Browsing by Author "Muguongo, Silas Githenji"

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    Antibiogram Patterns and Resistance Genes Associated with Aerobic Bacterial Contaminants Present in Circulating Kenyan Banknotes in Nyeri Town, Kenya
    (Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Muguongo, Silas Githenji
    Transmission of pathogens through currency notes has become very relevant in today’s world due to COVID-19 pandemic. Money users often contaminate these notes with several microflora including viruses, fungi, protozoa, and bacteria via unhygienic conditions and habits. Currency notes represent a universal medium for the transmission of bacteria in the environment and among humans. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) should be considered a biological contaminant of emerging concern (CEC). The high and sometimes inappropriate use of antibiotics has accelerated the development of antibiotic resistance, creating a major challenge for the sustainable treatment of infections world-wide. The objective of the study was to determine the antibiogram patterns and resistance genes associated with bacterial contaminants present on Kenyan banknotes in circulation in the Nyeri town in Nyeri County. A cross-sectional study design was conducted during the period between March, 2019 and April, 2019 and a total of 125 currency notes consisting of different denomination notes collected randomly among shops across Nyeri town. Bacterial isolation, identification and antibiotic susceptibility was done at Outspan Teaching and Referral Hospital (OTRH) laboratory and determination of resistance genes done at Kenyatta University. A total of 125 currency notes of 5 different denominations were collected from different marketing sources such as butcheries, restaurants, health facilities, M-pesa outlets and transport Savings and Credit Cooperative Organization (SACCOS) then dropped in sterile bags. Spread plate technique, specific media and biochemical tests were used for the bacterial isolation and identification. Aerobic bacterial isolates were tested with rapid multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for detection of associated antibiotic resistance genes. Total of 18 different bacterial species were isolated from five Kenyan banknote currencies. Of these, 37 (52.2%) was Staphylococcus aureus followed by Staphylococcus sciuri spp. 9 (11.3%), Staphylococcus gallinarum 2 (2.8%), Staphylococcus intermedius 6 (8.5%) Micrococcus spp. 1 (1.4%), Staphylococcus schleiferi spp. 2 (2.8%), Kluyvera ascorbata 1 (1.4%), Proteus penneri 1 (1.4%), Aeromonas media 3 (4.2%), Burkholderia cepacia spp. (1.4%), Aeromonas enteropelogenes 1 (1.4%), Enterobacter cloacae 1 (1.4%), Klebsiella oxytoca 2 (2.8%), Leclercia adecarboxylata 1 (1.4%), Raoultella ornithinolytica 1 (1.4%), Vibrio metschnikovii 1 (1.4%), Myroides odoratus 1 (1.4%) and Yersinia pestis 1 (1.4%). Overall, Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial isolates exhibited resistance to vancomycin, clindamycin and amoxycilin with percentages 40 (71%), 28 (50%), and 37 (66%) and 9 (64%), 8 (57%) and 6 (43%) respectively. Thirty isolates were subjected to polymerase chain reaction for detection of resistance genes. Overall, isolates exhibited resistance to vancomycin, amoxycilin and clindamycin with percentages of 40 (71%), 28 (50%), and 37 (66%) respectively. The gene that predominated was bla TEM (20%), followed by vancomycin (6.7%) while none of the erythromycin resistance gene was found. This research found that the Kenyan banknotes in circulation within Nyeri County were contaminated with 18 distinct species of pathogenic bacteria, some of which exhibited resistance to vancomycin, amoxicillin, and clindamycin, along with their related resistant genes. The study advocates for proper handling, storage, frequent monitoring, and disinfection of the circulating banknotes