Kenyatta University Repository
Kenyatta University Institutional Repository is a digital archive that collects, preserves and disseminates scholarly outputs of the Institution
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Political Risk, Credit Risk Management and Liquidity of Commercial Banks in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-10) Warsame, Mohamed Osman
Liquidity has remained a challenge among commercial banks in Kenya. For instance, the ratio of loans against deposits of the said banks stood at 0.740969, 0.74092, 1, 0.713654 and 0.795822 with an average value being 0.798273 across the period 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022 respectively. This implies that most of the commercial banks did not have adequate assets as compared to deposits needed to finance customer loan requests which provide evidence of liquidity concerns among commercial banks in Kenya. Commercial banks can play an important role in the economy of developing countries like Kenya through their financial intermediation role, supporting borrowing and investment and hence economic growth. However, the aforementioned concerns imply that Kenya is yet to enjoy the significant role of a banking sector. Thus, this study sought to establish the effect of credit risk management on liquidity of commercial banks in Kenya. More specifically, the link between credit information sharing, loan loss provisioning and lending requirements and liquidity of commercial banks in Kenya with political risk as a moderator variable was considered in this study. The study was guided by the information asymmetry, transaction cost, the modern portfolio theory and liquidity preference theory. Positivist research philosophy was adopted in this study besides explanatory design. The study targeted 39 Kenyan banks and census was used. Information was collected from primary sources on information sharing and lending requirements while secondary data on a period 2018-2022 was gathered on loan loss provisioning and liquidity. The questionnaire was pilot tested before data gathering process among 4 credit managers from commercial banks in Kenya. The reason for pilot testing was to determine reliability of questionnaire while its validity was ensured by supervisor and two experts in the field of finance. Processing of the gathered data was done descriptively and inferentially and presented in tabular and graphical forms. Multicolinearity, normality was conducted as diagnostic tests before regression analysis to test its assumptions. The ethical issues that were considered in this study included appropriate citation and referencing of the information reviewed to avoid plagiarism and voluntary participation by respondents. The findings were that credit information sharing (p<0.05), loan loss provisioning (p<0.05) and lending requirements (p<0.05) had significant effect on liquidityof commercial banks as moderated by political risk (p<0.05). The study concluded that credit risk management and liquidity of commercial banks in Kenya are significantly related with each other with political risk as a moderator variable. It was recommended that Credit Managers working among commercial banks in Kenya should invest in latest technologies for carrying out timely credit information of customers with the licensed Reference Bureaus. The loan officers working with commercial banks in Kenya should diversify into loan portfolio in order to remain stable and have meaningful contribution to the growth of an economy. Managers working with commercial banks in Kenya should effectively invest in lending requirements like land tittle deeds and logbooks in order to improve on their credit risk management which in turn can allow them achieve optimal and required liquidity levels. The government of Kenya should seek to improve on the existing political environment in the country so as to positively influence liquidity level and thus promoting financial stability of the commercial banks
Fundamental Risk Factors and Financial Performance of Insurance Firms in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Wanyonyi, Douglas Sifuna
The financial performance of Insurance firms holds a vital function in increasing the Insurance sector's market value and leads to the economy's overall growth. There exists substantial empirical evidence on fundamental risk factors and financial performance in other sectors. However, there are limited studies that have delved into the link between fundamental risk factors and the financial performance of Insurance firms. The tendency of declining financial performance of the Insurance firms in Kenya is a cause for concern among various stakeholders. The financial performance showed a downward trend from 2011 to 2018 before a little bullish movement in 2019. This research aimed to analyze fundamental risk factors and financial performance of Insurance firms in Kenya. The financial performance of Insurance firms was measured by the operating ratio. The study's specific objectives were to ascertain the effect of inflation, interest, and exchange rates on the financial performance of Kenya's insurance firms. The research further established the moderating effect of capital adequacy regarding fundamental risk factors and the financial performance of the Insurance firms in Kenya. The research was supported by the portfolio, expectations, and the Liquidity theories. The study adopted the Positivism philosophy and an Explanatory research design. The study used quarterly data from the insurance firms in Kenya and used STATA software to analyze. Data analysis was done through Descriptive statistics, Pearson's simple correlation, and time-series regression over a scope of 10 years. The hypothesis was tested at the 0.05 level of significance; findings indicate that Interest rates had a negative but not statistically significant effect on financial performance at p value of 0.081. In addition, Inflation rates had a negative but not statistically significant effect on financial performance with a p value (p value=0.863), and exchange rates had a positive statistically significant effect on financial performance (p value= 0.000). Lastly, capital adequacy with a (P=0.0000<0.05) had a significant moderating effect on the relationship between fundamental risk factors and financial performance. As a result, Insurance firms should focus on managing the risk posed by exchange rate movement to reduce the operating ratio. Secondly, Kenyan Insurance firms should strategically select debt capital taking into account the timing, cost, and debt capital structure to positively control the incidence of interest rates on their financial performance. Thirdly, Kenyan insurance firms should factor in the effect of inflation rates while pricing insurance contracts to strategically distribute the effect inflation rates to the policyholder in the quest to achieve a positive outlook on financial performance.
Antifungal Potential of Plant Bioactive Compounds, Sulphur and Copper Formulations against Alternaria brassicicola (Schwein.) Infecting Kales in Kiambu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-07) Vedasto, Victor
Kale is the most popular and majorly consumed green vegetable in both rural and urban settings in Kenya. It is cultivated by more than 90% of smallholder farmers in the country. One of the major biotic constraints hampering kale production in Kenya is Alternaria leaf spot (ALS) caused by Alternaria brassicicola. Most farmers manage the disease with the use of synthetic fungicides, which is not a sustainable approach. This study was conducted in Kiambu County to (i) determine the occurrence, prevalence, farmers’ knowledge, and current management practices for ALS in kales; (ii) evaluate the cultural, morphological, and molecular features of A. brassicicola isolates infecting kales and (iii) evaluate efficacy of bioactive compounds present in Jatropha curcas, Tephrosia vogelli, Persea americana, Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum, and Carica papaya extracts and selected Sulphur commercial formulation (WETSULF® 80% w/w, THIOVIT® JET 80% w/w) and Copper (VIFRA® 40 WG, ISOCAP® 50WP) against A. brassicicola invitro. A survey was conducted in 180 kale fields, ninety (n=90) fields in Githunguri and (n=90) fields in the Lari sub-county, using a semi-structured questionnaire. The fresh kale leaves depicting the typical symptoms of ALS were collected, and 3-5 leaves from each plant were collected and transported to the Kenyatta University agriculture laboratory for analysis, where a total of 120 A. brassicicola isolates were obtained. The result revealed that ALS is prevalent in most kale fields (80-85%) in both sub-counties, and 57.2% of respondents manage the disease using fungicide; 45% of farmers reported the fungicide to be either less effective or ineffective. The other method used to manage the disease was the removal (pruning) of the infected leaves or plants by 33% of the total farmers. A test on farmers' knowledge of ALS and its management revealed that most respondents had knowledge ranging from low to medium. The cultural and morphological study of isolates revealed that most isolates were not significantly different from one another. When isolates were characterized at the molecular level, their sequences exhibited a low genetic diversity, and they fell into two Clades. The overall genetic distance (d) was 21%, while among Githunguri isolates it was 28% and 8% for Lari isolates. Other isolates were found to belong to other species of Alternaria, e.g. A. alternata, A. altra, and A. aborescens, suggesting that ALS in the study area is inflicted by not only A. brassicicola but also other Alternaria species. Among six plant species tested, the bioactive compounds from J. curcas (62.2% at 2000mg/ml, 69.9% at 4000mg/ml) followed by T. vogelli (60.3% at 2000mg/ml, 64.4% at 4000mg/ml) showed mycelial inhibition of ≥ 50 % at the 10thday after inoculation of A. brassicicola. The degree of mycelial inhibition at 4000mg/ml was significantly higher than at 2000mg/ml. Two sulphur formulations, THIOVIT JET 80W/W, which achieved pathogen growth inhibition by 68%, and WETSULF 80W/W by 64.5%, and only one Copper formulation, VIFRA 40WG (66%), were effective (≥50%) against the pathogen at their manufacturer’s recommended dosage levels. These findings suggest that bioactive compounds from J. curcas and T. vogelli are good candidates that can be considered in the commercial manufacture of control products for ALS. Most of the Copper and Sulphur formulations are effective against ALS and thus can be used by farmers as part of the Integrated Disease management strategy. For effective management of ALS, product manufacturers should take into account the genetic variability of A. brassicicola but also other Alternaria species that cause similar symptoms. Furthermore, there is a need to capacitate kale farmers on precise identification, early and sustainable management of ALS
Antibiogram Patterns and Resistance Genes Associated with Aerobic Bacterial Contaminants Present in Circulating Kenyan Banknotes in Nyeri Town, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-09) Muguongo, Silas Githenji
Transmission of pathogens through currency notes has become very relevant in today’s world due to COVID-19 pandemic. Money users often contaminate these notes with several microflora including viruses, fungi, protozoa, and bacteria via unhygienic conditions and habits. Currency notes represent a universal medium for the transmission of bacteria in the environment and among humans. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) should be considered a biological contaminant of emerging concern (CEC). The high and sometimes inappropriate use of antibiotics has accelerated the development of antibiotic resistance, creating a major challenge for the sustainable treatment of infections world-wide. The objective of the study was to determine the antibiogram patterns and resistance genes associated with bacterial contaminants present on Kenyan banknotes in circulation in the Nyeri town in Nyeri County. A cross-sectional study design was conducted during the period between March, 2019 and April, 2019 and a total of 125 currency notes consisting of different denomination notes collected randomly among shops across Nyeri town. Bacterial isolation, identification and antibiotic susceptibility was done at Outspan Teaching and Referral Hospital (OTRH) laboratory and determination of resistance genes done at Kenyatta University. A total of 125 currency notes of 5 different denominations were collected from different marketing sources such as butcheries, restaurants, health facilities, M-pesa outlets and transport Savings and Credit Cooperative Organization (SACCOS) then dropped in sterile bags. Spread plate technique, specific media and biochemical tests were used for the bacterial isolation and identification. Aerobic bacterial isolates were tested with rapid multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for detection of associated antibiotic resistance genes. Total of 18 different bacterial species were isolated from five Kenyan banknote currencies. Of these, 37 (52.2%) was Staphylococcus aureus followed by Staphylococcus sciuri spp. 9 (11.3%), Staphylococcus gallinarum 2 (2.8%), Staphylococcus intermedius 6 (8.5%) Micrococcus spp. 1 (1.4%), Staphylococcus schleiferi spp. 2 (2.8%), Kluyvera ascorbata 1 (1.4%), Proteus penneri 1 (1.4%), Aeromonas media 3 (4.2%), Burkholderia cepacia spp. (1.4%), Aeromonas enteropelogenes 1 (1.4%), Enterobacter cloacae 1 (1.4%), Klebsiella oxytoca 2 (2.8%), Leclercia adecarboxylata 1 (1.4%), Raoultella ornithinolytica 1 (1.4%), Vibrio metschnikovii 1 (1.4%), Myroides odoratus 1 (1.4%) and Yersinia pestis 1 (1.4%). Overall, Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial isolates exhibited resistance to vancomycin, clindamycin and amoxycilin with percentages 40 (71%), 28 (50%), and 37 (66%) and 9 (64%), 8 (57%) and 6 (43%) respectively. Thirty isolates were subjected to polymerase chain reaction for detection of resistance genes. Overall, isolates exhibited resistance to vancomycin, amoxycilin and clindamycin with percentages of 40 (71%), 28 (50%), and 37 (66%) respectively. The gene that predominated was bla TEM (20%), followed by vancomycin (6.7%) while none of the erythromycin resistance gene was found. This research found that the Kenyan banknotes in circulation within Nyeri County were contaminated with 18 distinct species of pathogenic bacteria, some of which exhibited resistance to vancomycin, amoxicillin, and clindamycin, along with their related resistant genes. The study advocates for proper handling, storage, frequent monitoring, and disinfection of the circulating banknotes
Nutritional and Food Security Status of HIV+ Adults on Antiretroviral and Therapeutic Nutrition at Kibra Informal Settlement, Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-07) Mukami, Seraphine
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the use of antiretroviral (ARV) medication to inhibit viral replication and delay immune deterioration. ART plays a critical role in the management of HIV by suppressing viral replication and improving immune function. An appropriate diet is vital when ART commences. The nutritional needs of HIV+ adults are immense and have a great impact on HIV/AIDS management outcomes. The effectiveness of ART is closely linked to the nutritional status and dietary diversity of HIV+ adults. Despite the well-documented importance of nutrition in HIV management, limited research has fo-cused on the dietary diversity and nutritional outcomes of HIV-positive adults on ART in Kenya’s informal settlements. This study assessed the socio-demographic and economic characteristics of HIV-positive adults on ART, evaluated their dietary diversity and nutri-tional status, examined the relationship between dietary diversity and nutritional status and the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and both dietary diversity and nutritional status. A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted among HIV-positive adults attending health centres in Kibra informal settlement, Nairobi City Coun-ty, Kenya. Data were collected using structured questionnaires, 24-hour dietary recalls, food frequency questionnaires, and anthropometric measurements including Body Mass Index (BMI) and Mid-Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC). Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, Fisher’s exact test, and bivariate regression analysis were conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The Individual Dietary Diversi-ty Score (IDDS) and Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women (MDD-W) were used to assess dietary diversity, while nutritional status was categorized by BMI. Multivariable logistic regression identified significant predictors of dietary diversity and nutritional sta-tus. Findings revealed that 55.7% of respondents had low dietary diversity, with only 7% attaining high dietary diversity. Meal frequency and wealth index were significant predic-tors of dietary diversity (p<0.001 and p=0.019, respectively). Most respondents (57.4%) had normal nutritional status, while 8.7% were undernourished and 35.7% were over-weight or obese. Statistically significant associations were found between dietary diversi-ty variables such as being on a special diet (p=0.033), receiving nutrition counselling (p=0.023), meal frequency (<0.001) and food shortage (0.048), and nutritional status (p<0.05). Some socio-economic and socio-demographic factors showed a significant as-sociation with dietary diversity and nutritional status. The study concludes that dietary diversity remains low among HIV+ adults in informal settlements, with direct implications for their nutritional health and ART outcomes. The findings underscore the need for en-hanced nutrition-focused interventions integrated into HIV care, routine monitoring of dietary diversity and nutritional status. Further research on how improvements in dietary diversity influence nutritional status and ART adherence over time, the impact of nutri-tion counselling and food support on nutritional outcomes among HIV-positive adults as well as gender-based disparities in dietary access and nutritional vulnerability among HIV-positive adults to inform interventions strategies is recommended