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Browsing by Author "Ngugi, Mathew Piero"

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Analgesic Potential of Dichloromethane Leaf Extracts of Eucalyptus Globulus (Labill) and Senna Didymobotrya (Fresenius) in Mice Models
(Journal of Herbmed Pharmacology, 2020) Mworia, Joseph Kiambi; Kibiti, Cromwell Mwiti; Ngeranwa, Joseph JN; Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Introduction: Pain is managed using conventional drugs like paracetamol, aspirin and diclofenac among others. Synthetic drugs have many side effects. This study aimed at evaluating the analgesic potential of the dichloromethane leaf extracts of Eucalyptus globulus and Senna didymobotrya in mice. Methods: The dichloromethane leaf extracts of E. globulus and S. didymobotrya were subjected to quantitative phytochemical analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (GC-MS). In vivo analgesic evaluation comprised of nine groups of animals (Swiss albino mice): normal, positive, negative control and six experimental groups that received 25, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mg/kg body weight of each plant extract intraperitoneally. Thirty minutes later, they were injected with 0.01 mL of 2.5% formalin. The animals in positive control group were administered diclofenac (15 mg/kg) and formalin, the normal control mice received 3% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) in normal saline, while the negative group received DMSO in normal saline and formalin. All the doses were administered intraperitoneally. The duration of shaking and licking of the injected paw was scored and analyzed. Results: The analysis revealed that E. globulus contained alpha-pinenes, endo-fenchol, α-eudesmol, myrcene, camphene, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, and camphor while S. dymobotrya possessed camphene, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, and camphor. In the late phase, E. globulus at the doses of 25, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mg/kg reduced the paw licking time by 34.03%, 60.79%, 84.33 %, 90.65%, 94.49%, 98.52%, respectively while S. didymobotrya extract reduced the paw licking time by 26.48%, 32.96%, 87.04%, 91.27%, 93.40%, 90.97%, and 96.82%, respectively. Conclusion: The results of this study validate and support the traditional uses of these plants as analgesics.
Analgesic potential of dichloromethane leaf extracts of Eucalyptus globulus (Labill) and Senna didymobotrya (Fresenius) in mice models
(Journal of Herbmed Pharmacology, 2020) Mworia, Joseph Kiambi; Kibiti, Cromwell Mwiti; Ngeranwa, Joseph JN; Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Introduction: Pain is managed using conventional drugs like paracetamol, aspirin and diclofenac among others. Synthetic drugs have many side effects. This study aimed at evaluating the analgesic potential of the dichloromethane leaf extracts of Eucalyptus globulus and Senna didymobotrya in mice.Methods: The dichloromethane leaf extracts of E. globulus and S. didymobotrya were subjected to quantitative phytochemical analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (GC-MS). In vivo analgesic evaluation comprised of nine groups of animals (Swiss albino mice): normal, positive, negative control and six experimental groups that received 25, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mg/kg body weight of each plant extract intraperitoneally. Thirty minutes later, they were injected with 0.01 mL of 2.5% formalin. The animals in positive control group were administered diclofenac (15 mg/kg) and formalin, the normal control mice received 3% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) in normal saline, while the negative group received DMSO in normal saline and formalin. All the doses were administered intraperitoneally. The duration of shaking and licking of the injected paw was scored and analyzed.Results: The analysis revealed that E. globulus contained alpha-pinenes, endo-fenchol, α-eudesmol, myrcene, camphene, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, and camphor while S. dymobotrya possessed camphene, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, and camphor. In the late phase, E. globulus at the doses of 25, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mg/kg reduced the paw licking time by 34.03%, 60.79%, 84.33 %, 90.65%, 94.49%, 98.52%, respectively while S. didymobotrya extract reduced the paw licking time by 26.48%, 32.96%, 87.04%, 91.27%, 93.40%, 90.97%, and 96.82%, respectively.Conclusion: The results of this study validate and support the traditional uses of these plants as analgesics.
Antinociceptive Effects of Methanolic Extracts of Pistacia Aethiopica and Warbugia Ugandensis in Mice
(Society of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2020) Ireri, Moses Munene; Njagi, Eliud Nyaga Mwaniki; Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Pistacia aethiopica and Warbugia ugandensis are medicinal plants used in folk medicine among the Embu, Kenya. Despite being in use since antiquity, no empirical data is available to validate their claimed use in pain management. This study evaluated the antinociceptive effects of methanolic extracts of these plants in mice. Qualitative phytochemical profile of the methanolic extracts was also established. The antinociceptive studies used formalin pain model. Harbone and Kotaki protocols for qualitative phytochemical screening were used. Stem bark extracts of P. aethiopica inhibited paw licking in mice by between 47.24% 55.13% in the early phase and by between 30.69%-52.12% in the late phase. W. ugandensis leaf extracts inhibited paw licking by between 38.45%- 51.85% in the early phase and by between 43.48%-65.61% in the late phase. Diclofenac sodium inhibited paw licking by between 30.33%- 30.36% in the early phase and by between 62.93% and 77.08% in the late phase. Phytochemical screening revealed presence of saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols and terpenoids. This study established existence of antinociceptive effects in the methanolic extracts of P. aethiopica and W. ugandensis in mice. The observed effects were ascribed to the presence of phytochemicals working individually or synergistically.
Effects of DCM Leaf Extract of Gnidia glauca (Fresen) on Locomotor Activity, Anxiety, and Exploration-Like Behaviors in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Rats
(Hindawi, 2019) Arika, Wycliffe Makori; Kibiti, Cromwell Mwiti; Njagi, Joan Murugi; Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Obesity is the main component of metabolic syndromes involving distinct etiologies that target different underlying behavioral and physiological functions within the brain structures and neuronal circuits. An alteration in the neuronal circuitry stemming from abdominal or central obesity stimulates a cascade of changes in neurochemical signaling that directly or indirectly mediate spontaneously emitted behaviors such as locomotor activity patterns, anxiety, and exploration. Pharmacological agents available for the treatment of neurologic disorders have been associated with limited potency and intolerable adverse effects. These have necessitated the upsurge in the utilization of herbal prescriptions due to their affordability and easy accessibility and are firmly embedded within wider belief systems of many people. Gnidia glauca has been used in the management of many ailments including obesity and associated symptomatic complications. However, its upsurge in use has not been accompanied by empirical determination of these folkloric claims. The present study, therefore, is aimed at determining the modulatory effects of dichloromethane leaf extract of Gnidia glauca on locomotor activity, exploration, and anxiety-like behaviors in high-fat dietinduced obese rats in an open-field arena. Obesity was experimentally induced by feeding the rats with prepared high-fat diet and water ad libitum for 6 weeks. The in vivo antiobesity effects were determined by oral administration of G. glauca at dosage levels of 200, 250, and 300 mg/kg body weight in high-fat diet-induced obese rats from the 6th to 12th week. Phytochemical analysis was done using gas chromatography linked to mass spectroscopy. Results indicated that Gnidia glauca showed anxiolytic effects and significantly increased spontaneous locomotor activity and exploration-like behaviors in HFD-induced obese rats. The plant extract also contained phytocompounds that have been associated with amelioration of the main neurodegenerative mediators, viz., inflammation and oxidative stress. These findings provide “qualified leads” for the synthesis of new alternative therapeutic agents for the management of neurologic disorders. However, there is a need to conduct toxicity studies of Gnidia glauca to establish its safety profiles.
Evaluation of Antidiabetic Effects kleinia Squarrosa on Alloxanized Diabetic Mice
(Asian Journal of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 2012) Ngugi, Mathew Piero; Njagi, Joan Murugi; Kibiti, Cromwell Mwiti; Ngeranwa, J.J.N.; Mjagi, Eliud Nyaga Mwaniki; Mbiti, Wilson Njue; Maina, David; Gathumbi, Peter Karuri
Diabetes mellitus is a disease of antiquity with a worrying global prevalence and incidence. It is conventionally managed by insulin and use of oral hypoglycemic drugs besides exercise, diet and physical intervention therapies. Use of insulin and oral hypo and have numerous adverse effects. Medicinal plants have for long been used for treatment of many disease including management of diabetes mellitus. They habour the pros of affordability and ac was designed to bioscreen aqueous stem bark extracts of potential. The three tested dose levels (50, 100, and 150mg/kg body weight) lowered blood glucose levels significantly. This study has established that the aqueous stem bark extract of effects and can justifiably be used for management of diabetes mellitus. Key words: Kleinia squarrosa, stem bark extract, antidiabetic activity, medicinal plants, diabetes mellitus.
Hypoglycemic activity and histopathological effects of some Kenyan plants traditionally used to manage diabetes mellitus in Eastern province
(2012-08-16) Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic endocrinological disorder characterized by high blood levels of glucose due to insufficient secretion of insulin by the pancreas or improper utilization of insulin by target cells. Diabetes is associated with serious complications and premature death. In Kenya, it is estimated that 190,400 people in the 20-79 age group suffer from diabetes mellitus. There are two types of diabetes mellitus: type I or insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and type II or non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Other forms of diabetes mellitus include secondary diabetes and gestational diabetes. There is an increase in both type I and type II diabetes mellitus but there is a more pronounced increase in type II, which increases at a rate of about 6% annually. The major therapy option in diabetes mellitus is lifestyle management. Besides exercise, weight control and nutrition therapy, oral glucoselowering drugs and insulin injection are the conventional therapies for the disease. Since antiquity, diabetes has been treated with plant medicines. The objective of this study was to bioscreen aqueous extracts of 7 medicinal plants identified using ethnobotanical and pharmacological information gathered from traditional healers for antidiabetic activity and evaluate their safety. Antidiabetic activity was assessed by determining the glucose lowering effect on alloxan induced diabetic mice by intraperitoneally injecting aqueous extracts of these seven plants and toxicity was determined by injecting normal mice with 450mg of the plant extract/kg body weight and histological sections of various organs. The concentration of various trace elements in the seven plant extracts were determined using EDXRF spectrometry and AAS. Of the seven bioscreened plants, only the aqueous leave extracts of Bidens pilosa, and Strychnos henningsii; root bark extracts of Aspilia pluriseta and Catha edulis and stem bark extracts of Erythrina abyssinica showed hypoglycaemic activity. Iron, zinc, lead, magnesium and chromium were present in all the seven plant extracts; copper was present in four plant extracts; nickel and manganese were present in two plant extracts and molybdenum present in only one plant extract. Of the seven plant extracts, one had free antraqunones, two had alkaloids, three had sterols and triterpenes, four had bound anthraquinones, five had saponins, six contained flavones, flavonols and chalcones and all the seven plants contained flavonoids and tannins. Both the trace elements and the phytochemicals accounted for the hypoglycaemic effects and toxicity of the plant extracts. Some of the plants were obviously toxic, others were mildly toxic while others were safe. This study has established that the five bioactive plants can be safely used traditionally for the management of diabetes mellitus. Their use in combination decreases incidences of toxicity.
In Vitro Antioxidant Activities of Methanolic Extracts of Caesalpinia volkensii Harms., Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm., and Acacia hockii De Wild
(Hindawi, 2020) Guchu, Beatrice Muthoni; Machocho, Alex King’ori; Mwihia, Stephen Kiruthi; Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Oxidative stress is the result of the disparity between pro-oxidants and antioxidants in an organism, and it is important in the pathogenesis of several degenerative disorders, such as arthritis, Alzheimer’s, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. Free radicals can damage biomolecules, such as nucleic acids, lipids, proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and carbohydrates, and the DNA leading to mutations. &e use of antioxidants is effective in delaying the oxidation of biomolecules. Antioxidants are complexes found in the food that can retard or deter oxidation by preventing the initiation and propagation of oxidizing chain reactions. Medicinal plants have been used for centuries by man to manage diseases and have a host of antioxidant complexes. Traditionally, Caesalpinia volkensii, Vernonia lasiopus, and Acacia hockii have folkloric remedies against associated oxidative stress-mediated complications. However, the upsurge in its use has not been accompanied by scientific validations to support these claims. In this study, in vitro antioxidant activity of Caesalpinia volkensii, Vernonia lasiopus, and Acacia hockii collected from Embu County (Kenya) were determined by radical scavenging activities of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl radical in addition to ferric reducing antioxidant power analyzed against that of L-ascorbic acid as the standard. &e obtained results revealed remarkable antioxidant activities of the studied plant extracts as evidenced by the low IC50 and EC50 values. &ese antioxidant activities could be due to the presence of antioxidants phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenols, terpenoids, and saponins among others. &erefore, the therapeutic potential of this plant could be due to their antioxidant properties. &is study recommends bioassay of the extracts against oxidative stress-related disorders for development of phytomedicine with antioxidant properties
In Vitro Antioxidant Activities of the Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts of Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.)
(Sage, 2020) Moriasi, Gervason; Ireri, Anthony; Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Oxidative stress has been recognized as a key driver of many ailments affecting humankind. Free radicals attack biologically important biomolecules, impairing their functioning, thereby initiating and exacerbating diseases. As a comeback, antioxidant therapies have been proposed as novel approaches to ameliorating oxidative stress–associated diseases including chronic ones. Antioxidants are thought to employ multifaceted and multitargeted mechanisms that either restore oxidative homeostasis or prevent free radical buildup in the body, which overwhelm the endogenous defenses. Plants have been used for many ages across time to manage human diseases, and have a host of antioxidant phytocompounds. Piliostigma thonningii is traditionally used for the management of inflammation, malaria fever, rheumatism, and insanity, among other diseases caused by a disturbed redox state in the body. In this study, in vitro antioxidant activities of the methanolic and aqueous stem bark extracts of P. thonningii were evaluated using the in vitro antilipid peroxidation, the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, and the ferric reducing antioxidant power assay methods. The obtained results revealed remarkable antioxidant activities of the studied plant extracts as evidenced by the low IC50 and EC50 values. These antioxidant activities could be due to the presence of antioxidant phytochemicals like flavonoids, carotenoids, tannins, and phenols, among others. Therefore, the therapeutic potency of this plant could be due to its antioxidant properties. This study recommends in vivo antioxidant efficacy testing of the studied plant extracts, as well as isolation and characterization of bioactive antioxidant compounds that are potent against oxidative stress.
In Vivo Antidiarrheal Effect and Phytochemical Characterization of Plectranthus Barbatus Andrews
(JABET, 2024-01) Ajwang, Emmah Clarice; Ngugi, Mathew Piero; Omwenga, George Isanda; Muruthi, Carolyn Wanjira
Diarrheal infections remain a public health problem. The mainstays of pharmacological therapy for infectious diarrhea include probiotics, antibacterials, and intestinal adsorbents. Nevertheless, these clinical treatments are not devoid of shortcomings including prohibitive costs and adverse effects. Medicinal plants including Plectranthus barbatus (P. barbatus) have folkloric remedies against diarrhea. However, there is paucity of knowledge to scientifically validate the efficacy of P. barbatus on diarrheal infections. The study was undertaken to ascertain antidiarrheal efficacy, bioactive composition, and toxicity profiles of P. barbatus extracts. Antidiarrheal activity and acute toxicity were carried out on Swiss albino mice. Quantitative phytocompound analysis was evaluated using liquid chromatographymass spectrometry (LCMS). Results indicated that P. barbatus extract has antidiarrheal activity whereby it prolonged the start of diarrhea, causing a decline in the occurrence of wet feces and intestinal transit significantly. Additionally, the extract reduced the accumulation of intraluminal fluid resulting in decrease in distension, intestinal overload, and water content in the fecal drops. Also, acute toxicity assay on mice showed that P. barbatus extract was non-toxic at the dosage level of 2000mg/kgbw. In addition, LCMS analysis detected presence of phytocompounds associated with antidiarrheal effects including forskolin, gallic, kaempferol, and quercetin. Findings from the current study offer a scientific validation for the folkloric utilization of P. barbatus in the management of diarrhea.
In Vivo Cognitive-Enhancing, Ex Vivo Malondialdehyde- Lowering Activities and Phytochemical Profiles of Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts of Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.)
(Hindawi, 2020) Gervason, Apiri Moriasi; Ireri, Anthony Muriithi; Ngugi, Mathew Piero
Cognitive impairment (CI) is among the leading causes of disability in humans. It is estimated that over 35.6 million people are suffering from Alzheimer’s disease- (AD-) associated cognitive deficits globally with these statistics projected to rise over 115.4 million by the year 2050. There is no specific etiology for this cognitive impairment; however, various contributing factors including advancing age (>60 years old), oxidative stress, cerebral injuries, infections, neurologic disorders, and cancer have been implicated. Despite various attempts to manage CI, no curative medicines are yet available. The current drugs used to manage symptoms of AD-associated CI including Donepezil and Rivastigmine among others are only palliative rather than therapeutic. Furthermore, these agents have been associated with undesirable side effects. This calls for alternative and complementary approaches aimed at either preventing or reverting AD-related CI in a curative way without causing adverse events. It is estimated that over 80% of the world’s population utilize herbal medicines for basic healthcare as it is considered safe, affordable, and easily accessible as opposed to conventional healthcare. Various parts of P. thonningii are used in traditional medicine to manage various conditions including CI. However, empirical and scientific data to validate these uses is lacking. In this study, the Morris water maze (MWM) experiment was adopted to evaluate the cognitive-enhancing effects of the studied plant extracts. The malondialdehyde (MDA) profiles in the brains of experimental mice were determined using the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) test. Moreover, qualitative phytochemical profiling of the studied plant extracts was performed using standard procedures. The results showed remarkable cognitive-enhancing activities which were reflected in significantly shorter transfer latencies, navigation distances, longer time spent in platform quadrant, and lower MDA levels compared with those recorded for the negative control mice (p < 0:05). Phytochemical screening of the studied plant extracts revealed the presence of antioxidant phytocompounds, which may have played key roles in the extracts’ potency. Based on the findings herein, P. thonningii extracts, especially the aqueous ones have a promising potential for the management of ADassociated CI. Further studies aimed at isolating and characterizing specific active compounds for CI from P. thonningii are recommended. Additionally, specific mode(s) of action of active principles should be elucidated. Moreover, toxicity studies should be done on the studied plant extracts to ascertain their safety.
Pharmacological Management of Diabetes Mellitus.
(Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 2012) Ngugi, Mathew Piero; Njagi, Joan Murugi; Kibiti, Cromwell Mwiti; Miriti, Phillip Mwenda
Diabetes is a chronic disease with no cure (except experimentally in type I diabetics), but it can be managed effectively. Conventional management of this disease includes lifestyle modifications such as losing weight, diet and exercise to long-term pharmacological use of oral hypoglycemics and/or insulin therapy. This review explores the use of oral hypoglycemic agents in management of diabetes mellitus. Key words: Diabetes Mellitus, Oral Hypoglycemic Agents, Biguanides, Sulphonylureas, Meglitinides, Α-Glucosidase Inhibitors, Thiazolidinediones, Insulin Therapy
Phytochemical Composition and Antibacterial Activities of the Ethyl Acetate Leaf Extract of Ocimum basilicum
(Research square, 2020) Rapando, Japheth Wambani; Ngugi, Mathew Piero; Muturi, Margaret; Ogutu, James Opiyo
Introduction Antibiotic resistance is a serious threat to humankind. There is need for the development of new therapeutic options. Ocimum basilicum has been used traditionally as a medicinal herb against infectious diseases and as a food additive. Objective This study aimed at evaluating the phytochemical composition and in vitro antibacterial activities of the ethyl acetate leaf extract of Ocimum basilicum. Methods Ocimum basilicum leaves were collected from Mbeere, Embu County, Kenya and ethyl acetate extraction done at Kenyatta University. Phytochemical composition was evaluated by Gas chromatograph mass spectrophotometry while antibacterial activities were evaluated by disc diffusion and broth microdilution methods. The test microorganisms were methicillin resistant S. aureus, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa and E. coli. Results The extract exhibited a broad spectrum antibacterial activity. The gram negative bacteria showed more susceptibility to the organic extract compared to the gram positive bacteria. Pseudomonas aeruginosa had the highest zone of inhibition (27.00 ± 2.00 mm), while the S. aureus isolate had the lowest zone of inhibition (24.00 ± 1.00 mm). Escherichia coli, S. aureus and MRSA species had an MIC of 62.5 mg/ml compared to P. aeruginosa with an MIC of 125mg/ml when exposed to the leaf extract. The antibacterial activity could be attributed to the synergistic effects of phytochemicals such as terpenoids, alkaloids, essential oils, fatty acids, avonoids and aldehydes that have been known to have antimicrobial properties. A total of 30 phytochemical compounds were eluted from the extract of O. basilicum. Nootkatone, a sesquiterpenoid had the highest concentration at 20.86mg/g. The compound 1,3-Dimethyl5-isobutylcyclohexane, a fatty acid had the lowest concentration at 0.10mg/g. Conclusion O. basilicum has antibacterial activities on the tested pathogens and can be used to treat infections. Phytochemicals with antibacterial effects in the herb can be used as lead molecules in developing new antibacterial drugs.
Regeneration and RNAi-Mediated Downregulation of Cyano-Glycoside Biosynthesis in Cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz)
(2014-02-26) Ngugi, Mathew Piero; Machuka, Jesse; Cheruiyot, R.C.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz) is an important perennial tropical crop for millions of people around the world particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is preferred due to its agronomical attributes such as ability to grow in poor soils and drought resistance. Cassava storage roots are also a good source of starch. In addition, cassava leaves and tender shoots are eaten as vegetables in many parts of Africa, Kenya included and are an excellent source of vitamins, minerals and protein. Although most cassava is used for food, it is also used in the production of ethanol for fuel, for animal feed, and as a raw material for the starch industry. Cassava has high photosynthetic rates and its roots can persist in the soil for 8-24 months without decaying, thereby making it an ideal food security crop. In Kenya cassava is a major source of subsistence and cash income to farmers in agroclimatically- disadvantaged regions and high potential areas of Coast, Central and Western regions of Kenya. Sadly, cassava leaves and roots contain potentially toxic levels of cyanogenic glycosides, a demerit that generated interest in this study. Cassava is largely propagated clonally making it an ideal plant for improvement through genetic engineering. The objective of this study was to develop and optimize regeneration protocol for Kenyan cassava varieties and produce transgenic acyanogenic cassava plants in which the expression of the cytochrome P450 genes (CYP79D1/D2) is knocked down through RNAi. Three Kenyan cassava genotypes; Adhiambo lera, Kibanda meno and Serere along with an exotic model cultivar TMS 60444 were used. As a prerequisite for transformation, a reproducible in vitro regeneration protocol was optimized for Kenyan cassava lines using immature leaf lobes as explants. The transformable lines were then taken through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation with an RNAi cassette harbouring cytochrome P450 genes (CYP92D1) to down regulate production of cyanoglycosides. Molecular analysis by PCR and RT-PCR confirmed transformation of the putative transformants. Analysis of cyanide content of the transgenic Kenyan cassava lines corroborated with the molecular analysis data that transformation had indeed occurred. From this study, an optimized and reproducible transformation protocol for Kenyan cassava varieties has been developed. In addition, transgenic cassava lines with cyanide content three folds less than the cyanide content of the wild type relatives were produced. The results of this study disapproves the view that African cassava genotypes are recalcitrant to in vitro manipulations. Production of transgenic lines with greatly reduced cyanide contents will further add value to cassava utilization. This, therefore, is an impetus for further genetic manipulations on Kenyan cassava cultivars to mitigate the various genetic demerits associated with cassava in order to ultimately maximise on the numerous benefits of cassava.

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