Socioeconomic Determinants of Adoption of Agroforestry Practices in the Central River Region of the Gambia
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Date
2025-10
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Kenyatta University
Abstract
Agroforestry practices are increasingly gaining attention from both scientific researchers and
policymakers in The Gambia. However, the actual adoption rates among smallholder farmers in the
country remain low and the socioeconomic factors behind low adoption are scantly documented.
Therefore, this study was conducted to examine the socioeconomic factors influencing agroforestry
practices adoption among smallholder farmers in the Central River Region of The Gambia. The
specific objectives were to: (i) analyze how household and land factors influence adoption of
agroforestry practices in the Central River Region; (ii) investigate how knowledge and perception
influence adoption of agroforestry practices in the Central River Region; and (iii) assess how gender
roles and preferences influence adoption of agroforestry practices in the Central River Region. A
cross-sectional survey design was used in this study. Primary data was gathered from 380 selected
households through a multistage sampling approach, using semi-structured questionnaires and
observation guides. Qualitative data was collected from twelve key informants from relevant
institutions and twenty-eight community leaders in the targeted areas through snowball and
purposive sampling methods. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the sample while and
inferential statistics were used to test relationships and association among different variables.
Thematic analysis was used to collaborate and interpret qualitative data. The respondents were
largely male (78%), with household head age ranging between below 30 and over 90 years of age.
The mean household size ranged from 8.6 to 14.2 members. The main livelihood activity was small scale farming and livestock rearing estimated at 89%. Cattle were the dominant livestock in the
area. They were largely (76%) fed through open grazing system with income generation being the
main benefit as cited by 31.48% of the respondents. The study revealed that the agroforestry
adoption rate in the study area was 52.3% and varied across the communities. Majority of the
surveyed lands (84%) were not fenced exposing them to livestock intrusion, with over 74% of them
exhibiting various forms of land degradation. There were significant differences between
agroforestry adopters and non-adopters. Agroforestry adopters held and managed bigger sizes of
land compared to non-adopters (an average of 0.66 ha vs. 0.55 ha). In terms of land ownership, most
agroforestry adopters held most of the lands privately, with a clear fencing structure, compared to
non-adopters whose lands were mainly held in a communal or shared arrangement with no clear
fencing structures. Further, agroforestry adopters had a higher livestock numbers compared to non adopters (Tropical Livestock Unit mean of 3.47 vs 2.36). Using land size, land ownership, and
Tropical Livestock Unit as indicators of wealth, it emerged that agroforestry adopters held more
livelihood assets (were wealthier) than non-adopters. Soil erosion was less severe in areas where
agroforestry practices were implemented. In terms of knowledge and perceptions, over 90% of the
respondents recognized both the positive and negative statements associated with agroforestry
practices. Tree planting was primarily driven by the need for food, fodder, energy supply, as well
as income generation. Challenges such as water scarcity, transhumance, and wildfires were
identified as major obstacles. Boundary planting emerged as the most common agroforestry
practice, with Anacardium occidentalis (cashew), Gmelina arborea (Gmelina), and Mangifera
indica (Mango) emerging as the top preferred tree species. Women-related challenges, including
insecure land and tree tenure, insufficient training and capacity development opportunities, and an
increased burden of household responsibilities, placed women at a disadvantage and lowered their
adoption rates. The study recommended integrated policy and practice approaches to address the
context-specific household and land barriers that hinder agroforestry adoption, in addition to
facilitating the uptake process. It further recommends detailed assessment of gender involvement
in agroforestry practices adoption based on the men and women realities in the study area
Description
A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Planning and Management in the School of Engineering and Architecture of Kenyatta University. October 2025
Supervisors
Christine Majale
Monicah Mucheru-Muna,
Lalisa Duguma,