PHD-Department of Gender and Development

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Determinants of Utilization of Sexual and Reproductive Health Services among University Students, Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2023-09) Ongwae, Joshua; Grace Okong'o; Casper Masiga
Despite the efforts universities are putting in place to address the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) concerns and needs of their students, the rate at which students are engaging in casual unprotected sex is reportedly high. This has resulted in increased rates of unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions among the student population. It is against this background that this study sought to assess the determinants of utilization of sexual and reproductive health services among university students, Nairobi City County, Kenya. Universities provide the best avenue for training young people who will form a big part of Kenya’s future workforce and therefore, provide an opportunity for enhancing the students’ wellbeing by enhancing their utilization of SRH services. The objectives of the study were to: identify the SRH concerns, needs and priorities of young people in universities; examine the association between sexual behaviour, attitudes and university students’ (male and female) utilization of SRH services; determine awareness of SRH policy frameworks that impact on the provision and utilization of SRH services among university students (male and female); assess the relationship between SRH policy frameworks and utilization of SRH services in universities in Kenya; and identify strategies that will lead to increased awareness and implementation of SRH related policies and utilization of SRH services. The Social Economic Model (SEM) guided the study in understanding the problem while the Andersen and Newman Framework of Health Services Utilization guided the study in identifying possible solutions to the challenges identified. The targeted population was staff and students studying in universities with main campuses in Nairobi City County. Stratified random sampling was used to select the four public and private universities (Kenyatta University, Multimedia University of Kenya, United States International University - Africa and KCA University) which were part of the study from the six public and five private universities in Nairobi City County. The study was guided by cross-sectional and exploratory research designs. The target population was 192,193 students. Stratified random sampling was used to select the three hundred and seventy (370) students who completed the study questionnaires. Sixteen key informants were purposefully selected from staff and students to participate in-depth interviews while four focus group discussions (FGDs) of either gender of between 8 - 12 students in each FGD participated in the study. The tools for the study were questionnaires, key informant interview and FGD guides. Qualitative data was analysed according to themes while descriptive statistics was used to analyse quantitative data. Qualitative data was presented in narrative and verbatim forms. Reporting for quantitative data was done in both textual and visual formats such as diagrams, percentages, graphs and tables. The study established that university students are most concerned about getting infected with HIV/AIDS followed by getting pregnant or impregnating someone. The study established that what the students need the most is access to condoms, pills and contraceptives for pregnancy prevention and youth friendly services. Moreover, the findings revealed that university students prioritize confidentiality, the cost of SRH services and being attended by friendly healthcare providers in this order. Also, the results established that sexual behaviour determines utilization of SRH services. Further, the study found that there were low levels of awareness among university students of national and university SRH policy frameworks that impact on the provision of SRH services. The findings indicate no or negligible relationship between awareness of national SRH policies and services utilized. Based on the findings, the study made recommendations that included: universities to allocate resources for SRH programs, integrate gender and digitize SRH services and programming to improve service provision and utilization. It is expected that the adoption of the recommendations will lead to improved utilization of SRH services resulting to improved SRH outcomes for the students.
Determinants of Utilization of Sexual and Reproductive Health Services among University Students, Nairobi City County, Kenya
(kenyatta university, 2023) Ongwae, Joshua; Grace Okongó; Casper Masiga
Despite the efforts universities are putting in place to address the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) concerns and needs of their students, the rate at which students are engaging in casual unprotected sex is reportedly high. This has resulted in increased rates of unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions among the student population. It is against this background that this study sought to assess the determinants of utilization of sexual and reproductive health services among university students, Nairobi City County, Kenya. Universities provide the best avenue for training young people who will form a big part of Kenya’s future workforce and therefore, provide an opportunity for enhancing the students’ wellbeing by enhancing their utilization of SRH services. The objectives of the study were to: identify the SRH concerns, needs and priorities of young people in universities; examine the association between sexual behaviour, attitudes and university students’ (male and female) utilization of SRH services; determine awareness of SRH policy frameworks that impact on the provision and utilization of SRH services among university students (male and female); assess the relationship between SRH policy frameworks and utilization of SRH services in universities in Kenya; and identify strategies that will lead to increased awareness and implementation of SRH related policies and utilization of SRH services. The Social Economic Model (SEM) guided the study in understanding the problem while the Andersen and Newman Framework of Health Services Utilization guided the study in identifying possible solutions to the challenges identified. The targeted population was staff and students studying in universities with main campuses in Nairobi City County. Stratified random sampling was used to select the four public and private universities (Kenyatta University, Multimedia University of Kenya, United States International University - Africa and KCA University) which were part of the study from the six public and five private universities in Nairobi City County. The study was guided by cross-sectional and exploratory research designs. The target population was 192,193 students. Stratified random sampling was used to select the three hundred and seventy (370) students who completed the study questionnaires. Sixteen key informants were purposefully selected from staff and students to participate in-depth interviews while four focus group discussions (FGDs) of either gender of between 8 - 12 students in each FGD participated in the study. The tools for the study were questionnaires, key informant interview and FGD guides. Qualitative data was analysed according to themes while descriptive statistics was used to analyse quantitative data. Qualitative data was presented in narrative and verbatim forms. Reporting for quantitative data was done in both textual and visual formats such as diagrams, percentages, graphs and tables. The study established that university students are most concerned about getting infected with HIV/AIDS followed by getting pregnant or impregnating someone. The study established that what the students need the most is access to condoms, pills and contraceptives for pregnancy prevention and youth friendly services. Moreover, the findings revealed that university students prioritize confidentiality, the cost of SRH services and being attended by friendly healthcare providers in this order. Also, the results established that sexual behaviour determines utilization of SRH services. Further, the study found that there were low levels of awareness among university students of national and university SRH policy frameworks that impact on the provision of SRH services. The findings indicate no or negligible relationship between awareness of national SRH policies and services utilized. Based on the findings, the study made recommendations that included: universities to allocate resources for SRH programs, integrate gender and digitize SRH services and programming to improve service provision and utilization. It is expected that the adoption of the recommendations will lead to improved utilization of SRH services resulting to improved SRH outcomes for the students
Effects of Socio-Economic Characteristics on the Resilience of Displaced Population; Internally Displaced Population in Nakuru Pipeline, Nakuru County, Kenya
(2022) Okere, Eric Israel; Francis Kerre; Daniel M. Muia
Although internal displacement of persons (IDPs) have been witnessed in Kenya over the years, the 2007/08 episode was the most severe with estimated 660,000 displaced persons; out of which 360,000 (53%) went to displaced camps and 300,000 (47%) were designated as integrated IDPs. Part of the displaced population in 2007/08, was resettled temporarily at the Nakuru Pipeline Complex, Nakuru County, Kenya. With over ten (10) years, the temporarily resettled population provided opportunity to examine the nature of resilience and recovery. This study was carried-out therefore to examine characteristics of the internally displaced population, nature of resilience (reasonable recovery) and aspects that enhanced resilience and socio-economic wellbeing. The theory of environmental and displacement vulnerability was used. The study was a survey design. From a resettled population of 810 households, a sample of 260 was determined through Yamane (1967) formula for small or finite populations. Systematic sampling was used to draw each sample from resettlement register. Questionnaire which included household displacement deprivation scale, key informant guide and the Focused Group Discussion guide were used. Over sixty-one percent (61.2%) respondents were married, 14.6% single, 6.5% separated and 17.7% widowed. Religious affiliation was the strength of character that aided hope and ability to overcome displacement challenges consisting 73.8% Protestants, 17.7% Catholics, 3.8% Muslims and 4.6% unclassified faiths. Over 56.0% displaced households earned below KES 3,000.00, 27.0% earned between KES 3,001.00 and KES 6,000.00 while 0.5% earned over KES 30,000.00 a month. Indicators that were rated worst (i.e. severely or rarely available or accessible) at the time of the initial settlement in 2008 included loss of self-esteem (82%), loss of income (82%), loss of employment (78%), lack of shelter (81%) and loss of property (71%), By 2018, there were considerable improvements (recovery) that included housing (72.0%), food access (63.0%), water (57.0%), clothing (54.0%) compared to initial crises periods. Most of the households own their houses and could accommodate extended family members. Other indicators of resilience or reasonable rate of recovery included spiritual growth (53.6%), self-employment (42%), trade (41.6%) and education for children (38.6%). Conversely, four (4) other indicators namely access to livelihoods, access to welfare support, access to opportunities to improve wellbeing, and adjustment to living at the Camp reflected low or negligible recovery. Post-displacement occupations consisted of subsistence and commercial farming (46.0%), small and medium enterprises (26.0%), casual labor (18.0%) among others. Further, 57.0% household heads belonged to self-help groups, participate in crops cultivation, commercial and savings endeavors to augment their incomes and settle bills. The study recommended that Displacement Policy in Kenya and the UN Displacement Protection and Support Framework (DPSF) will need to be improved to enhance measures to support resettlement of the displaced population; to enforce mechanisms to enhance resettlement and socio-economic resilience
Evaluation Frameworks for Education Access and Performance Focussing on Gender and Equity: Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Siaya County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Ponge, Cannon Awuor; Catherine Mwihaki Ndungo; Mildred Jennifer Lodiaga
Studies have been conducted in Kenya in the area of gender and education, but few have focused on gender and equity in the evaluation of education access and performance. This study sought to establish the availability of education frameworks that outline how evaluation of secondary education in Kenya is done through a gender and equity focused angle. It sought to review the existing evaluation frameworks available for secondary education from a gender perspective; review how access and performance are evaluated in secondary schools from a gender perspective; and suggest ways of improving gender and equity focus in evaluation of education access and performance. The theoretical framework for this study is based on a framework developed by Beatrice d’Hombres that assesses the vertical dimensions of equity through information on admission and enrolment and the education learning outcomes. The d’Hombres framework was complemented by the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) framework to ensure gender equity. This study employed a phenomenological research design using mixed methods of data collection – both qualitative and quantitative. Secondary data was analysed from available literature touching on education and gender equity, access of education and performance in examinations in Kenyan secondary schools. Primary data was collected from a sampled number of secondary schools in Siaya county and from local education offices and officials. This study covered secondary schools in Siaya county in the western Kenya region. The total population for the study was 226 secondary schools in the county, and 13 schools were sampled based on an inclusive criterion, representing the different categories or types of schools, ensuring that no school category-type was left behind. For secondary data, a review of the relevant literature was conducted, while for primary data, the tools used for data collection were the school survey questionnaire and the key informant interview guide. The data collected was analysed qualitatively through thematic identification and isolating emerging issues under the identified themes. For the quantitative data, analysis was done using SPSS software and exported to Excel, and results presented in tables that capture comparative data. This study concludes that the evaluation system as presently constituted does not recognise the varied abilities of learners. The current evaluation strategies are merely academic-centred and do not give room for consideration of extra-curricular activities. The system also does not recognise the individual socio-economic conditions as factors that can affect both education access and performance. The study recommends inter alia, for the development of a comprehensive education evaluation framework; evaluation based on competency of the students; inclusivity in evaluation processes; assessment based on language of instruction; enhancing ICT for evaluating inequity in education, involvement of teachers in evaluation processes; innovative approaches to evaluation processes and adoption of a schools’ self–assessment mechanism for evaluation. It contributes to knowledge in the area of evaluating education access and performance, given the emerging importance of equity focus in evaluation practice. For future studies, it recommends undertaking a study on the gender dynamics in enrollment patterns in schools.
Gender Differentials in Adoption of Alternative Livelihood Strategies among Pastoralists in West Pokot County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2022) Kondoltiony, Emmanuel Psongol; Pacificah Okemwa; Leah N. Wanjama
This study sought to investigate gender differentials in adoption of Alternative Livelihood Strategies (ALSs) among pastoralists in West Pokot County, Kenya. This is because the differentials have persisted in spite of concerted efforts to address them, thereby impeding adoption of ALSs, a process considered the best pathway out of the community‟s socioeconomic challenges. The study, specifically, endeavoured to: assess the status of adoption of ALSs by men and women; examine the factors that influence adoption of ALSs by men and women; evaluate the effects of adoption of ALSs on households and identify gender-responsive strategies that would enhance adoption of ALSs in the Pokot pastoral community. The study was guided by Structural Functionalism Theory, complemented by two gender analysis frameworks: Capacities and Vulnerabilities Analysis (CVA) and the Harvard Analytical Framework (HAF). Both quantitative and qualitative research approaches were applied. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design and the target population was all adult household members in West Pokot County. Multi-stage cluster sampling technique was employed to sample 371 respondents from the households while 15 key informants and nine (9) groups for FGDs were selected purposively. Data were collected using questionnaires, key informant interview schedules, and focus group discussion guides. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics with the help of SPSS version 23. The analyzed data were presented in Tables and Charts. Thematic grouping was employed for qualitative data analysis which was presented in narrative and verbatim forms. The study findings revealed that adoption of ALSs in the pastoral community was characterized by gender differentials. Thus, women were faster and had adopted more ALSs than men. Nonetheless, men made most of the decisions to adopt ALSs and it was easier for them to access the resources needed for adoption. Further, men controlled the benefits accrued from adoption ALSs and despite being slower than women, the few ALSs they had adopted, were of higher returns. Given the necessary resources, women were more willing than men to adopt ALSs. The differentials were caused by pull and push factors that impacted men and women unequally. These included sociocultural, environmental, and technological factors as well as the development strategies applied by development agencies. The study also established that adoption of ALSs had both negative and positive effects on households. While the positive effects included narrowed gender gap and increased income streams, the negative ones were suspicions of infidelity and adultery and increased cases of spousal separation and divorce. The strategies that could bolster adoption of ASLs included the National Government‟s education and training programmes, education services by the Catholic Church and the pastoral community‟s elite-led mentorship programme, which were gender-responsive. The study concluded that huge gender differentials have slowed down adoption of ALSs. It, therefore, recommends that all development stakeholders should ensure that the strategies employed in adoption of ALSs are gender-responsive. This can be achieved through gender mainstreaming and affirmative action in ALSs projects and programmes.
Gendered Access and Control of Land, Dairy Products and their Influence on Household Welfare in Murang’a County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2020-06) Mwangi, Judy Wambui
This study sought to investigate the gendered access and control of land and dairy products with a focus on their influence on household welfare. The study was done in Murang’a County-Kenya, guided by the following objectives: to establish the status of access and control of dairy products and land by men and women; to examine the status of welfare in households practicing dairy farming and perceptions of men and women on the influence of access and control of land and dairy products. Additionally, the study identified strategies that can be put in place to enhance access and control of land and dairy products for improved household welfare. Four null hypotheses were also tested to establish the relationship between gender and access as well as control over land and dairy products. The study was guided by the Marxist feminism theory advanced by Friedrich Engels (1884) and Women Empowerment Framework (WEF) by Sarah Longwe (1991). The study utilized cross-sectional research design while purposive sampling technique was used to select Kigumo Sub-county as the area of the study. Further, simple random sampling technique was used to select four hundred and forty-two (442) male and female headed households practicing dairy farming in the Sub-county to participate in the study. Selected community leaders and key county officers were included as key informants. To generate the required data, the study utilized interview schedules for the selected male and female household heads, a guided questionnaire for the key informants and an observation checklist. Quantitative data was analyzed through the use of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) while qualitative data was analyzed on the basis of study objectives. The study established that the main dairy products included dairy cows, milk, manure, calves and biogas which were found to be differently accessed and controlled by men and women. It is these differences in the control and access to the land and dairy products that were found to have differential influence on household welfare. The household welfare was gauged on the basis of the parameters drawn from the Kenya Constitution 2010 Article 43 on social and economic rights namely health, housing, food, water and education. In this respect, the study established that women and men’s access and control over land and dairy products had a relationship with the provision of household welfare based on the above parameters, as further confirmed by the testing of the null hypotheses. Male and female household heads were found to hold different perceptions on gender and access/control to resources with a bias against women, mostly influenced by culture, religion, awareness on legal requirements and individuals’ level of formal education. The study identified and recommended gender awareness raising, enhancement of adult education program, enforcement of legal requirements on human rights as the main strategies for enhancing gender equity on access and control over land and dairy products for enhanced household welfare.
Influence of Microfinance Training Programmes on Acquisition of Financial Skills among Women in Self-Help Groups in Kiambu County-Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mwaniki, Tabitha Wawira; Grace Wamue-Ngare; Pacificah Okemwa
Microfinance training plays an important role in imparting financial skills to women. However, women in Self-Help Groups in Kiambu County still lack adequate skills in finance. The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of microfinance training programmes on the acquisition of financial skills among women in Self-Help Groups in Kiambu County. The objectives were; to determine the levels of financial competencies among women in SHGs; to examine the influence of microfinance training models, training processes of microfinance programmes, gender-related challenges, and gender-responsive strategies on financial skills acquisition among women in Self-Help Groups. The study was based on gender relations, endogenous growth and knowledgebased theories. The research applied a mixed methodology approach and was guided by an exploratory research design. The study targeted 31 Credit Officers from 31 Registered MFIs in Kiambu County, 16, 967 women in SHGs as well as 100 Key Informants (Training Officers) which totaled 17, 098 respondents from which a sample of 384 respondents was determined using Yamane’s Formula. Stratified sampling was applied to create 12 different strata (sample frames) based on the number of sub-counties in Kiambu County. From each sub-county, two (2) Credit Officers, two (2) key informants (Training Officers) and two (2) SHGs comprising of 14 women were selected using purposive sampling. This procedure yielded a sample size of 336 women in SHGs, 24 Credit Officers and 24 Training Officers. To collect data from women, focus group discussions and interviews were used, interviews for Credit Officers whereas questionnaires from Training Officers. Piloting was conducted among 39 respondents in Murang’a East sub-county in Murang’a County to establish validity and reliability. A reliability index, r = 0.782, was calculated using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Method. Qualitative data were analyzed based on objectives and were presented in narrations and verbatims. Quantitative data were analyzed descriptively using frequencies and percentages and inferentially using One-Sample t-test with the help of Statistical Packages for Social Science and were presented using tables and charts. The study found that majority of women in SHGs manifest inadequate cash-flow management (76.5%), financial investment (71%), pricing and costing projection (47%) and e-financing skills (77%) necessary to manage their personal and household finances as well as to develop and manage entrepreneurial activities. The study further found that microfinance training is important in equipping women with financial skills despite the challenges which characterize the training models and processes. Thus, the study recommends that, besides developing a training schedule with clear training blocks for women to fit in depending on their daily chores, microfinance institutions (MFIs) should adhere to a set schedule and indicate specific activities to be undertaken during training. Besides, there is a need to ensure capacity building for trainers to improve skills not only in financial training but also in gender areas and concerns that often stand in the way of women’s financial skills. MFIs should develop policy frameworks that incorporate gender perspectives.
Participation of Men and Women in the Management of Domestic Solid Waste in Kiandutu Informal Settlement, Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2021) Mwangi, Willy W.; Grace Okong’o; Christine Majale
The study sought to investigate levels of men’s and women’s involvement in the management of domestic solid waste in Kiandutu Informal Settlement in Kiambu County, Kenya. Specifically, the study aimed to determine the knowledge men and women had, examine the waste management practices by men and women, establish what challenges both men and women encountered and propose strategies that would enhance community involvement among men and women in the management of domestic solid waste. The study was guided by two theories namely the Identity Theory and Social Context Theory. While the former assumes the rigidity of gender, the latter assumes it’s flexibility. The study employed exploratory research design whose choice allowed an in-depth view of the generation of both qualitative and quantitative data. Random sampling of the villages and purposive sampling of the respondents were used to identify the study sample. A sample size of 264 households representing 10% of the total number of households in the randomly sampled villages was selected for the study with each village being apportioned its quota. The unit of analysis was the household, with the household heads, male and female being the respondents. Key informants comprised community health workers, village elders and local administration. Guided questionnaires, interview guides and observation checklists were used to generate data. Qualitative data was thematically coded and analysed using SPSS V24. Hypothesis was tested at p ≤ 0.05. The study found out that both men and women had a variation of knowledge on domestic solid waste management exhibited gendered domestic solid waste management and practices mostly influenced by as socio-cultural processes alongside demographic characteristics. Challenges which recurred among men and women included: low knowledge base, misconceptions in domestic solid waste management, use of unorthodox waste management methods as well as congestion of the households. The study concluded that early stereotyped socialization negatively contributes to men’s participation in the management of domestic solid waste. The study also perceived that low levels of domestic solid waste management knowledge among men and women were linked to poor management of the solid waste. The study recommends a strategic gender awareness raising for effective management of domestic solid waste. The Kiambu County government should develop relevant gender sensitive policies with the aim of raising awareness in the management of domestic solid waste and the environment. Building new and strengthening the existing social structures can strategically be used for the mobilize of men and women. The Kenya National Environment Management Authority should collaborate with the Kiambu County Government and other relevant stakeholders to prepare training packages for raising awareness on suitable domestic solid waste management in the informal settlements.

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