in the city of Nairobi to enhance their access to house ownership. These were: initiating income generating activities through self help groups; joining co-operative societies that offer flexible credit facilities; seeking information on acquisition of shelter; and seeking for education, training and employment opportunities to boost access to house ownership. In conclusion, it was evident that women's accessibility to owner-occupied house in the city of Nairobi is severely constrained. However, opportunities exist that could be explored by women to access house ownership. The study recommends that the government, NGOs, and other stakeholders in the housing sector should support and initiate programes and activities aimed at increasing women's access to house ownership, especially in an urban setting such as Nairobi where majority of women live in insecure housing tenancy.
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    Rainfall-runoff modeling of the Nyando River basin for flood mitigation
    (Kenyatta University, 2008) Ajigoh, Elly Okewe
    The study objective was to model the Nyando River basin for flood mitigation. The methods used include the rainfall-runoff relationship peak food frequency Analysis mapping of inundation river plain areas for various return period floods. The study was carried out using available basin measured variables. The main data used for the study were daily rainfall and daily stream flow obtained from the Meteorological Department and Ministry of water Development respectively. The basin rainfall-rainfall relationship was established by correlation and regression analysis. The extreme flood peak magnitudes and their return periods were established by frequency of the type 1 Gumbel distribution. The river hydrologic modeling was carried out using HEC-HMS for simulation of stream flow hydrographs. To delineate flood vulnerable areas on the basin, a digital elevation model of the Nyando river basin was made by GIS Arc View tools. Using TIN, Triangulated irregular network which defined flooded areas corresponding to water levels above river banks at each cross section for the known flood magnitude and return period. The regression result established a direct relationship between basin rainfall and runoff. The frequency analysis showed the floods for return periods of 10, 25, 50,100 years to be 327.9, 397.9, 457, 510.8 m3/s respectively. The mean annual flood was 1983m3/sec the hydrologic modeling showed that the southern sub catchment contributed most to the hydrograph. The study, indicates that the HEC-HMS modeled the flow of Nyando fairly well as depicted by the hydrographs. With any given rainfall input the area under inundation can be determined using the model parameters established for Nyando. This is important for flood mitigation measures. This study has successfully linked the hydrologic model HEC-HMS, Gumbel frequency analysis, and GIS Arc View water surface modeling in flood inundation mapping for the Nyando basin.
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    Spatial analysis of trees outside forests as influenced by land use categories in River Sio Basin, Kenya
    (2011-07-11) Kweyu, M. Raphael
    Trees Outside Forests (TOF) as elemements of the landscape form a vital resourse.TOF have in principle similar functions as trees in forests through environmental, economic and social services. Generally, TOF can act as buffers to alleviate pressure on natural forests as their products often can be substituted to forest products. however, this resourse has been threatened with disturbances related with human activities. This study was aimed at analysing the distribution of TOF spatially, that is, in different land use categories. Such a study has significant contribution to sustainable utilization of the resourse in Sio River Basin as well as other river basins with similar situations in Kenya and Beyond. The analysis helps in understanding the relations between TOF and their environment in order to achieve a sustainable management of the tree resourse. Within this context, TOF assessment was carried out using a stratified was carried out using the parameters basal area per hectare (BA/ha), number of trees per hectare (NT/ha=density), and trees products. In the study area, TOF information was collected using a stratified random sampling design, and data collection involved tree counts, measuring of diameter at breast height (DBH) and an informal interview for socio-economic survey. The collected data were categorised into four river distance zones and into six Land Use Categorised (LUC). Data analysis involved testing the relations between TOF, and LUC. Results indicate that TOF BA/ha and NT/ha significantly correlate with LUC. This means that land use systems affect the distribution of TOF. Results from socio-economic survey revealed that the competitive nature of trees with food crops is the main reason restraining farmers from planting trees on their fields. Other factors include lack of adequate land and tree seedlings. The survey on tree products depicts that farmers rely on TOF mainly for building followed by fuel. The study recommends that efforts of tree planting practices should be strengthened among farmers. Farmers should be encouraged to plant fast growing exotic trees, which will provide products such as income, building materials and fuel wood and also generate income.
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    An evaluation of efficiency of use of agricultural watershed resources under fluctuating rainfall regimes at Muooni dam site, Machakos district, Kenya
    (2011-07-11) Cush, Ngonzo Luwesi
    Water stress and land degradation are major causes of food insecurity and poverty outreach in marginal and dry lands. Muooni catchment is facing increased risk of crop failure under rainfall fluctuation due to increased farming water operational costs, especially under drought. This study aimed to: (i) assess the kind of anthropogenic and environmental factors affecting efficient use of water and land by farmers at Muooni dam site; (ii) determine the extent to which land-use activities and environmental externalities impact on the active water storage capacity of Muooni dam; (iii) simulate the variations of farmers' actual water demand and related costs resulting from rainfall fluctuation; and (iv) estimate the farmers' water economic order quantity (EOQ), limit average costs (LAC) and minimum efficient scales (MES) under fluctuating rainfall regimes. The study area was stratified in two zones: the immediate sitting zone (ISZ) and the gradual sifting zone (GSZ). In total 66 farms were surveyed in the ISZ, and 60 key informants interviewed in the GSZ. GPS and GIS software were used to collect and process computational data, while DoView, SPSS and MS Excel spreadsheets helped processing qualitative and quantitative data. Techniques for assessing and predicting the impact of land-use activities and environmental externalities on Muooni dam's active water storage capacity and farmers' water demand included hydro-geomorphologic impact assessment, descriptive and non-parametric statistics, time series analysis and Spearman's Rho test, and operational research inventory modelling. Results of Mann-Witney U-test and Spearman's rank correlation indicated with 99.8% confidence degree that farming activities assessed at Muooni dam site did not have a significant impact on its soil erosion and water over-abstraction. Farmers' poor education and income did likely not allow them detect early effects of soil erosion and multiple cropping overuse, while El Nifo floods and droughts amplified these impacts by loading more than usual sediments in .Muooni dam reservoir. These externalities affected water availability in Muooni dam at a decreasing rate of 6.2% per year. Spearman's Rho test attributed with 99.5% confidence degree 65.7% of the total variation of the dam's active water storage to the obsolescence of its reservoir logistics, while the remaining 34.3% were explained by the reservoir sedimentation and water over-abstraction by eucalyptus and other alien trees planted in the catchment. The decreasing water levels in Muooni dam threatened smallholder farms' yield and income through increased farming water shortage costs and the cost of fertile soil excess loss. This constrained farmers to use less than required water by their plants, especially during drought. The operational research simulations revealed that LSF, MSF and SSF farmers were just ordering 28.9°10, 12.2% and 4.4% of their respective actual crops water requirement. An increase of 175%, 518% and 1,420% of their actual total costs was observed respectively under ANOR, NOR and BNOR scenarios. For efficiency, farmers needed to decrease their crops water requirement as soil moisture decreased by specializing to no more than three water friendly crop species. They should also optimize their water demand to the EOQ or the LAC level, or at least to the MES level. This would imply an increase of their actual water demand by at least 36%, 129% and 972% under respectively the ANOR, NOR and BNOR regimes, using innovative technological means, efficient on-farm management techniques and hydropolitical strategies to be implemented by the government in the Athi CMS and Muooni SCMP.
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    Effects of land on water resource availability in Muoni sub-catchment, Machakos District, Kenya
    (2011-07-11) Peter, M. Musuva; Obando, Joy Apiyo; Makokha, G. L.
    Land use activities if unregulated impose a huge economic cost on water resources supplies, land productivity and water resources infrastructure and ecological damage to ecosystems. Water resource plays a central and critical role in supporting land use activities for crop production in Muoni sub-catchment. Land use activities such as unregulated agriculture and tree planting along and near water sources are some of the possible threats to water availability in Muoni sub-catchment. This affects the livelihoods of the people and the health of the environment. This study was undertaken to examine the effects of land use activities on water resource availability in the sub-catchment. Data were collected through household interviews, focus group discussions, mapping of the catchment water sources, and secondary data on the catchment water resources endowment. A total of 230 households selected through simple random sampling technique from the catchment's 2303 households. The questionnaires coded and the information analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). Geographical Positioning System (GPS) was used to locate and map water sources. The study revealed that the sub-catchment is characterized by diverse land use activities mainly agricultural in nature such as cash crop farming mainly coffee, food crops farming (rain-fed and irrigation), animal keeping, tree planting mostly eucalyptus trees, brick making, water harvesting and sand harvesting. A total of 30 water sources were identified of which 6 sources had dried up as a result of destructive land use activities. One stream, two springs and three shallow wells had been affected by land use activities in turn affecting adversely their water discharge capacity and levels. The findings of this study revealed that the level of community participation and involvement in the sub-catchment in water resources management was very low. Catchment area advisory committees and water resources users associations do not exist in the sub-catchment. The available organized self help groups were dealing with issues outside water resources management. Ecological areas and riparian buffer zones of the sub-catchment were under intense threat of destruction from competing land use activities. The study recommends the creation of catchment area advisory committee (CAAC) and water resource users association (WRUA) to regulate water demand and use for better management of the sub-catchment water resources. This will not only create awareness on water scarcity and solve water conflicts among users, but also make strategic plans for water allocation, distribution and use. The study also recommends a review and harmonization of different Acts and Legislations dealing with catchments resources protection and management in order to clearly spell out roles and responsibilities of Government institutions responsible for natural resources protection and management and remove duplications and conflicts. This will help in examining the relevance, validity and applicability of these legislations to the current national situations and circumstances.
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    Analysis of economic efficiency of irrigation water-use in Mwea irrigation scheme, Kirinyaga district, Kenya
    (2011-07-11) Obiero, Owila Benedict Peter
    Given the increasing freshwater scarcity, the performance of irrigation is critical in increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity in the water-scarce and largely arid and semi-arid Kenya. Irrigation currently accounts for most of the water withdrawals in the country, and the required improvement in the performance of irrigation is hampered by inadequate benchmarks upon which to base effective planning. This study was conducted between September and October 2008 to analyze the economic efficiency of irrigation water-use in Mwea Irrigation Scheme in the Upper Tana River Basin in Kirinyaga District, Kenya. The objectives of the study were to determine response of rice yields to the quantity of irrigation water used in Mwea Irrigation Scheme, the economic water-use efficiency, and the main factors explaining the efficiency. This required data on quantities of water withdrawn for irrigation, irrigated land area, working capital, labour and rice output, as well as other technical and socio-economic features of the irrigators. Questionnaires and field observations were used to collect secondary data on these variables from a sample of 121 out of the 4,189 rice farms. Descriptive statistics, regression and correlation tools were used for data analysis. The results were presented in form of tables, plates and graphs, from which discussions, conclusions, and recommendations were made. The study revealed that the quantity of irrigation water as was used had positive but insignificant effect on rice output, probably implying over-use of water. Technical, allocative, and overall economic (cost) water-use efficiencies in the Scheme were 69%, 91%, and 63% respectively. Further, technical efficiency was explained mainly by the act ual duration of land preparation, water conflicts, drain water re-use, and availability of water in the canal. It is recommended that technical and institutional changes bc made in order to improve technical efficiency of water use in the Scheme. Specifically, these include dry land preparation, shortening of land preparation period, cultivation of more water-efficient rice varieties, non-flood weed control, and construction of large-scale water storage infrastructure. Other recommendations are canal 'fining, installation of water control structures, drain water re-use, capacity-building of IWUAs, and integrated approaches to water management in the Thiba and Nyamindi river basins. This study contributes to effective and efficient decision-making on irrigation planning and management in Mwea Scheme. It will also facilitate the development and implementation of the National Irrigation Policy that is currently being formulated. In addition, it is expected to generate more interest in irrigation research in Kenya to help achieve the national macroeconomic development objectives of poverty alleviation, food security, employment creation, and industrialization.
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    Seasonal climate forecast, access and use in agricultural production : a case of semi-arid South-East Kenya
    (2011-08-16) Recha, Wambongo C. S.
    Seasonal climate forecasts is an adaptation strategy to climate variability expected to be useful in farm management. The study was based in semi-arid southeast Kenya. The specific objectives of the study are:(i) To identify sea surface temperatures (SSTs) influencing seasonal rainfall and vegetation conditions in SE Kenya;(ii) To examine farmers' access and use of seasonal climate forecast information and;(iii) To identify socio-economic constraints in access and use of seasonal climate forecast information. Objectives were achieved by employed numerical and field survey scientific approaches. Objective 1 was achieved by assembling rainfall & SSTs (1961-2004), and NDVI data (1981-2004) for Katumani and Makindu synoptic stations. To analyse these set of data, F-Test, Stepwise multiple regression, correlation and distribution approaches were utilized. Objectives 2 and 3 were obtained by conducting field survey in 60 households. Questionnaires were prepared and issued to interviewees before and after the release of October- December (OND) rainfall forecast by Kenya Meteorological Department in 2004. Field survey data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists. Descriptive statistics were presented and hypothesis tested using chi-square test. The study reveals that rainfall variability is persistent in southeast Kenya, a phenomenon that continues to pose a challenge to agricultural production. OND rainfall in southeast Kenya has a low but significant relationship with SSTs and the chances of having an accurate forecast are highest during ENSO events. Vegetation conditions are influenced by inter and intra annual rainfall variability. NDVI data had a low correlation with rainfall predictors but peak-months OND NDVI showed a strong correlation with SOI, NAT and NfN04 of the months of June to September. The coefficient of determination, r2 was 0.65 and 0.39 for Katumani and Makindu respectively. Forecast verification scores in both sites showed rainfall forecast to have a better skill than peak-months NDVI forecast. The study has illustrated that direct application of climate forecasts to simulate vegetation conditions is not viable. However, the better skill for predicting OND rainfall and its significant correlation with growing season NDVI, suggest that in the event of an accurate rainfall forecast, users should anticipate greener vegetation conditions and better yields. Field survey results show that 77% of farmers in southeast Kenya access forecasts and their sources main are radio and neighbours. Although farmers access forecast, only 37% have confidence in it. Despite lack of confidence, 75% farmers rate seasonal climate forecasts to be useful, suggesting that downscaling of forecasts at a local level can enhance forecast credibility and therefore adoption. Chi-square test results show that there is an association between access and confidence in seasonal climate forecasts. Thus, farmers with confidence in forecasts are likely to seek information and adopt it in decision- making. There was no difference in the decision to change farm management strategies by agro-ecological zones. Farmers showed flexibility and potential to respond to climate forecasts when they altered planting dates, area planted and crop cultivars. The study further established that access and use of seasonal climate forecasts are not necessarily influenced by socio-economic constraints. However, interplay of various socio-economic constraints can impede or enhance use of forecast information. These factors are labour and timeliness of forecast (0.357, p<0.05), study site and inaccessibility to appropriate seeds (0.37, p<0.05) and, extension and income (0.48, p<0.05). Income, draft power, labour, forecast inaccuracy and access to appropriate seeds were the most mentioned constraints in the adoption of seasonal climate forecasts. To ensure access and use of seasonal climate, it is recommended that (1) seasonal climate forecast be downscaled to a local level, (2) Farmers be trained on the concepts and terminologies used in the dissemination of seasonal forecasts, (3) Dissemination of climate forecasts should be through extension officers and meteorological experts and, (4) Farmers should be assisted to access low interest credit facilities through community based organisations. It is suggested that future studies should include SSTs from the Indian Ocean (including Indian Ocean Dipole) in simulating seasonal forecast for southeast Kenya and attempts should be made to link seasonal forecast and number of rainy days.
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    Rainfall-runoff modelling of the Nyando river basin for flood mitigation
    (2011-08-18) Ajigoh, Elly Okewe
    The study objective was to model the Nyando River basin for flood mitigation. The methods used include the rainfall-runoff relationship peak food frequency Analysis mapping of inundation river plain areas for various return period floods. The study was carried out using available basin measured variables. The main data used for the study were daily rainfall and daily stream flow obtained from the Meteorological Department and Ministry of water Development respectively. The basin rainfall-rainfall relationship was established by correlation and regression analysis. The extreme flood peak magnitudes and their return periods were established by frequency of the type 1 Gumbel distribution. The river hydrologic modeling was carried out using HEC-HMS for simulation of stream flow hydrographs. To delineate flood vulnerable areas on the basin, a digital elevation model of the Nyando river basin was made by GIS Arc View tools. Using TIN, Triangulated irregular network which defined flooded areas corresponding to water levels above river banks at each cross section for the known flood magnitude and return period. The regression result established a direct relationship between basin rainfall and runoff. The frequency analysis showed the floods for return periods of 10, 25, 50,100 years to be 327.9, 397.9, 457, 510.8 m3/s respectively. The mean annual flood was 1983m3/sec the hydrologic modeling showed that the southern sub catchment contributed most to the hydrograph. The study, indicates that the HEC-HMS modeled the flow of Nyando fairly well as depicted by the hydrographs. With any given rainfall input the area under inundation can be determined using the model parameters established for Nyando. This is important for flood mitigation measures. This study has successfully linked the hydrologic model HEC-HMS, Gumbel frequency analysis, and GIS Arc View water surface modeling in flood inundation mapping for the Nyando basin.
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    An assessment of the effects of the 'new' road safety regulations on passenger service vehicle operations in Nairobi, Kenya
    (2011-11-03) Kipkosgei, Edwin Sang
    The study examines the effects of the `new' road safety regulations on the operations of PSVs in Nairobi. Specifically, the study sought to a) examine changes in the input and output of PSV in Nairobi, b) establish changes in the working conditions of PSV drivers and conductors, c) assess changes in the quality of service of public transport, and finally, d) examine the challenges and opportunities in implementing and enforcing the'new' regulations. The study was descriptive, comparative and cross sectional in nature whereby only a section of the PSV operators were sampled to participate in the study. Data for this study was collected using structured and un-structured questionnaires, which targeted the PSV owners, drivers/conductors and commuters. Key informants were drawn from Traffic Police, TLB, Ministry of Transport, Local Authority and Matatu welfare associations. A sample size of 120 PSVs was considered. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data processing and analysis. The data was mainly analyzed using descriptive statistics and the hypotheses were tested using the student West. The data was presented using simple tabular comparison of means, graphs, charts and text. The findings indicated that there was a significant change in terms of input cost and output of PSVs (P=0.05), minimal changes were observed on the working conditions of the PSV drivers and conductors, the quality of transport service improved after the regulations were implemented and that the key enforcers of the regulations face a lot of challenges in enforcing these regulations. The two null hypotheses (HO) were rejected at P=0.05. In general, it can be concluded that the `new' regulations were generally good, however poor implementation and enforcement has hindered its success. Therefore, it is recommended that for these regulations to be sustainable, a strict and consistent implementation and enforcement is needed.
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    The demographic, socio-economic and cultural factors influencing non-marital fertility in Makueni District, Kenya
    (2011-11-03) Masua, Jackson Musau; Kisovi, L. M.; Tonui W.K.
    Fertility has been and is a major determinant of population growth in Kenya. The country has witnessed increasing levels of non-marital fertility The rates are high for the unmarried women (KDHS, 2003). While the majority of non-marital births occur to women aged 18 years and older, little is known about the factors that influence their decisions to have children out of wedlock. Hence the main objective of this study was to investigate the factors influencing non-marital fertility in Makueni District of Kenya. A rural -peri-urban appraisal survey design was adopted targeting women aged between 15 to 49 years who had non-marital births. A total of 120 women from the study areas were included in the sample. The primary data on the demographic, socio-economic and cultural factors that influenced non-marital fertility in the district were collected using questionnaires, focus group discussions and interviews then analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and presented using: Frequency tables, Percentages and histograms. Chi-square test (x2) was used to test the proposed hypotheses at a significance level of 0.05. Correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between age at sex debut, age at first child, number of likely fathers and non-marital births. The findings from the study revealed that, there are high proportions of nonmarital births and female headed families in Makueni District; majority of whom are single (60%), divorced (23.3%), cohabiting (10%) or widowed (6.7%).Results on correlation relationship between age at sex debut and age at first child birth revealed a positive correlation (0.565) indicating that women who engaged in pre-marital sex while young gave birth to their first child while young. The results further revealed a correlation coefficient of (0.784), between the number of children per mother and the number of likely fathers to the children, which suggests that, the total number of nonmarital births is positively correlated to the number of likely fathers. It was also revealed that there was a negative correlation of (- 0.124) between age at first child and the total number of children per mother, meaning that women who delay to get their first child were likely to have few non-marital births with age. Demographic factors such as: age of respondent, age at sex debut and age at first child birth were found to significantly influent non-marital fertility. Similarly the following socio-economic factors were also found significant. These include: family background (parents level of education and occupation), respondents level of education and occupation, child's likely fathers level of education and occupation, prior-knowledge on reproductive health and sexuality before age 18, mass media influence and age of partner at sexual debut. Cultural shifts, changing family values, gender roles, debut of sexual behaviour and contraceptive use were also significant. From the FGD's it was revealed that non-marital births have implications to the mothers and their children. The mothers experienced social stigma, low education achievement, economic hardship, and shortage of time with their children and stress while the children experienced the problem of indiscipline, personality development, social stigma, low educational achievement and unstable living conditions. From the study findings it was recommended that the government should target young children and especially the girls from disadvantaged families and ensure that they get quality education. It should also increase entrepreneurial education and labour market opportunities for the unmarried mothers, promote responsive childbearing behaviour, provide reproductive / sexual information, engage the media by promoting programmes that discourage non- marital sex and increase public awareness on the consequences of non-marital pregnancies.
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    An analysis of factors influencing adoption of the recommended maize technology's package in Makuyu Division, Murang'a South District, Kenya
    (2011-11-03) Mbugua, Felistus
    Maize is the most important staple food and the major source of sustenance for the majority of the Kenyans. The increasing population trend in the face of declining yields in maize production has intensified the food insecurity problem (Republic of Kenya, 1994). This has created the need to improve maize production techniques so as to meet food security demands. Researches have been conducted on maize varieties suitable for Kenya's different agro-ecological zones (KAR1, 2000). From these research findings, packages of improved maize varieties and the recommended agronomic practices that accompany adoption of each variety have been released. Each package contains a specific maize variety and its management practices that should be fully adopted to enable it give its expected maximum yield gains. The improved seeds have high yielding potential especially when the agronomic practices are employed to the recommended levels. The main objective of this study was to determine the level to which farmers in Makuyu Division of Muranga South District, Kenya have adopted the entire recommended maize variety's package in order to identify and analyze the major socio-economic constraints towards its adoption. This was done in order to identify possible policy options that can promote its entire adoption. A total of three hundred farmers were sampled using a multistage purposive technique from six sub-locations in the division namely Makuyu, Gakungu, Kimorori, Mihang'o, Maranjau and Karia-ini. The sampled farmers were interviewed through a structured questionnaire. The results revealed that, adoption of the entire package is sub-optimal for only 1 % of the sampled farmers had adopted all the six technology components in the package as recommended. It was found out that, users of fertilizers and cattle manure applied them at levels far below the required amounts. Most of the sampled farmers (71.3%) planted after onset of the rains. Awareness of weed control and the recommended crop density was high among the farmers as reflected by 84.7% and 59.2% of the sampled farmers respectively. Only 33.3% of the farmers in the sample applied above 50% of the package components to the required levels, an indication of low levels of adoption of the entire package. The study found a significant relationship between gender, education and income levels of the farmers and adoption of the entire package. Age and contact with extension services did not influence adoption of the entire package while cost of the technology, complexity and high perceived risks had negative influence on adoption of the entire package. Spearman's rho test revealed existence of a significant linear relationship between levels of income and formal education and adoption of the entire package. The study therefore recommends strengthening of contact between farmers and technology promoters. There is need to improve methods of disseminating agricultural technologies to the farmers through increased demonstrations. Farmers need to be given less complex technologies to enable them adopt them more readily. The study further recommends subsidies on farm inputs and provision of credits to the farmers to enable them afford the costs involved in adoption of agricultural technologies. Finally, there is need for further research on water use efficiency methods as intervention measures against weather variability.
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    Commercial handicrafts as a livelihood option for the Maasai of Kajiado District, Kenya
    (2011-11-03) Sitati, Hanningtone; Muiruri, Philomena; Mutisya, Dorothy
    The aim of this study was to investigate commercial handicrafts as livelihood option for the Maasai of Isinya Location, Kaj iado District, Kenya. The study was prompted by the fact that ecological, political and socio-economic pressures have, overtime, denied the Maasai an affluent pastoral economy due to diminished grazing land. Part of the grazing land has been fenced to pave way for state and private conservation and for commercial cultivation. There is an increase of immigrants from other communities who have bought land in the Maasai rangelands, thus further subdividing and fencing off the previously communally owned land resources that sustained a pastoral economy. In response, the Maasai are pursuing non-pastoral income strategies that comprise agriculture, trade, formal and informal employment to buttress against these changes. Based on these challenges and resultant responses, the study investigated how the Maasai of Isinya have ventured into commercial handicrafts for their livelihood. The study's objectives were: to examine the range of materials and products in the handicraft industry, to identify stakeholders and their roles in the handicraft industry, to determine the socio-economic benefits of commercial handicrafts on the livelihoods of the Maasai, and to establish opportunities, constraints and challenges of the Maasai handicraft industry. The study was carried out in Isinya Location and utilized both descriptive and analytical approaches. Data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires that were administered to 145 households, interviews were held with CBOs and MRTC officials, field observation and photography were done. SPSS was used for data analysis where descriptive statistics such as means, frequencies and percentages were used to analyse the characteristics of respondents, handicraft material, processes in household-based commercial production and components of handicraft production. Chi-square (x2) was also used to test relationship between commercial handicraft income and education, health care, improvement of housing and expenditure on food amongst the Maasai households at a significance level of 0.05. The opportunities, constraints and challenges of the Maasai handicraft industry were determined using SWOT analysis. The findings indicated that Maasai commercial handicraft is a cottage industry that comprises both individual and CBOINGO based production. The handicrafts are ingrained in the Maasai culture; they mark their wedding and initiation ceremonies and also distinguish them along age groups and sets. The commercial handicrafts income is used to finance their children's schooling, health-care, improvement of housing, and food security. The Use of ICT, grouping/clustering of producers and cultural heritage are opportunities for the industry. However, the industry is also faced with challenges that include: inadequate capital, lack of ready markets, exploitation by middlemen, competition from replica goods, and lack of patent rights for owners, among others. The study recommends patenting and strengthening of Intellectual Property Laws so as to protect the Maasai's creative genius. The government should also come up with ways of marketing the Maasai products locally and abroad. In addition, the Maasai households need to form groups which will enable them wade off exploitative middlemen, accumulate capital for bigger investments and share ideas as a way of improving the industry.
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    An analysis of urban residents' participation in outdoor recreation in urban forested areas: the case of Nairobi city, Kenya
    (2011-11-03) Sylvester, W. O. Hayker; Calvine Kayi; Mwisukha, A.
    With the rapidly changing world coupled with changes in tastes and lifestyles among Urban residents, there is need to diversify the range of outdoor recreation opportunities in Urban areas. This is with specific reference to Nairobi city, which has a vast resource of forested areas such as Karura Forest, Ngong Road Forest, City Park and the Nairobi Arboretum. This study therefore sought to establish the preference of Nairobi residents on the use of urban forested areas as outdoor recreation sites, as well as identifying the opportunities existing within the forests for outdoor recreation. Survey research design was used to gather information on urban residents' preferences on the use of forested areas for outdoor recreation. Factors under investigation were facilities within the forested areas as independent variables and urban residents' preferences as dependent variables. A sample size of 200 residents was drawn from the study area by use of random probability sampling method. Data was collected by use of five - point Likert Scale questionnaire and closed ended questions, which was administered to residents within the study area (on-site). The researcher took photographs to determine available outdoor recreation opportunities and management factors within the urban forested areas. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyse the characteristics of respondents. Chi-square (x2) was used to show a relationship between the extents of awareness of Nairobi's residents on outdoor recreation opportunities available in Nairobi's forested areas and level of education at a significant level of 0.05. The preferences of Nairobi City's residents towards outdoor recreation and the factors that constrain Nairobi's residents from using urban forests for outdoor recreation were determined using One-Way ANOVA. The study indicated that there are numerous opportunities in the urban forests for outdoor recreation and majority of Nairobi residents know about them. h1ost of the residents visited the urban forests for picnicking using private means of transport and mostly in the afternoons. Most of the respondents affirmed the benefits of outdoor recreation in urban forests, as including improved social ties, improved well-being and renewed energy. However there were issues that visitors to the urban forests felt should be addressed; ensuring safety and security within the recreation sites. The study recommends that the government should support the marketing of outdoor recreation in urban forests through funding, advertising and enacting of laws that will stimulate growth of outdoor recreation by the ministry of tourism and ministry of environment and natural resources. Managers of the varioVs urban forests (NCC, FONA and KFS) should ensure a litter-free environment by posting notices directing recreationists to dump litter at designated points, along with clearly posted rules and regulations, safety and security at recreation sites, and cleanliness of washrooms and toilets to guarantee satisfaction to visitors. Improving these satisfaction attributes could help increase visitors' overall experience, which could lead to repeat visits.
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    Evaluation and characterization of CD4+T cell responses to theileria parva vaccine candidatee antigens
    (2011-11-04) Mulongo, Musa Matsanza
    East Coast Fever (ECF) is a fatal disease of cattle, caused by Theileria parva, an intracellular haemoprotozoan parasite. Immunity in cattle immunized against T. parva using the infection and treatment method (ITM) is mediated by parasite-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) that destroy schizont-infected cells. Ten schizont antigens (Tpl-Tp10) recognised by CD8+ CTL have been identified and vaccine potential of six of these has been evaluated. Initial results have shown a significant correlation between CD8+ CTL responses and survival after challenge, but CTL responses have only been induced in a proportion of vaccinated cattle. Since CD4+ T cells play a crucial role in the induction of naive CD8+ T cell responses, it may be critical to incorporate antigens that contain CD4+ helper T cell epitopes in such a CTL-targeted vaccine. This work aimed at determining whether six of the CD8+ CTL-targeted vaccine candidate antigens contain CD4+ T cell epitopes and to establish whether cattle immunized by ITM mounted CD4+ T cell responses to these antigens. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) obtained from ITMimmunized cattle or those that had recovered from challenge infection following immunization with the candidate vaccine antigens, were used to generate antigen-specific CD4+ T cell lines by repeated stimulation with autologous T. parva infected cells (TpM) or pools of overlapping synthetic peptides. Screening and mapping of CD4+ T cell epitopes was carried out using both lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-y ELISpot assay. Two TpMstimulated CD4+ T cell lines, generated from ITM-immunized animals, did not recognize any of the CTL target antigens. However, ex vivo CD4+ T cell responses were detected to Tpl, Tp4, Tp5, Tp6 and Tp8 following immunization with CTL target antigens and challenge with T. parva sporozoites. CD4+ T cell lines specific to antigen Tp1 were generated from one of these animals (BZ001) by stimulation with synthetic peptides and two antigenic peptides mapped on Tp l (Tp 11450-1459 and Tp 11983-1992)- Interestingly, this CD4+ T cell line recognized the recombinant Tp1 protein but did not respond to autologus schizont infected cells. The results of this study indicate that the CTL target antigen Tp1 contains CD4+ T cell epitopes which are sub-dominant or if dominant, are not sufficiently expressed on the surface of schizont infected cells. This work also suggests the need to develop methods of screening for CD4+ T cell antigens from T. parva that could be used to identify novel, immunodominant antigens presented on T. parva schizont infected cells that may enhance the potency of the sub-unit vaccine under development.
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    The effects of ecotourism on community livelihoods and natural resources use in Kanjiado district, Kenya
    (2011-11-07) Ndege, Winfred Wambui
    This study examines the effects of ecotourism on community livelihoods and natural resources use in Loitokitok Division, Kajiado District. The analysis is based on benefits; both direct and indirect accrued from ecotourism, change of resources use from consumptive to non-consumptive ways, effects on frequency of human-wildlife conflict incidences as well as response of the community to these incidences. Data for analysis were collected from a sample of 40 members of the community through questionnaire method. In addition, one member each from the institutions involved in ecotourism (AWF, KWS and Porini Ecotourism Company) in the area was interviewed. Direct observation and secondary data were also used to collect data. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data processing and analysis. The Chi-square test was used to determine if the differences in variables was statistically significant. The results from the analysis revealed that with the introduction of ecotourism in the study area members of the community did not only utilise the natural resources in consumptive ways such as for game meat, but also they utilize in non-consumptive ways such as viewing. There was a significant difference (P <_ 0.05) in the use of natural resources before and after ecotourism. The results also show that ecotourism has influenced the community's livelihood through benefits accrued from ecotourism. This has been possible through participation of the members in ecotourism either directly or indirectly. The findings however reveal that there is no significance difference (P<_ 0.05) in the level of participation by all members of the community. Some community members work in the ecolodge as waiters while others sell their souvenirs to the tourists. The conclusion that emerges is that though the community still utilises the natural resources in consumptive ways, ecotourism has enabled the members to use the same resources in a non-consumptive manner for the benefit of all. This in return illustrates that ecotourism is a sustainable land use option. The income accrued from ecotourism has played a role in boosting the economic status of the community, hence improving their livelihood. This has also been achieved through offering employment opportunities and financing the community's projects such as schools and water holes. The main recommendation is that ecotourism should be enhanced in areas in the vicinity of protected areas such as national parks more so in the rangelands or arid and semi-arid lands where livelihood options tend to be limited. This is because these communities experience losses and costs through attack and damage on lives and property from the wild animals. Indeed, wildlife does not recognize boundaries and most of it is outside the parks. Through ecotourism, the community will experience benefits from these resources and hence will in return conserve and manage these resources in sustainably. Ecotourism is therefore, a sustainable conservation strategy.
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    An investigation of the extreme hydro-climatic characteristics and the underlying causes of river Nyando catchment, lake Victoria basin-Kenya
    (2011-11-07) Ogutu, Ronald Sungu
    Extreme events, floods and droughts are natural occurrences which have caused numerous disasters world over. On a global scale the number of people affected and economic damages due to flooding and droughts are on the rise. Most of the deaths, post traumatic stresses and social and economic hardships can either be tremendously reduced or avoided altogether if the characteristics of the extreme events and the factors that cause and intensify them are understood and accordingly managed. The study picked the Nyando river catchment because of its vulnerability to these extreme events. Almost on an annual basis there are adverse reports on this area due to floods and to some extent on droughts. The purpose of the study was to come up with ways of reducing the effects of the extreme events. The objectives were to determine the causal factors of the extreme events, flow characteristics and to establish the effects of land cover and land use on extreme flows in the catchment. Data was collected from MWRD, KMD, LBDA, LVEMP, ICRAF, MP&ND and on site. Flow data was analyzed using Gumbel, Log Pearson-3 and General Extreme Value (GEV) fitting distributions. Rainfall data analysis was done to determine variability and reliability for Water Resources planning. Land cover and Land use analysis were done using ARCVIEW and ARCGIS from unclassified land sat images generated from P160R60, P161R60, P170R60 and P171R60 using GIS-IDRISI programme. The results indicate that flood frequency is on the increase, but contrastingly rainfall which is a major contributor does not show any appreciable corresponding rise. Rapid population increase in density of between 84 and 300 % from 1979 to 1999 has put a lot of pressure on the resources. Land use is more intense in terms of agriculture, deforestation for various activities, grazing and settlement. Deforestation in the upper catchment, especially around Mau, Tinderet and the Nandi escarpments is high thus altering the structure of the soils, and with the fragile nature of the area soils, soil erosion and flooding are enhanced. Steep topography of the middle zone compounded with deforestation and agricultural activities enhance both soil erosion and flooding implying less infiltration and less base flow soon after the rains meaning early and prolonged droughts. Gentle slopes of the lower basin promote sediment deposition and inundation which sometimes lasts even a month. The study provides a base from which various measures: preventive, mitigation, emergency response and rehabilitation of the flood management structures for both short and long term can be addressed to restore the hydrological balance of the basin. The study recommends an integrated watershed management to the basin, an all inclusive environmental management for sustainability. The study recommends further research on the impacts of these extreme events on the quality of water and the effect of global change on the extreme hydro-climatic characteristics.