MST-Department of Early Childhood Studies

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Factors relating to fathers' direct and indirect involvement in early childhood literacy in Thika municipality, Kenya
(2011-05-01) Maina, Wanjiru Anne
The extent of mothers and other female caregivers' involvement in emerging literacy has been investigated over the years in both developed and developing countries. In developed countries research on fathers' contribution to the child's early literacy development suggests that fathers have an important impact on child learning and academic success. In developing countries this has not been adequately investigated and documented, and research in Kenya has documented the traditional view of fathers as not being directly involved with infants and young children. The study intended to find out the extent of fathers' direct and indirect involvement in early child literacy development and identify factors that might be related to fathers' extent of involvement, including type of work, family income, and fathers' level of education, gender bias and fathers' role definition. The two guiding theories were: Holdaway's Theory of Literacy Development and the Social Development Theory by Vygotsky, The study used a descriptive research design. The site of this study was Thika Municipality within Central Province. The target population was fathers with 4-5 years old children in pre-schools. Seven schools were selected through simple random sampling. Stratified random sampling was used to select the sample of fathers. Fathers were clustered according to their nature of work. Simple random sampling was used to select the study sample from the cluster groups. Data was collected using questionnaires and Focus Group Discussions and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for analysis. A t-Test for Related Samples was used to compare means and Pearson Chi-square used to test the relationship between the two variables. Findings from the study indicated that fathers' level of education had significant relationship on direct and indirect involvement while income was significantly related to direct involvement only. The other three factors had no significant relationship with fathers' direct or indirect involvement in their children's early literacy. Recommendations included awareness creation workshops for fathers on their important role in early literacy and further research to look into other factors that might be influencing fathers' direct and indirect involvement in literacy in the same area and another research in another metropolitan area using the same factors for comparison of results and further conclusions.
Factors Affecting Assessment and Placement of Children with Mental Retardation by the Nyeri Central Assessment Center, Kenya
(2011-05-01) Mwihungi, H. K; Kombo, Kisilu; Kamau-Kang'ethe, R. W.
A Task Force on Special Needs Education was commissioned by the Ministry of Education Science and Technology in 2003 to appraise the provision of Special Needs Education in Kenya. The Task Force reported in August 2003 that 90% of the Educational Assessment and Resource Centers (EARC's) in Kenya were making inappropriate placement decisions due to lack of the necessary facilities and appropriately trained personnel. Available literature on assessment suggests that the assessment process sometimes results in wrong diagnosis and therefore wrong placement of children suspected of having mental retardation. This study sought to find out how the assessment and placement process is carried out in Nyeri Central EARC focusing on the factors that influence successful assessment and placement namely; the personnel involved in assessment, the assessment tools and materials used, and the assessment process. The possible reasons that could make the EARC make wrong placement decisions and how to avoid them were also addressed. Review of the related literature focused on some of the key areas in special needs education related to assessment and placement of children with mental retardation. Definitions, causes, and classification of mental retardation are covered in this study. A brief on the historical development of assessment services in Kenya is also provided. A descriptive design was employed in this study and purposive sampling done as the study touched only on the persons directly involved with assessment and placement of children suspected of having mental retardation. Data was collected using interviews, observation and document analysis with participants being the head teachers of two special schools for children with mental retardation in Tetu District, the assessment teacher at the EARC, and parents who took their children for assessment. Admission documents of individual children already enrolled in the special schools were perused to gather information regarding their placement. Data was analyzed according to the themes emerging from the study which were related to the personnel, assessment tools and the process of assessment , as well as the presence of wrongly placed children and what could be done to rectify the situation. The findings of this study pointed out that there were shortcomings in the whole assessment and placement process at the EARC as a team approach to assessment and placement was limited to the assessment teacher, the child and the parent. The EARC lacked some basic assessment tools and materials, and the tools and materials found in use there were found wanting. The study suggests a number of measures that can be taken to make the assessment and placement process at the N y eri Central EARC more effective. These measures include making use of' a multidisciplinary team approach to assessment and placement, acquisition of enough and appropriate assessment tools and materials effectively address both intellectual and adaptive behavior problems that define mental retardation. The study also suggests the re-evaluation of all children suspected of having been wrongly placed in the special schools.
Early identification of learning disabilities among standard three pupils of public primary schools in Butere district, Kenya
(2011-05-01) Wafula, Robert Wekesa; Kangethe, R .K. W.; Nyakwara, Begi
The enigma of children experiencing extra-ordinary learning difficulties is not new. Learning disabilities occur in all cultures, nations and language groups. Nearly half of all children receiving special education services in the U.S. have learning disabilities. Studies reviewed have shown that about thirty percent of children in standard one experience learning difficulties. Even though the children look 'normal', they are unable to perform commensurate with their age and ability. These children become disenfranchised because their educational needs are not met adequately. Many develop low self esteem and eventually drop out of school. Studies reviewed indicate that early identification leading to early intervention causes a seventy percent recovery. The purpose of this study therefore, was to investigate if there was early identification of learning disabilities amongst standard three pupils of Butere District, Kenya and selective factors that influenced or hindered early identification of learning disabilities. The study also sought to establish the criteria used to determine eligibility of learning disability as well as the number of children with learning disabilities enrolled in the standard three classes of the public primary schools of Butere District. The study employed the ex-post facto design to analyze and understand relationships among variables. The socio-cultural theory formed the theoretical foundation of the study. The independent variables of this study were; teachers level of training in Special Needs Education, Teacher-Pupil ratio and Teacher-Parent Interaction over the child's academic work. The dependent variable of the study was Early Identification of Learning Disabilities. The study was delimited to the standard three pupils of public primary schools only. This is because successful early identification and intervention occurs at the age of 9 years and below (standard three and below). A sample of twenty five (25) public primary schools was drawn from the total population of one hundred and twenty six (126) public schools spread across the four educational zones of Butere District. Both stratified and systematic sampling methods were used to select the sample. Thirty seven (37) standard three teachers and twenty five (25) head teachers from the twenty five sampled schools formed the sample population. Questionnaire and interview schedules were used to collect data. Both qualitative and quantitative data methods were used. Data was prepared for analysis using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive statistics calculated were; frequencies, means, modes and standard deviations. Inferential statistics such as The chi-square (X2) and Pearson Product Moment Correlation were used to test the hypotheses of the study. The study revealed that about 24% of children in the regular sampled schools were learning disabled. Most teachers were not trained in special needs education and handled very large classes of above sixty (60) pupils. There was a significant relationship between teacher-pupil ratio and early identification of learning disabilities but not between teacher level of training in Special Needs Education and teacher-parent interactions with early identification of learning disabilities. To enhance early identification of learning disabilities there is need to train more teachers in Special Needs Education, encourage trained teachers to use their skills in early identification of learning disabilities, employ more teachers to reduce the high teacher-pupil ratio and sensitize the community on the importance of early identification of learning disabilities for successful early intervention and subsequent success in education.
Factors influencing care-giving approaches in rehabilitation centres for street children during in-formal learning activities in Nairobi, Kenya
(2011-07-28) Gichuba, Wambui Catherine; Kiminyo, D. M.; Orodho, John Aluko
The Government of Kenya led an emergency response to provide and improve the situation of the street children, youth and families, which was initiated in 2003 and commenced in 2004. This led to establishment of rehabilitation centres to cater for children from the streets. Care-givers were employed to perform responsibilities of reforming and promoting the developmental aspects of these children through rehabilitation, according to set standards in the country. However, this is not the case and the problem of the street children seems to persist. There is a possibility that care-giving services offered in the centres are not of quality that can transform and help reduce the psychosocial imbalance in street children. The purpose of the study was to investigate factors that influence care-giving approaches among care-givers, in rehabilitation centres during non-formal education sessions for street children. The objectives were to identify care-giving approaches, investigate management styles used, and establish if there was any significant relationship between these approaches and the age, experience, training and management styles of the care-givers. The study was guided by Bandura's Social Learning Theory. It emphasized on the role of the adult and social environment of the child. From existing literature, it showed that early interpersonal experiences with the family plays a decisive role in the psychosocial development of a child. The study adopted an exploratory ex-post-facto research design. Fifteen care-givers were involved from three Government rehabilitation centres in Nairobi Province. The sample was selected using purposeful sampling procedure. A questionnaire was used to establish demographic data from care-givers; observation schedule was utilized to probe for the frequency of the use of the care giving approaches and management styles. The data collected were coded, quantified, and then analyzed. Data presentation was done using means, percentages, tables and graphs. Hypotheses were tested using ANOVA and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r). The probability level of testing hypotheses was at 0.05 and 0.5 respectively. This was done in line with Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) program. The study was of great significance to policy makers, social workers, managers, educationists, practioneers, care giving institutions, and curriculum developers. The study reports findings on use of care-giving approaches and management styles among the care-givers. It was noted that determination approach was more frequently used in all centres. The management style that was more frequently used by care-givers was authoritarian in all the centres. However, the findings showed that, there was no significant difference between care-giving approaches used in all centres, and there was no significant relationship between the management styles and care-giving approaches in the centres. Recommendations were made to managers, social workers, educationists who deal with street children, policy-makers, curriculum developers and others who are interested with rehabilitation of street children. Further studies were also recommended on other factors thought likely to affect the use of the overall care-giving approaches.
Hindarances to effective Learning of Pupils with hearing Impairment in Meru North District-Kenya
(2011-08-09) Mwenda, Jennifer Muiti
One is learning when he is increasing the probability of making a correct response to a given stimulus. One has learned only when he is capable of giving an appropriate response. The 8.4.4 Curriculum of Education is followed in education of hearing impaired in special schools and units. Hence just as the case in regular education, the hearing impaired are expected to learn and perform well academically. Statement of the Problem was that children with hearing impairments are typically not educationally managed well to permit them compete satisfactorily in the society. The study aimed at investigating factors hindering effective learning of children who are hearing impaired in one special primary school and units in Meru North District in Eastern Province of Kenya. Education being a basic human right, children who are hearing impaired successful learning, needs to be emphasized and factors hindering it to be addressed. Literature was reviewed on trends in the education of children who are hearing impaired and how units of hearing impaired are successfully manned in order to mode children with hearing impairments. The study was carried out within Meru North District that is Tigania and Igembe. It used a descriptive survey design. One special primary school and 22 units were sampled for the study, which presents 30% of the total population. Purposive and stratified random samplings were used for the particular special primary school and units. Questionnaires, interviews and observation schedules formed the basic research instruments. Expert's knowledge from the supervisors was indispensable in determining the validity of the instruments. The reliability was determined by the use of a pilot study. The results show that Majority (62.5%) of the parents preferred their children to be enrolled in residential special schools. Only 57% of the teachers always use the teaching/learning resources. 87% of the respodents indicated that they have over 10 years of teaching experience, 75% of them went through KCSE system of education and 57% of the teachers prepare their lessons before teaching the children who are hearing impared. It was, concluded that lack of many trained teachers in Special Needs Education may affect learning of pupils with hearing impairment in special schools and units, inadequatc teaching and learning resources impede learning of pupils with hearing impairment and lack of inspection of special schools and units by the Ministry of Education officers will affect effectiveness. Among the recommendations, it was recommended that the QASOs be trained in Special Needs Education, the teachers to be given frequent workshops and seminars. Schools should solicit funs to buy the necessary materials and equipment and organise short sign language courses for parents and that parclits should cater for the basic needs of their children. The researcher also recommended a similar study to be carried out at a wider scope to uncover the problem at a broad perspective that would benefit children who are hearing impaired.
Kenyatta University, Department of Early Childhood Education
(2011-08-25) Kimathi, Susyline Gatakaa
The education of learners with hearing impairments started in Kenya in 1958. To date they lack access to middle level training after acquiring a crafts certificates course in the two vocational institutions for the hearing impaired. With the global trend of inclusive education, it is possible for regular training institutions in general and Kenya Technical Teachers College in particular to offer further training for them. The purpose of the study was to establish constraints to inclusion of students with hearing impairments for training at Kenya Technical Teachers college and make suggestions for facilitation of more persons with hearing impairments to tram as technical teachers than it is presently. This was done by examining various variables using descriptive survey design and a target population of eight hundred and fifty students, one hundred and seventeen lecturers, twelve heads of departments, one principal and three old students of Kenya Technical Teachers' college with hearing impairments. Sampling techniques used to arrive at the sample size were purposive sampling to select the principal and heads of departments, stratified then random sampling to select students and teach respondents and snowball to select old students with hearing impairments _ The sample size constituted eighty five students (forty five males, forty females), twelve teachers (sic males, six females), eleven heads of departments, one primal and two old students with hearing impairments. Data were collected using questionnaires for students, lecturers and heads of department. Interview guides for the principal end old students with hearing impairments and observation checklists for lessons and physical facilities_ A pilot study was conducted in the same institution using one department that was excluded from the main study. The purpose was to ensure validity and reliability of the instruments which reliability of 0.8 was obtained. Being a descriptive survey, the objectives generated descriptive data which was measured using descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages. The study revealed that the teaching learning resources were inadequate and most of them unsuitable; no teacher was trained in special Needs Education or conversant with sign language. There were no support services in the institution_ The teaching - learning strategies that were being used required adjustments to cater for students with hearing impairments. There was no policy on special education to stimulate implementation of inclusive education. The results of the findings led to the conclusion that there were constraints to inclusion of students with hearing impairments at Kenya Technical Teachers college. In view of this the study recommends in-servicing of teachers in special needs in education and sign language, deployment of teachers who are trained in special Needs. Provision of more suitable resources and support services and adaptation of the teaching - learning strategies
Effects of the Jigsaw Technique on the Performance of Students with Visual Impairment in Geography at Thika high School for the Blind. Kenya
(2011-10-24) Muinde, Hellen Muthio
The purpose of the research was to analyze effects of the Jigsaw Technique, on performance in geography form two students with visual impairments. Specifically, the study investigated the effects of the Jigsaw Technique on performance in geography of students with visual impairments, impact of the category of visual impairment, that is, low vision and the blind, on performance in geography; effect of gender disparities on performance in geography and the difference in performance of students using Braille and those using print as a medium of writing when jigsaw technique was used. Aspects of the motivational, social, cognitive and developmental theories were integrated to guide this study. The target population comprised of 40 students in the form two classes in, Thika High School for the Blind. The research sample included 20 students for the experimental group and 20 for the control group, drawn purposively from the form 2 classes. Non-Standardized Structured (teacher made) tests were developed by the researcher to measure the students' Pre and Post instruction achievements in geography. The scores in the pre and post-tests obtained in the two experimental groups were recorded, graded and ranked. Data was analyzed and tabulated using descriptive statistics. To test for differences in performance between those taught through the two different instructional methods, a t-test was used. To test for differences in performance between categories of gender, vision and medium of writing of those taught through the Jigsaw technique a Kruskal-Wallis Anova was used. Both tests were performed at 0.05 level of significance. The results of the study showed that students taught through jigsaw technique of Cooperative learning performed better than those taught through the traditional lecture method. In addition, the results indicated that regardless of gender and type of instructional medium, that is, braille or print, the jigsaw technique of cooperative method was still effective as there were no significant differences established. Recommendations were made with regard to policy makers, educational planners, curriculum developers, teachers in general and teachers in schools for the visually impaired learners to emphasize and adopt the use of Jigsaw Technique to motivate and improve acquisition of knowledge and skills in learners with visual impairments, refresher and in-service courses for learning friendly teachers, child friendly learning environments, curriculum and assessment methods that take into consideration the individual needs of learners. Further research was also recommended with respect to this method of instruction to be used with other students in schools for the visually impaired and integrated programs in order to increase the validity and reliability of the technique by providing regional comparison.
Challenges faced by teachers in implementing HIV/AIDS curriculum in primary schools for pupils with hearing impairments in Rift Valley Province, Kenya
(2011-10-24) Mutai, Paul Kipkorir
This study was designed to investigate the challenges the teachers who handle the hearing-impaired learners face in the process of teaching HIV/AIDS Education in primary schools in Rift-valley province of Kenya. The study was based on the view that HIV/AIDS is indeed a threat to all humanity, regardless of the physical or even mental condition. The study sought to determine the type and level of training the teachers undergo before handling this subject and the challenges they encounter in translating the AIDS education content into sign language to hearing impaired pupils. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. The research instruments used included the teachers' and pupils' questionnaires. Data collected was coded and entered in the statistical packages for social sciences (SPSS) programme. The descriptive statistics, that is, frequency distribution and percentages was used to describe and summarise the data in reference to such variables as age, gender, years of teaching and pupils' classes among others. Qualitative responses (data) were analysed using thematic approach, whereby each objective under the study was described in relation to the categories of responses given from the subjects. The results of the study indicated that majority of teacher respondents had acquired the certificate level of training in HIV/AIDS course, spending one week duration in undertaking the course. Majority of the respondents had also taught HIV/AIDS lessons for a period of three years. On the other hand, pupils' respondents indicated that they were 100% knowledgeable of HIV/AIDS and the teachers were their main source of knowledge. They knew that AIDS kills, and that AIDS is transmitted by both blood transfusion and sexual activities. Majority of teachers also indicated that there were fewer textbooks for HIV/AIDS, which hampered their efforts in disseminating Aids knowledge to learners. Nevertheless, female teachers use more books than their male counterparts, and more of books are used than posters and newspapers in dissemination of HIV/AIDS information to pupils. In addition, teachers indicated that abstract signs hinder them to effectively disseminate HIV/AIDS knowledge to pupils. In fact, more female teachers than males were puzzled by abstract signs in their teaching, while more men than female teachers experienced the same but in the case of difficult concepts. Majority of teachers were also of the view that more workshops should be conducted for them; while others were of the view that there was a need for more teaching learning materials. Recommendations were made for the government to expand provisions of training of HIV/AIDS in institutions up to degree level-higher education, so as to increase knowledge to teachers to aid their effective implementation of the HIV/AIDS curriculum. The government should also avail scholarships in this area to encourage further education and training of teachers of hearing impaired. In addition, the government and other organizations should provide seminars, workshops and conferences for more awareness on the part of teachers. Last but not least, teaching-learning materials should also be provided, including directives on conventional terminologies and signs to be used by teachers and pupils for effective implementation on the communication of HIV/AIDS curriculum in schools for hearing impaired. Further, research was recommended with regard to pupils' perception of risk sexual behaviours in schools for hearing impaired.
Pre-school teachers use of scaffolding methods in teaching mathematics : a case study of Embakasi Division, Nairobi Province
(2011-11-11) Mwangi, Hannah Njeri
The study was based on poor performance of mathematics worldwide and more so in Kenya, despite numerous researches on the possible causes and proposed solutions. The researcher postulates that performance could be improved by using; the known more effective methods such as scaffolding teaching method. The purpose of the study was to find out the extent to which pre-school teachers use scaffolding teaching method to teach mathematics. The study involved 24 pre-school teachers teaching in Embakasi Division of' Nairobi Province, Kenya, selected using stratified random sampling. The study used three theories:- Bandura's Social Learning Theory, Lev Vvootsky's Social Development Theory and bruner's Constructivist Theory. The research design used is ?A-post-facto research. Data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential techniques The study found that only one of' the elements o scaffolding, namely directing, was being used at an appropriate mean frequency ICVel score of 64.2 while the other live had lOW mean usage between 4.5 and 23.7. These others are soliciting (4.5), child's idea (10.8) encouraging (12.0) questioning (18.8), and freedom (23.7). This indicated inadequate overall use of' the method. However none of' the independent variables under study that is class size, teaching experience, training program pre-school teachers attitude towards frequency of' use of scaffolding teachin•, method, mathematics attainment and school management, proved to have significant effect on use of scaffolding teaching method. To improve on the( Performance of mathematics, the study recommends emphasis to be placed on continuous training on the use of the method during in-service training and further recommends that research be dome on other variables likely to affect scaffolding teaching method such as marital status, bender, and age.
Pre-school children's performance in prediction and hypothesizing: a study of Isinya and Ngong divisions of Kajiado district, Kenya
(2011-11-30) Githinji, Alice W.
The performance in science subjects at all levels of education in Kenya has been consistently poor over the years. Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) reports of 2002/2004 indicated that performance was better placed on questions testing for recall of knowledge and relatively poor on questions testing process skills. These reports suggested that learners were not well prepared in science process skills. Studies carried out in Kenya in the area of science process skills had focused on higher levels of education. Little was known, therefore, about the competence of young children in science process skills yet the poor performance in science in national examinations could have been due to lack of a firm foundation in science at the pre-school level. This study was designed to investigate the competence of five-year old Kenyan pre-school children in science process skills. Since five-year-olds are in transition into primary school, the education they get should provide a firm foundation for later learning. For purposes of this study, the skills of prediction and hypothesizing were purposively selected to represent other process skills. The two are important skills that promote reasoning. More specifically, the research sought to determine whether the geographical location of a pre-school child is related to his/her performance in the skills of prediction and hypothesizing and whether the gender of a pre-school child is related to his/her performance in the skills of prediction and hypothesizing. The study also sought to determine if any relationship existed between the performances of pre-school children in the skill of prediction and that of hypothesizing. The theoretical framework underpinning the study was based on Piaget's theory of cognitive development. The study used a quasi-experimental design in a naturalistic setting. The independent variable was the geographical location of the pre-school while the dependent variable was the scores obtained by the child in the process tests. Ngong and Isinya divisions of Kajiado District were purposively selected on basis of accessibility. Isinya division was categorised as a rural region while Ngong division was categorised as peri-urban region. From each of these divisions, five pre-schools were selected on basis of accessibility. Two boys and two girls, all five year-olds, were randomly selected from each of these pre-schools. As a result, a total of 20 girls and 20 boys were assessed on their performance in prediction and hypothesizing skills using the Piagetian sinking and floating experiment. Responses were recorded on a questionnaire. The data obtained was descriptively and inferentially analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). Eleven hypotheses were tested at a significant alpha (a) level of 0.05. Eight of these were tested using the t-test for independent samples while three were tested using Pearson's Product Moment Correlation. The findings of this study suggest that fiveyear old pre-school children had basic prediction and hypothesizing skills. However, pre-school children were more advanced in the skill of prediction than in the skill of hypothesizing. The study findings also indicated significant gender and geographical differences in performances in prediction with pre-school girls outperforming pre-school boys and with rural pre-school boys outperforming the peri-urban pre-school boys in the skill respectively. No significant gender or geographical differences were observed in performance in hypothesizing. This study had recommendations for policy makers, curriculum developers and teacher trainers. The study also recommended that both parents and pre-school teachers involve boys and girls in similar experiences, expose them to different regions and also introduce them to English language as early in life as possible. Recommendations for further research focused on the need to consider other geographical regions, other levels of education, other science process skills and other variables that may influence performance in science at pre-school level.
Constraints to HIV/AIDS orphan care in selected early childhood centres, Matayos division, Busia district western province, Kenya
(2011-11-30) Obade, Elizabeth Adhiambo
The impact of HIV / AIDS is profoundly reflected in the lives of children whose very survival and development are at stake. Literature reviewed indicates that orphan care structures exist within the community. However, no comprehensive study has been done on the constraints to HIV / AIDS orphan care in the Early Childhood Centres, their needs, care and problems faced in their early years. The purpose of this study was to determine the constraints facing I-IIV / AIDS orphan care in the Early Childhood Centres. The specific objectives of the study were to; identify the socio economic and demographic characteristics of both caregivers and orphans; identify the needs and problems of children orphaned by HIV / AIDS in the Early Childhood Centres, establish the nature of community participation in care and support of orphans in the Early Childhood Centres; and determine the care and support provided to the children orphaned by HIV / AIDS in the Early Childhood Centres. The study was guided by Maslow's Theory, Psychosocial Theory and Ecological Model. This study adopted an Expost Facto study design in selected Early Childhood Centres in Matayos Division, Busia district, Western Province, Kenya. The interview guide was administered to caregivers and the orphans. The sample of the study consisted of 120 HIV / AIDS orphans, 120 guardians and 10 Early Childhood Teachers. Both quantitative and qualitative data was prepared for analysis using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics (percentages) were used in the type of care, problems, needs encountered by HIV / AIDS orphans and the caregivers. Pearson's Products Moment Correlation Statistics was used to measure relationships between variables. The Hypotheses were tested at a = .05 level of significance. The study revealed that 53.3% HIV / AIDS orphans from the ECD centres lived with their grand parents. The findings further showed that (33.33%) HIV / AIDS orphans fall in the age between 5 to 6 years. The findings of this study show that more than half of the caregivers (61.3%) were married, while 35.8% guardians were widowed. The results further indicate that the needs of the HIV / AIDS orphans are not met adequately in relation to clothing, shelter, food, education. 82.6% guardians provided second hand clothing, and more than a half (81.8%) HIV / AIDS orphans lived in grass thatched houses, while 79.1% HIV / AIDS orphans attended clinic when sick. The study further revealed that 32.5 % HIV / AIDS orphans indicated clothing as a need that was not met while 19.8% indicated shelter as a need not met, and 9.0% revealed education needs as not met, and 2.6% revealed psycho-social needs as not met. The study further revealed that 29.4% ECD teachers indicated food and medical attention was required for HIV / AIDS orphan care while 23.5% ECD teachers indicated HIV / AIDS orphans needed psycho- social support. At the same time 89.5% HIV / AIDS orphans received assistance from Kenya Orphans Rural development programme (KORDP) in the form of food and medication. A weak positive but insignificant correlation was found between level of education and orphan care. The study also revealed a weak non significance relationship between the occupations of guardians on the level of orphan care. Based on the findings of the study, a multi - sectoral approach is recommended for HIV / AIDS orphan care to look into the needs of the orphans. Training programmes are recommended to sensitize the ECD teachers working with the HIV / AIDS orphans on psychosocial care which will eventually boost the self esteem of the growing orphans.
Factors related to the nutritional status of children of resident and non-resident households in Mabroukie tea plantation estate, Kiambu district, Kenya
(2011-11-30) Wanjohi, Susan Karuana
What people eat affects their nutritional status, but understanding why people eat what they eat is not simple. It is a complex issue involving a myriad of factors. (Sanjur,1982). Most of the studies done on the factors that influence nutritional status of children have dealt with the mainstream populations. For example the study by Greer &Thorbecke (1986) addressed food poverty and consumption patterns in Kenya in general. Some factors associated with under-nutrition are population-specific, and hence there is a need to do similar studies on this special group of tea plantation estate households. Those studies that have been done in the plantation estates were found to have investigated variables such as price of foodstuffs, income of household, culture, food preference, among others. Also, there was need to investigate other variables such as the availability of land for own production, time available for household work, accessibility to food sources and availability of fuel for food preparation. The purpose of the study was, therefore, to investigate these factors among tea plantation households and their impact on nutritional status. The objectives of the study were to identify the demographic and social economic factors, to explore the food consumption habits, to determine the factors that affect the nutritional status, to identify the relationships among selected demographic and social-economic factors and the nutritional status of children of resident and non-resident households of Mabroukie Tea Plantation Estate. This study used a descriptive study design. The population included all residential and non residential households of Mabroukie Tea Plantation Estate of Limuru Division having at least one child between 3-6 years of age. A sample of 98 resident workers and 101 non-resident workers was drawn using the stratified random sampling method. The results of the study showed that most of the respondents had only attained education up to primary level. It was also established that workers had limited time for household work and that most childcare centres did not have a centralized feeding programme. Residents mainly depended on earnings from plantation work while non-residents had more diversified sources of income. On the nutritional status, 48.1 % of all the children were stunted and the majority of the stunted were from the resident households; 33.7% were underweight with more than half being from the resident community. There were more children who were wasted from among the nonresident households (9.6%) than among the resident households (6.5%). There was found to be no significant relationship between availability of time for household work and the nutritional status of children of resident and non-resident households of Mabroukie Tea Plantation Estate. However, size of land for own production, accessibility to food sources and adequacy of cooking fuel were found to be significantly related to the nutritional status of the children in the study. Implications of the study are discussed and recommendations for action and further research are made.
Selected factors influencing use of thematic approach by pre-school teachers in Kasarani division, Nairobi province,Kenya
(2011-11-30) Ong'ang'a, H.M.Ouko
The Government policy on Early Childhood Education is of partnership basis of various duty bearers. This has led to escalation of a number of diverse ECD programmes (both for teachers and children alike) that follow different approaches in training and teaching respectively. Early childhood care and development programmes have had tremendous achievements and expansion in recent years in Kenya and the world over. Kenya has no doubt achieved an impressive increase in quantitative indices of education at ail levels since independence. In Kenya. Early Childhood Care and Education is no exception. However. Pre-school teacher/ caregiver-training programmes in Kenya are largely teacher-centered in nature and ECD teachers in Kenya undergo different training curricula. Literature reviewed reveals that thematic approach is now the recommended teaching approach at pre-school level in Kenya (NACECE, 1999; 2000 & ?001). The purpose of this study was to establish whether pre-school teachers in Kasarani Division of Nairobi province teach using thematic approach and investigate factors relating to the use of the approach by pre-school teachers. Bruner's theory of instruction (1966), Sutherland's Child-centred theory (1988) and Fishbein's & Azjen's ex-pectancy model of attitudes (1976) guided the research design was employed since the researcher could not envisage ac control on the study independent variables as their influence had already been felt. A structured in-depth questionnaire was used to collect data. Sampie Teachers tilled-in the questionnaire guided by 18 structured items. A random sample of 60 (33%) of pre-school teachers participated in the study. Data was sieved, prepared and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics was employed in analyzing and presenting the results of the study. Significance for the variables was calculated at a 0.05 significance level. This study found out that teacher academic level and the type of training programme a teacher underwent ;elated significantly the use of Thematic Approach. A mid- score of 45 ; (50%) was the minimum assumed indication of use of thematic approach. Teachers who scored above the mid- score (50%) were likely to use thematic approach more than their counterparts whose scores were below the mid-score.
Pre-School teachers' use of oral instructional strategies in teaching in English : a study in Kasarani division, Nairobi province, Kenya
(2011-11-30) Mwangi, Margaret Wanjiru
Language is a means of communication through which people express their desires. Ideas, excitements amusements, disappointments and exchange information Language has been found to be an important tool for thinking and concept development in children. Children think and talk in a language that is familiar to them. F.arIv childhood curriculum internationally and in Kenya emphasizes the use of_ mother tongue or the language of the catchments area in the instructional strategies for teaching preschool children. This is important because young children come to school when they are fluent in their mother tongue or in a language spoken in their home environment. Studies have found that majority of preschool teachers instruct young children in English and it is not their first language. There are no studies done in Kenya that focuses on English as a medium of instruction and the instructional strategies at Early Childhood Development (;('D) level. The problem of poor performance in English and in other subjects at primary school and other levels may lie in the use of English as a medium of instruction at the pre-school level and the instructional strategies that pre-school teachers use at this level of education. Research has shown that teacher's factors such as teacher training, teaching experience, and education qualification impact on the choice of instructional strategies that teachers use. Research has identified some appropriate instructional strategies to enhance academic performance. The purpose of this study was to identify the instructional strategies that preschool teachers use when teaching in English and the tactors that influence their use of these instructional strategies in selected preschools in Kasarani Division of Nairobi Province. '1 'he theories of first and second language learning and acquisition that were selected for discussion in this study include: Interactionist Approach as discussed by Ellis-, Ellis's Theory of Instructed Second Language Acquisition and Krashen's Monitor Model. These theories have tried to guide, explain and predict the outcome of the study. They have clearly indicated the important role of the teacher in teaching a second language and the strategies that are used when instructing in a second language. The ex-post facto research design was used in this study. Questionnaires and observation schedules were used to collect data. Twenty (20) preschool teachers were sampled for observation. The main descriptive methods used were tabulation of frequencies and percentages. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and Students T-test were the inferential statistic used to test the null hypotheses at alpha level of O.05 using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The main findings of- the study indicate that the instructional strategics most used by preschool teachers were giving directions, asking questions. code switching and repeating words and phrases. Expanding on children's utterances, giving explanations. substituting words with real items, giving examples and contrasting meanings were the least used instructional strategies used when teaching in English. The study also revealed that the length and type of training of teachers, academic qualifications and teaching experience were not related to the instructional strategies of preschool teachers in their classroom teaching in ECD centers. Since the predominant instructional strategies used by pre-school teachers are less than half of the recommended instructional strategies the study recommends that the training curriculum for pre-school teacher should be revised to include the required instructional strategies discussed in this research study. Preschool teachers should be adequately trained in the use of appropriate instructional strategies for teaching young children. In addition the language policy in education should be strengthened to facilitate clear guidelines of teaching young children in English language, which is a second or third language to many preschool children in Kasarani Division.
Relationship between Nakuru municipality pre-school children's cognitive performance in modified catm test and their teacher's categories of verbal behaviour
(2011-12-13) Muriu, Serah Wambui
Many educational programmes have identified cognitive development as a priority domain at all levels of education. Hence, there is great value placed on good academic performance in Kenya too. Poor performance becomes a major concern to teachers, parents and educationalists. Early childhood years are very important in every individual because what children experience makes a foundation for future learning. Factors known to influence cognitive development in children include; teachers, out of door play and home background. Teachers may not be aware of the impact of their verbal behaviour in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to investigate, therefore the relationship between pre-school children's cognitive performance and their teachers' verbal behaviour. It also investigated the children's cognitive performance by age and gender. This study used a two research designs. A quasi-experimental design was used in the explanation of children's cognitive performances. An ex-post facto design was used for the exploration of the teachers' verbal behaviour. To measures children's cognitive performance the Teaching (Set A) and Post-teaching (Set B) in modified CATM Tests was used. These tests include concepts of colour, shape, size and analogy in four levels of difficulty. An ex post facto design was used to examine the verbal behaviour of teachers according to adapted FIAC categories. The population sample size of the study was 120 children in pre-schools randomly selected from six purposively selected pre-schools and 12 pre-school teachers from the selected schools within Nakuru Municipality. The pre-schools were selected from management categories: Private, Religious and Municipal. In each category of schools 4 teachers 20 boys and 20 girls from each group, were purposively selected for the study. The three research instruments used were: modified CATM Test, adapted FIAC Observation Schedule and Teachers Questionnaire. The scores for each instruments were recorded on separate score sheets for each child and teacher. The subject independent variables in this study were age and gender of the pre-school children. The dependent variables were the children's cognitive performance and their teachers' observed categories of verbal behaviour. The data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The main descriptive data were tabulation of frequencies, mean, range and percentages. To analyze the data, a t-Test for 2 independent samples was used to test 3 hypotheses to determine significant differences in children's cognitive performance in modified CATM Tests. A Spearman's rho (r) Test was used to examine significant relationships of 1 null hypotheses between children's cognitive performance and their teacher's categories of verbal behaviour at Alpha level of 0.5. A Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for computation. Major findings in this study indicated that there was an improvement in cognitive performance of all children in modified CATM Set B. Children who did well in Set A continued to perform even better in set B, showing some "Learning Potential" after the first exposure, practice and scaffolding from researcher during Teaching Test. There was a significant negative relationship between children's cognitive performance and some teacher's categories of Indirect verbal behaviour. Finally, there was a significant positive relationship between children's cognitive performance and one of their teacher's categories of Direct verbal behaviour - "giving explanation". This study has implications concerning the relationship between children's cognitive performance and teacher's observed categories of verbal behaviour. Neither the Direct or Indirect teacher's verbal behaviour had a relationship with children's cognitive performance. However, the results showed that when children are taught individually, they are able to improve their performance in cognitive development. Teacher's verbal behaviour in the FIAC category of 'explaining' had a positive relationship with children's cognitive performance. Thus, some children seemed to depend on the teacher instead of self in task performance where the teacher often was the centre of learning. Therefore some of the recommendations that have been made as a result of these studies are:  Pre-school teachers should practice individual teaching more often to scafford children's difficulties in problem solving to move them to a higher zone of cognitive development  Teachers should try to use more Indirect categories of verbal behaviours of increase children's participation in classroom activities.  Curriculum developers should review training content to focus more on teachers' verbal behaviour in classrooms.  Curriculum developers should involve pre-school teachers in the inception of the curriculum implementation to create strong bond of ownership.  Further research, using other cognitive performance testing instruments in both rural and urban pre-schools should be done to compare children's cognitive performance and their teachers' categories of verbal behaviour. In conclusion, this research results have shown that children improve their cognitive performance when the researcher used individual scaffolding to meet each child's need. It has also been observed that age and gender does not make significant difference in cognitive performance of children in "preoperational stage" according to Piaget. However, some of the boys appeared more dependent on the researcher which lowered their Post-teaching Test. The observation of teachers' behaviour in classroom was seen to contradict their knowledge level in child development and in teaching, methods. Regular supervision of pre-school teacher to ensure that they practice in class what they learned in training without giving in to pressure to teach for academic excellence.
Relationship between nutrition knowledge and practices of pre-school teachers from Mumbuni Zone, Machakos District, Kenya
(2011-12-13) Muting'au, Nduku Jane; Koech, B. G.; Kuria, E. N.
Nutrition is fundamental for growth and development from conception to adulthood. It is essential for health and quality of life at every stage. Earlier researchers noted poor children's nutrition status. Mumbuni Zone is the most densely population in the district and pre-school teachers were given nutrition education. These innovative approaches to nutrition education have never been assessed. Thus, it is not known whether or not they have influenced practices. The purpose if this study was to provide information on the relationship between these pre-school teachers' knowledge and practices. In order to understand the relationship the study investigated the following aspects of knowledge: balanced diet, sources of nutrients, food hygiene, food storage and preservation. Jerome Bruner's theories on knowledge representation guided the study. In addition the study investigated the following aspects of nutrition practices: daily plan of meals, frequency of feeding, food hygiene, sanitation, food storage and preservation. Finally the study explored the relationship among these aspects of knowledge and practices. The population was comprised of eighty (80) pre-schools, ninety-nine (99) pre-school teachers and 1589 children in Mumbuni Zone of Machakos District. A sample of 20 pre-schools was purposively selected and 30 pre-school teachers together with 779 children in their classes were randomly selected from those pre-schools. This was over 30.3% of the pre-school teachers in the zone which formed a requisite to perform meaningful statistics. This study employed a descriptive design. It involved both qualitative and quantitative data collection. Self-administered interviews were used as a method of collecting information about knowledge. Both interview and observation schedules were used to collect information about practices. A content analysis of the qualitative data on pre-school teachers' level of each type of knowledge was also carried out. The quantitative data collected were prepared for analysis using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The hypotheses were tested using ANOVA and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC). The knowledge of pre-school teachers exposed to nutrition education through professional training and those not exposed was similar though not statistically significant. The trained teachers and the trainees had slightly more knowledge then the untrained. Pre-school teachers are not only exposed to nutrition education through professional training, courses and seminars, but also through the process of socialization, the media and at school in primary and secondary levels. This may be why the nutrition knowledge of pre-school teachers who attended courses and seminars and those who had not did not vary greatly. The practices of pre-school teachers exposed to nutrition education through professional training and those not exposed were similar though not statistically significant. Pre-school teachers who attended courses and seminars and those who had not attended had similar nutrition practices though not statistically significant. The nutrition education initiatives, cluster and panel meetings assisted pre-school teachers in sharing their experiences. Nutrition knowledge and practices of pre-school teachers in Mumbuni zone were related. Pre-school teachers who scored high in knowledge questions also scored high in practice questions.
Relationship of parents' characteristics and stimulation of their 21/2 year olds' olfactory perception for concept formation in Zimmerman and Soweto, Kasarani, Nairobi
(2011-12-14) Ngugi, Mary F. W.
From birth and up to around three years children use mainly their senses to perceive and form concepts. To be able to interpret children's cognitive processes one must know how well their senses function and whether they perceive what is presented to them. Parents have a role to play in stimulating the formation of concepts through sensory inputs. However, to be best of our knowledge and form the literature reviewed, no studies were reviewed on the parents' characteristics in stimulation of their children's concepts formation through olfactory perception while children are young and at home. Like all other senses, children form concepts through olfaction should equally be stimulated for perception. Yet the few studies done have revealed that it is one of the most neglected and its significance in children's concepts formation frequency taken for granted (Almanack, 1997). The relevant theories of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygostky, Jerome Bruner and Albert Bandura were reviews to develop a fundamental understanding of both physical and social environments important in children's concept formation at an early stage of cognitive development. This study was an explorative study adopting quasi-experimental design, appropriate for both parents and their children who were studied in their own natural homes, with freedom of interaction with their social and physical environments. The independent variables measured included: (i) the parents' quality of interaction time, (ii) the parents' initiated use of olfactory-related materials, and (iii) the parents' initiated involvement of the children in olfactory-related activities and (iv) the parents level of education. The dependent variables were the children's ability perceive through olfaction. Extraneous variables were the parents Socio-Economic Status and the children's temperamental characteristics. A stratified random sample of 40 parents with 21/2 year-olds were purposively selected, regardless of their gender, from Soweto and Zimmerman areas of Kasarani Division in Nairobi. In each area, 20 parents and their 20 children were studied. Three instruments were used to collect the data. Parents' questionnaire was administered focusing on the quality of interaction time, initiated use of olfactory-related materials, the initiated involvement of children of olfactory-related activities and the parents' level of education. Parents' observation schedule was also administered to validate data obtained through the questionnaire. Finally, a two-part simple test was administered to the children to assess their ability to discriminate and name objects through olfactory perception. In data analysis, the descriptive findings were mainly presented in the form of frequencies, mean scores, standard deviations, rangers and graphs. The results of the eight hypotheses were tested at alpha = 0.05 level of significance. This was done through Spearman's Rank Order of Correlation Coefficient to assess the strength and the direction of relationships between the influence of parents' characteristics and the children ability to identify objects through smelling. The data were processed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The data analysis showed significant positive correlation on parents quality of interaction time and their level of education, and their insignificant positive correlations or no positive correlations in the other parents' characteristics in relation to children's performance in olfactory perception test. Finally, various recommendations were made to professionals, policy makers, curriculum developers, Early Childhood Stakeholders and others researchers.
Relationship between teacher altruism and the level of altruism in pre-school children in westlands division Nairobi, Kenya
(2011-12-15) Nyaga, Jane Wambura
Altruism is defined as any voluntary and intentional action that benefits another which is not motivated by the desire to obtain external rewards, whether social or material, and differs from prosocial behaviour by not including restitution. Altruism is a behaviour that is part of the larger category of prosocial behaviours. Studies have shown that children learn altruistic behaviour through modeling, reinforcement and nurturance from parents and other adults as they socialize with and observe their behaviours. Teachers spend more time with children at school, and after parents, they are their main socializers and major role models. Despite this close relationship, there seem to be no studies in Kenya showing how the teachers influence the acquisition of altruism in the children. In addition, the level of altruism in pre-school teachers and their relationship to children's altruistic behaviour is not known in Kenya. Without establishing the relationship between teacher altruism and the level of altruism in pre-school children, interventions to children's pro-social behaviour are not likely, thus resulting in adverse effects on the academic growth and social development of the children and the entire society. Therefore this study was designed to fill the knowledge gap identified above. This descriptive study employed expost facto design. The study was conducted in Westlands Division of Nairobi Province. Twenty-four teachers, one from each of the twenty-four schools representing four categories and six children of preschools from each respective school were randomly selected for the study from a divisional schools list. A questionnaire and a checklist were used to obtain information on the display of altruism from the teachers and the children, respectively. The results of the study showed that there was a significant correlation between children's display of altruistic behaviour and teachers' display and reinforcement of altruism. The main modeling attributes teachers displayed were helping, sharing and volunteering, while protecting, comforting and empathizing were least modeled. The main reinforcement attributes that teachers used were praising and thanking while patting, rewarding and hugging contributed very little. There was no significant difference between teachers' training and their display of altruism, and neither was there any difference between boys and girls in their display of altruism. The children displayed four modes of altruism, i.e. general altruism (this is altruism directed to anybody who is not a relative and it is not reciprocal); kin altruism; induced altruism and reciprocal altruism. The attributes most observed were sharing, helping and volunteering. Children's altruistic behaviour was correlated with teacher modeling at r = .484 and with teacher reinforcement at r = .387. Direct teaching of altruism seemed to be of little value. Display of altruism was 3.1% in children while that in teachers was 6.5% for modeling and 4.5% for reinforcement, respectively on a score scale of 0 -18%. The study concluded that pre-school teachers do display altruism although the levels were low; and that children can learn altruistic behaviour from their teachers mostly by modeling and reinforcement, thus confirming Bandura's social learning theory. The study recommended that pre-school curricula should include encouragement of altruistic behaviour by teachers to children and that teachers should have positive attitudes towards the teaching, reinforcing and modeling of altruism to enhance children's learning and acquiring of altruistic behaviour.
Factors affecting small scale mushroom farming in Western Kenya : a case study of Mumias division in Butere-Mumias district, Kenya
(2011-12-15) Nyakundi, Andrew O.
The purpose of the research was to investigate on the various factors affecting small-scale mushroom farming in Kenya focusing in Mumias Division with a view of establishing mushroom industry. The government is committed to alleviate poverty and create more jobs but the economic growth has been slow especially the contribution from conventional agriculture. Other countries that have taken mushroom farming seriously like China, the enterprise has created a lot of wealth to the people and it's now a formal business. Globally there are about 1.5 million species with only 30 species domesticated as edible and medicinal mushrooms. In Kenya, only oyster type is being grown whose production and spreading has been stagnating. It's against this background the study looked at such factors as characteristics, prevailing marketing strategies, management of the growing conditions, cost-benefit analysis of mushroom and sugarcane and other challenges affecting growers. The descriptive research design was used, 30 samples were selected using cluster/area sampling design. Data was collected through a questionnaire and observations, analyzed using descriptive statistics with help of SPSS and presented on tables. The research revealed that more women are involved in mushroom farming than men with experience of less than one year. The spawn and mushroom products are expensive for a common person to afford. The determination of humidity and temperature in growing house is a problem due to lack of right instruments. The cost- benefit analysis showed that the returns of sugarcane are higher compared to mushroom, however there is no competition between them on surface area. There is poor record keeping and 19 challenges have been identified which affect the producers. It was concluded that there were knowledge gaps on appropriate management practices, quality of spawn, marketing strategies, record keeping and methods of preservation. Therefore the following recommendations have been proposed so as to vibrant mushroom farming: Varieties diversification. trainings of farmers on mushroom production skills good management practices, proper record keeping use of bagasse and sugarcane trash and availability of credit facilities.
Factors influencing the use of visual aids in pre-schools in Asego division of Homa Bay district
(2011-12-19) Aila, H. Phillip; Kiminyo, D. M.; Kerich, W. K.
The study investigated the factors affecting the use of visual aids (non-projected) among pre-school teachers in Asego Division, Homa Bay District. The objectives of the study were: To identify the extent of use of various types of visuals; to identify factors that led to the use of teaching materials among pre-school teachers; to compare and contrast the usage of visual aids in urban, rural, private and public schools, to compare and contrast the usage of visual aids according to training levels of teachers; to determine the strategies used in acquiring the visual aids and; to identify the problems that the teachers experienced as they acquired the materials and to find out if pre-schools had stores for keeping visual aids. The study was guided by two theories. These were: Piagetian cognitive development theory with reference to concrete operational stage and systems approach to classroom teaching. Literature review cited studieson the importance of the use of visual aids in the Western World and in Kenya. The survey method and ex-post facto research design were used to collected information pertaining to pre-school teachers' use of visual aids. Pre-school teachers' questionnaire and obseravtion schedule were the main instruments for data collection. Materials used to bring about improvement in children's understanding of class activities (subjects) were the independent variable. These were controlled by (a). location of the school (urban or rural) (b). experience of the teachers (c). teachers' professional qualification (d). teachers academic qualification (e). sponsornship of the school (private or public) (f). teachers' demographic information (age). The dependent variable was improvement in understanding the activity taught using adequate aids. The survey was responded to by 36 teachers who were drawn from 70 randomly sampled pre-schools in Asego Division, Homa Bay District. The questionnaire had three parts. Part one had 6 items which elicited information on personal characteristics of the respondents. Part 2 had five open-ended items which required the respondents to name: why they liked using visual aids as they were teaching, what bothered them as they used visual aids, sources of visual aids, factors that hindered the use of visual aids, factors that hindered the use of visual aids and types of visual aids they used at their schools. Part 3 had 40 structured items which were to measure attitudes, opinions, opinions and perceptions of the pre-school teachers. Besides the questionnaires, an obseravtion schedule was used to complement data collecetd by questionnaires. Thirty-six teachers were drawn from 70 randomly sampled pre-schools in Asego Division, Homa Bay District. The results of this study indicated that the majority of the teachers were below thirty-one years of age and were mostly form four leavers. Many of them were DICECE trained who had mainly taught in 1-3 schools. Most of them worked half day. Most of the visual aids were taken to schools by pre-school children. The use of visual aids was hindered by lack of storage facilities, finances, lockable doors and windows, time for material development, commitment of education staff, security and co-operation by community members.

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